a receipt for success – corporate social responsibility

A Receipt for Success - CSR Spring 2012

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Table of Contents

Abstract Page 2

I. Introduction Page 2

A. Rationale of the study Page 3

B. Theoretical framework Page 3

C. Methodology & procedure Page 3

D. Anticipated difficulties – Limitations Page 4

II. Literature Review Page 5

A. Global History Page 5

B. CSR Formation in Lebanon Page 7

1. CSR timeline Page 9

III. Discussion 0

A. Definitions of CSR Page 10

1. CSR is Page 10

2. Greening of management Page 11

3. Value based management Page 12

B. Debate on SR Page 12

1. Reasons for failure Page 13

2. Schools of thought Page 14

C. Contemporary Social Issues Page 20

1. Environmental issues Page 20

2. Global issues Page 21

3. Technology issues Page 22

D. Findings Page 23

1. List of life examples Page 23

2. Irresponsibility Page 30

3. Modern CSR Page 31

IV. Conclusion Page 33

References Page 34

Appendix 1 Page 35

Appendix 2 Page 36

Appendix 3 Page 37

Appendix 4 Page 44

Appendix 5 Page 45


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Abstract

The history of social and environmental concern about business is as old as trade and business

itself. By the 1920s discussions about the social responsibilities of business had evolved into

what we can recognize as the beginnings of the ―modern‖ CSR movement. The nature and scope

of corporate social responsibility has changed over time. The concept of CSR is a relatively new

one—the phrase has only been in wide use since the 1960s. But, while the economic, legal,

ethical, and discretionary expectations placed on organizations may differ, it is probably accurate

to say that all societies at all points in time have had some degree of expectation that

organizations would act responsibly, by some definition. Real life examples were taken from

companies around the world and case studies from Lebanon and abroad were discussed. The

essence of the project is to analyze the importance of corporate social responsibility, its

development in the strategies of firms and its implementation. Moving forward to prove that

CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) is a receipt for success for nowadays businesses; it is not

to be confused with business ethics or charity, on the contrary – it is a profitable investment.

There are many methods used around the world and in Lebanon to approach this issue, which

still though are unique for the specific environment. As socially responsible citizens we should

raise the awareness of the society and businesses to act in a socially responsible way, and the

Lebanese government should adopt standards and benchmarks upon which firms should be

evaluated and compared.


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I. Introduction

A Receipt for success – Corporate Social Responsibility

Research Question:

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is becoming a necessity nowadays for any business to

succeed. Why is this approach becoming a requirement in the global environment? Life example

A. Rationale of the Study

I conducted this research in order to find out if being socially responsible is a necessary success

factor for today’s businesses. Their scope of vision concerning this aspect and the extent, to

which enterprises implement it, was a major issue of my research.This project combines the

theoretical knowledge I have acquired over the years of pursuing my degree in Business

Management with the real applications of the business world.

B. Theoretical framework

Areas of business and management covered related to topic:

1) Business Ethics

2) Corporate Social Responsibility

3) Marketing

C. Methodology & Procedure

a. Primary Research:

i. Interview with ―Boecker‖ human resources and marketing manager.


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b. Secondary Research:

Research data and information was collected from reliable sources – Lebanese government,

businesses, institutions, World Wide Web, and books.

Some of the most important sources are:

i. Life examples from around the world

ii. Published case studies on Lebanon

iii. Socially responsible businesses working in Lebanon

D. Anticipated Difficulties – Limitations of the research

Areas of particular concern are the personal interviews – the integrity of the interviewed

managers and published data on Lebanon. I do not expect finding proofs on the implementation

of CSR in Lebanese businesses.


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II. Literature Review

A. Global History

The history of social and environmental concern about business is as old as trade and

business itself. Commercial logging operations for example, together with laws to

protect forests, can both be traced back almost 5,000 years. In Ancient Mesopotamia

around 1700 BC, King Hammurabi introduced a code in which builders, innkeepers or

farmers were put to death if their negligence caused the deaths of others, or major

inconvenience to local citizens. In Ancient Rome senators grumbled about the failure

of businesses to contribute sufficient taxes to fund their military campaigns, while in

1622 disgruntled shareholders in the Dutch East India Company started issuing

pamphlets complaining about management secrecy and ―self enrichment‖.

With industrialisation, the impacts of business on society and the environment

assumed an entirely new dimension. The ―corporate paternalists‖ of the late

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries used some of their wealth to support

philanthropic ventures. By the 1920s discussions about the social responsibilities of

business had evolved into what we can recognise as the beginnings of the ―modern‖

CSR movement. In 1929, the Dean of Harvard Business School, Wallace B. Donham,

commented within an address delivered at NorthWestern University:

'Business started long centuries before the dawn of history, but business as we

now know it is new - new in its broadening scope, new in its social

significance. Business has not learned how to handle these changes, nor does

it recognise the magnitude of its responsibilities for the future of civilization.'

Almost seventy five years later, these words ring just as true. Although today we face

some novel concerns about the role of business in society, from internet ―spam‖ to

genetically modified foods, many of the issues under discussion are not very different

to those being raised in the 1920s. There is a danger that social and environmental

concern about business is an issue which, like sex, every new generation thinks that it

has discovered. The interactive timelines below provide details of the evolution of the

history of our environment, the history of business corporations, the evolution of the

concept of sustainable development and the history of business law and socially

responsible investment as forces seeking to shape the social and environmental impacts of

business.

The nature and scope of corporate social responsibility has changed over time. The concept of

CSR is a relatively new one—the phrase has only been in wide use since the 1960s. But, while

the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations placed on organizations may differ, it

is probably accurate to say that all societies at all points in time have had some degree of

expectation that organizations would act responsibly, by some definition.


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The nature and scope of corporate social responsibility has changed over time. The concept of

CSR is a relatively new one—the phrase has only been in wide use since the 1960s. But, while

the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations placed on organizations may differ, it

is probably accurate to say that all societies at all points in time have had some degree of

expectation that organizations would act responsibly, by some definition.

In the eighteenth century the great economist and philosopher Adam Smith expressed the

traditional or classical economic model of business. In essence, this model suggested that the

needs and desires of society could best be met by the unfettered interaction of individuals and

organizations in the marketplace. By acting in a self-interested manner, individuals would

produce and deliver the goods and services that would earn them a profit, but also meet the needs

of others. The viewpoint expressed by Adam Smith over 200 years ago still forms the basis for

free-market economies in the twenty-first century. However, even Smith recognized that the free

market did not always perform perfectly and he stated that marketplace participants must act

honestly and justly toward each other if the ideals of the free market are to be achieved.

In the century after Adam Smith, the Industrial Revolution contributed to radical change,

especially in Europe and the United States. Many of the principles espoused by Smith were

borne out as the introduction of new technologies allowed for more efficient production of goods

and services. Millions of people obtained jobs that paid more than they had ever made before and

the standard of living greatly improved. Large organizations developed and acquired great

power, and their founders and owners became some of the richest and most powerful men in the

world. In the late nineteenth century many of these individuals believed in and practiced a

philosophy that came to be called "Social Darwinism," which, in simple form, is the idea that the

principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest are applicable to business and social

policy. This type of philosophy justified cutthroat, even brutal, competitive strategies and did not

allow for much concern about the impact of the successful corporation on employees, the

community, or the larger society. Thus, although many of the great tycoons of the late nineteenth

century were among the greatest philanthropists of all time, their giving was done as individuals,

not as representatives of their companies. Indeed, at the same time that many of them were

giving away millions of dollars of their own money, the companies that made them rich were

practicing business methods that, by today's standards at least, were exploitative of workers.

Around the beginning of the twentieth century a backlash against the large corporations began to

gain momentum. Big business was criticized as being too powerful and for practicing antisocial

and anticompetitive practices. Laws and regulations, such as the Sherman Antitrust Act, were

enacted to rein in the large corporations and to protect employees, consumers, and society at

large. An associated movement sometimes called the "social gospel," advocated greater attention

to the working class and the poor. The labor movement also called for greater social

responsiveness on the part of business. Between 1900 and 1960 the business world gradually

began to accept additional responsibilities other than making a profit and obeying the law.

In the 1960s and 1970s the civil rights movement, consumerism, and environmentalism affected

society's expectations of business. Based on the general idea that those with great power have

great responsibility, many called for the business world to be more proactive in (1) ceasing to

cause societal problems and (2) starting to participate in solving societal problems. Many legal


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mandates were placed on business related to equal employment opportunity, product safety,

worker safety, and the environment. Furthermore, society began to expect business to voluntarily

participate in solving societal problems whether they had caused the problems or not. This was

based on the view that corporations should go beyond their economic and legal responsibilities

and accept responsibilities related to the betterment of society. This view of corporate social

responsibility is the prevailing view in much of the world today. The below figure (Fig. 1) shows

the three aspects in which every responsible company abides to.

Fig. 1 The Multiple responsibilities of Business Source: Business and Society book, 11th Edition

B. CSR Formation in Lebanon

The modern concept of CSR has its roots in the early 1990’s with various factors having

contributed to its formation.

On the one hand, general public awareness towards social issues rose significantly since the

1990’s, when consumers started to demand that companies be responsible in environmental and

human rights issues.

This movement was enforced with the well-publicized incidents of corporate misbehavior such

as the oil-tanker accident Exxon Valdez in Alaska (1989), the (child) labor scandals of Nike in

Asia (1990’s), and the bankruptcies due to falsifications of balance sheets by Parmalat in Italy

(2003) and Enron in the United States (2002).

In response to public demands for greater accountability and transparency, companies started to

publish ―social reports‖ or ―sustainability reports‖ and began to recognize that intangible assets

like reputation have a deep impact on the value of their business (ISO, 2005). The modern CSR

phenomenon can therefore be seen as part of the response – predominantly in the developed

countries.

However, CSR seems to have arisen as part of an initiative especially in developing countries

due to an apparent lack of capacity of many governments to effectively provide social services

and enforce their laws. As shown in the below figure (Fig. 2), CSR responds similarly as policy

measures to a society’s need. Businesses assist the government therefore to create a ―better

society‖ and receive incentives instead. (Developing countries)


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Fig. 2 Source: Lebanese Transparency Association – Corporate Social Responsibility in Lebanon 2005 Study Report

As for Lebanon, CSR has passed through a rough history where only multinational companies

were the ones to introduce socially responsible activities to the Lebanese spectators. A part of a

study conducted by the Lebanese Transparency Association (LTA), in 2005, shows findings

from Lebanese companies’ practice in CSR programs. Three of the eight businesses with a CSR

strategy, established their CSR programs before 2000. In 2002, four companies launched their

CSR programs. However, in two of these 2002 CSR strategies the companies have decided to

join an already existing CSR program of a third business, by contributing mainly financial

means. Another program was founded in 2005.

The question was: ―When were your CSR activities launched?‖



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1. CSR Time Line

LTA’s aim was to assess the business’ CSR commitment throughout the periods before, during

and after the Lebanese war, as well as after the assassination of Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri.

The interviewed partners who were in the position to respond to the first question, about CSR

before 1990, were invariably traditional Lebanese businesses. According to their specifications,

the CSR measures did principally not change throughout the years. In other words, if they used

to give out scholarships before the war, they kept on doing it consistently until the present.

During the Lebanese war, however, most of the companies felt responsible in an exceptional way

since the government was partly not able to provide basic infrastructure. Stakeholders like

neighboring communities and employees were benefiting from measures like electricity supply

from the company’s premises, additional funds, or alternative job creations in case a factory had

to be closed. As far as LTA could find out, the contributions were rather philanthropic with a

view to do their best to improve living conditions for all kinds of stakeholders.

In the post-war period, the strategic concept of CSR began to spread slowly within the country.

But even in Europe and the US the idea of integrating social responsibility within a company was

a new concept by that time. As shown in Figure 3, six out of eight companies who established a

CSR strategy indicated to have developed their CSR program after 1990. While the traditional

firms mostly said that their strategy did not change compared to their regular actions before and

after the war, others began to realize that something like CSR exists which could help to develop

their business and reputation. One of LTA’s interview partners mentioned that CSR became

more feasible since 1998, after the first elections since the Lebanese war, when public authorities

were re-created.


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III. Discussion

The pre mentioned LTA’s interviewed partners (13 companies) were also asked about their

personal opinion towards the current state of CSR in Lebanon and how the Lebanese government

could help to improve the present situation.

There was a broad consensus of qualifying CSR in Lebanon as primitive (6) and random (3).

However, a majority foresaw a positive development for CSR, saying that awareness towards the

issue was rising (4).

Going forward in understanding corporate social responsibility and it being necessity for today’s

businesses to succeed, we take a deeper look on its definition and scope of action in the global

and local markets.

A. Definitions of corporate social responsibility

1. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is:

An obligation, beyond that required by the law and economics, for a firm to pursue long

term goals that are good for society

The continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic

development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as

well as that of the local community and society at large

About how a company manages its business process to produce an overall positive

impact on society

i. Corporate social responsibility means:

Conducting business in an ethical way and in the interests of the wider community

Responding positively to emerging societal priorities and expectations

A willingness to act ahead of regulatory confrontation

Balancing shareholder interests against the interests of the wider community

Being a good citizen in the community

ii. Is CSR the same as business ethics?

There is clearly an overlap between CSR and business ethics

Both concepts concern values, objectives and decision based on something than the

pursuit of profits

And socially responsible firms must act ethically

The difference is that ethics concern individual actions which can be assessed as right or wrong

by reference to moral principles.

CSR is about the organization’s obligations to all stakeholders – and not just shareholders.

There are four dimensions of corporate responsibility


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Economic - responsibility to earn profit for owners

Legal - responsibility to comply with the law (society’s codification of right and wrong)

Ethical - not acting just for profit but doing what is right, just and fair

Voluntary and philanthropic - promoting human welfare and goodwill

Being a good corporate citizen contributing to the community and the quality of life

2. The Greening of Management

Not all business organizations behave in a socially responsible manner. And there are people

who would argue that it is not the job of business organizations to be concerned about social

issues and problems. Here arises the debate on social responsibility and its contribution to the

success of businesses.

Up until the late 1960s, few people paid attention to the environmental consequences of their

decisions and actions. However, a number of highly visible ecological problems and

environmental disasters brought about a new awareness and spirit of environmentalism among

individuals, groups, and organizations. This recognition of the close link between an

organization’s decisions and activities and its impact on the natural environment is called

the greening of management. One green issue managers must deal with as they become more

involved in preserving the natural environment is recognizing the key global environmental

problems. Some of the more serious ones include natural-resource depletion, global warming,

pollution, industrial accidents, and toxic-waste disposal. There are many things managers and

organizations can do to protect and preserve the natural environment. One model of

environmental responsibility uses the term shades of green to describe the different approaches

organizations may take.

Fig. 4 SOURCE: Based on R.E. Freeman, J.

Pierce, and R. Dodd, Shades of Green: Ethics and the Environment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). The shades of corporate Green


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At least four approaches, or shades of green, have been described with respect to how organizations can

be green:

a. Legal approach (light green)

b. Market approach

c. Stakeholder approach–stakeholders include any constituencies in the organization’s external

environment that are affected by the organization’s decisions and actions.

d. Activist approach (dark green)

3. Values Based Management

Values-based management is an approach to managing in which managers

establish, promote, and practice an organization’s shared values. These shared

values serve many purposes.

i. They act as guideposts for managerial decisions and actions.

ii. They also serve to shape employee behavior and to communicate what the organization

expects of its members.

iii. The shared corporate values can also influence the organization’s marketing efforts.

iv. Finally, shared values are a way to build team spirit in organizations.

B. Debate on Social Responsibility

Fig.5 Source: www.enotes.com/corporate-social-responsibility-reference/corporate-social-responsibility

The major arguments for and against corporate social responsibility are shown in Figure 5. The

"economic" argument against CSR is perhaps most closely associated with the American

economist Milton Friedman, who has argued that the primary responsibility of business is to

http://www.enotes.com/corporate-social-responsibility-reference/corporate-social-responsibility


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make a profit for its owners, albeit while complying with the law. According to this view, the

self-interested actions of millions of participants in free markets will, from a utilitarian

perspective, lead to positive outcomes for society. If the operation of the free market cannot

solve a social problem, it becomes the responsibility of government, not business, to address the

issue.

The "competitive" argument recognizes the fact that addressing social issues comes at a cost to

business. To the extent that businesses internalize the costs of socially responsible actions, they

hurt their competitive position relative to other businesses. This argument is particularly relevant

in a globally competitive environment if businesses in one country expend assets to address

social issues, but those in another country do not. According to Carroll and Buchholtz, since

CSR is increasingly becoming a global concern, the differences in societal expectations around

the world can be expected to lessen in the coming years.

Finally, some argue that those in business are ill-equipped to address social problems. This

"capability" argument suggests that business executives and managers are typically well trained

in the ways of finance, marketing, and operations management, but not well versed in dealing

with complex societal problems. Thus, they do not have the knowledge or skills needed to deal

with social issues. This view suggests that corporate involvement in social issues may actually

make the situation worse. Part of the capability argument also suggests that corporations can best

serve societal interests by sticking to what they do best, which is providing quality goods and

services and selling them at an affordable price to people who desire them.

1. There are certain reasons why businesses may fail to act in a responsible manner.

b. Cost & Profit: Responsible behavior can raise the cost of businesses. Some

businesses may consider that the costs of accepting corporate responsibility are

too great.

c. Values & Beliefs: The values and beliefs of the senior managers and employees

of a business may not correspond with what the majority of others in a society

regard as responsible. For example, an American company working in India will

be faced with a dilemma of bribing a governmental official since in India bribery

is legal while in the USA is not.

d. Information available to consumers, government, and pressure groups: In the

absence of useful information about the behavior of a business, it is difficult for

interested parties to monitor its activities. For example, the nuclear industry has

been accused by pressure groups of being secretive about its activities. Nuclear

industry representatives have argued that this is due to defense and national

security reasons. However, this secrecy has made it difficult for consumers and

pressure groups to make judgments about its behavior. For other businesses it is

the complexity and scope of their activities that makes it difficult to evaluate their

actions. Multinationals, in particular, because of their global activities, can be

very difficult to monitor.

It can be argued that the primary role of a business is to make money i.e. retained profit.

Why do shareholders invest in companies? To make more money. Thus, can a business

be justified when using the money of shareholders to be socially responsible?


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There are several arguments in favor of corporate social responsibility. One view, held by critics

of the corporate world, is that since large corporations create many social problems, they should

attempt to address and solve them. Those holding this view criticize the production, marketing,

accounting, and environmental practices of corporations. They suggest that corporations can do a

better job of producing quality, safe products, and in conducting their operations in an open and

honest manner.

A very different argument in favor of corporate social responsibility is the "self-interest"

argument. This is a long-term perspective that suggests corporations should conduct themselves

in such a way in the present as to assure themselves of a favorable operating environment in the

future. This view holds that companies must look beyond the short-term, bottom-line perspective

and realize that investments in society today will reap them benefits in the future. Furthermore, it

may be in the corporate world's best interests to engage in socially responsive activities because,

by doing so, the corporate world may forestall governmental intervention in the form of new

legislation and regulation, according to Carroll and Buchholtz.

Finally, some suggest that businesses should assume social responsibilities because they are

among the few private entities that have the resources to do so. The corporate world has some of

the brightest minds in the world, and it possesses tremendous financial resources. (Wal-Mart, for

example, has annual revenues that exceed the annual GNP of some countries.) Thus, businesses

should utilize some of their human and financial capital in order to "make the world a better

place."

2. There are two schools of thought on whether it is the job of business

organizations to be concerned about social issues and problems.

a. In the free market view, the job of business is to create wealth with the interests of the

shareholders as the guiding principle

b. The corporate social responsibility view is that business organization should be

concerned with social issues.

The debate on social responsibility is like the people’s point of

view on the Lebanese governmental elections on whether to elect or not. The Dilemma of

Corporate Social Responsibility – To be or not to be.

Free market view - a summary

The role of business is to create wealth by providing goods and services

―There is one and only one social responsibility of business- to use its resources and

engage in activities designed to increase its profit so long as it stays will the rules of the

game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition, without deception or

fraud.‖ [Milton Friedman, American economist]


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Giving money away is like a self imposed tax

Managers who have been put in charge of a business have no right to give away the

money of the owners

Managers are employed to generate wealth for the shareholders - not give it away

Free markets and capitalism have been at the centre of economic and social development

Improvements in health and longevity have been made possible by economies driven by

the free market

To attract quality workers it is necessary to offer better pay and conditions and this leads

to a rise in standards of living and wealth creation

Free markets contribute to the effective management of scarce resources

It is true that at times the market fails and therefore some regulation is necessary to

redress the balance

But the correcting of market failures is a matter for government - not business

Regulation should be kept to a minimum since regulation stifles initiative and creates

barrier to market entry

The free market case against corporate social responsibility

The only social responsibility of business is to create shareholder wealth

The efficient use of resources will be reduced if businesses are restricted in how they can

produce

The pursuit of social goals dilutes businesses’ primary purpose

Corporate management cannot decide what is in the social interest

Costs will be passed on to consumers

It reduces economic efficiency and profit

Directors have a legal obligation to manage the company in the interest of shareholders –

and not for other stakeholders

CSR behavior imposes additional costs which reduce competitiveness

CSR places unwelcome responsibilities on businesses rather than on government or

individuals

Fig. 6 Source: Lebanese Transparency Association – Corporate Social

Responsibility in Lebanon 2005 Study Report


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The corporate responsibility view

Businesses do not have an unquestioned right to operate in society

Those managing business should recognize that they depend on society

Business relies on inputs from society and on socially created institutions

There is a social contract between business and society involving mutual obligations that

society and business recognize that they have to each other

Figure 6 shows the response of 13 Lebanese enterprises on whether they apply CSR in

their strategies, besides stating that they do it. This finding is from a study conducted by

the Lebanese Transparency Association in 2005.

c. Stakeholder theory The basic premise is that business organizations have responsibility to various groups in

society (the internal and external stakeholders) and not just the owners/ shareholders. The

responsibility includes a responsibility for the natural environment. Decisions should be

taken in the wider interest and not just the narrow shareholder interest.

THE STAKEHOLDER CONCEPT

According to Post, Lawrence, and Weber, stakeholders are individuals and groups that are affected by an

organization's policies, procedures, and actions. A "stake" implies that one has an interest or share in the

organization and its operations, per Carroll and Buchholtz. Some stakeholders, such as employees and

owners, may have specific legal rights and expectations in regard to the organization's operations. Other

stakeholders may not have specific rights granted by law, but may perceive that they have moral rights

related to the organization's operations. For example, an environmental group may not have a legal right

in regard to a company's use of natural resources, but may believe that they have a moral right to question

the firm's environmental policies and to lobby the organization to develop environmentally friendly

policies.

All companies, especially large corporations, have multiple stakeholders. One way of classifying

stakeholder groups is to classify them as primary or secondary stakeholders. Primary stakeholders have

some direct interest or stake in the organization. Secondary stakeholders, in contrast, are public or special

interest groups that do not have a direct stake in the organization but are still affected by its operations.

Figure 6 classifies some major stakeholder groups into primary and secondary categories.


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Fig. 7

The owners of a firm are among the primary stakeholders of the firm. An organization has legal

and moral obligations to its owners. These obligations include, but are not limited to, attempting

to ensure that owners receive an adequate return on their investment. Employees are also primary

stakeholders who have both legal and moral claims on the organization. Organizations also have

specific responsibilities to their customers in terms of producing and marketing goods and

services that offer functionality, safety, and value; to local communities, which can be greatly

affected by the actions of resident organizations and thus have a direct stake in their operations;

and to the other companies with whom they do business. Many social commentators also suggest

that companies have a direct responsibility to future generations and to the natural environment.

An organization's responsibilities are not limited to primary stakeholders. Although

governmental bodies and regulatory agencies do not usually have ownership stakes in companies

in free-market economies, they do play an active role in trying to ensure that organizations

accept and meet their responsibilities to primary stakeholder groups. Organizations are

accountable to these secondary stakeholders. Organizations must also contend with civic and

special interest groups that purport to act on behalf of a wide variety of constituencies. Trade

associations and industry groups are also affected by an organization's actions and its reputation.

The media reports on and investigates the actions of many companies, particularly large

organizations, and most companies accept that they must contend with and effectively "manage"

their relationship with the media. Finally, even an organization's competitors can be considered

secondary stakeholders, as they are obviously affected by organizational actions. For example,

one might argue that organizations have a social responsibility to compete in the marketplace in

a manner that is consistent with the law and with the best practices of their industry, so that all

competitors will have a fair chance to succeed.


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Arguments for socially-responsible behavior

It is the ethical thing to do

It improves the firm’ public image

It is necessary in order to avoid excessive regulation

Socially responsible actions can be profitable

Improved social environment will be beneficial to the firm

It will be attractive to some investors

It can increase employee motivation

It helps to corrects social problems caused by business

Enlightened self interest

This is the practice of acting in a way that is costly and/or inconvenient at present but which is

believed to be in one’s best long term interests.

There is a long history of philanthropy based on enlightened self interests e.g. Robert Owen’s

New Lanark Mills, Titus Salt’s Saltaire as well the work of the Quaker chocolate makers such as

Cadbury at Bournville and Rowntree in York.

Enlightened self interest is summed up in this quotation from Anita Roddick (founder of the

Body Shop):“Being good is good for business”

CSR behavior can benefit the firm in several ways

It aids the attraction and retention of staff

It attracts green and ethical investment

It attracts ethically conscious customers

It can lead to a reduction in costs through re-cycling

It differentiates the firm from its competitor and can be a source of competitive advantage

It can lead to increased profitability in the long run

Social responsibility (SR) has become a hot topic among managers around the

world. Many leading companies have moved from viewing SR as a public-relations

tool or philanthropic cause to making it a core pillar of their strategic decision making

process, as well as a part of their day-to-day operations.

Making Social Responsibility Work explores how SR can become a critical

long-term lever for success. Senior executives learn how to embed SR in their

organizations, starting with employees – a firm’s most important asset. The program

provides a strategic, hands-on approach to SR and allows participants to tailor

frameworks to their own companies. They will formulate their own strategic SR

project, while taking into account the mission, values, strategy and long-term objectives of their

organizations.


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―CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY COMBINES BUSINESS ETHICS

WITH COMPETITIVENESS, WHICH ULTIMATELY CONTRIBUTES TOWARD

CREATING A MORE PROSPEROUS AND SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY.‖

ANTONIO ARGANDOÑA Source: Professor of Economics and Corporate Governance at IESE Business School, and Chair of Corporate Social Responsibility ―la Caixa‖

Different organizations have framed different definitions - although there is considerable

common ground between them. Mallen Baker’s own definition was first published on 8 Jun 2004

and states that CSR is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall

positive impact on society. The below illustration has also been done:

Fig. 8 Source: Mallen Baker 2004

Companies need to answer to two aspects of their operations. 1. The quality of their management

- both in terms of people and processes (the inner circle). 2. The nature of, and quantity of their

impact on society in the various areas.

Outside stakeholders are taking an increasing interest in the activity of the company. Most look

to the outer circle - what the company has actually done, good or bad, in terms of its products

and services, in terms of its impact on the environment and on local communities, or in how it

treats and develops its workforce. Out of the various stakeholders, it is financial analysts who are

predominantly focused - as well as past financial performance - on quality of management as an

indicator of likely future performance.

Fig. 9 Stakeholders


20

Besides the purely pecuniary aspect, CSR can lead to higher working morale, which can help to

cut costs. One example is given by the National Business Ethics Study showing that employees

are more likely to be loyal if they believed that their corporation conducted business in an ethical

manner (Walker Information, 1999). CSR might therefore also have an effect on attracting and

building a productive workforce, lowering absenteeism and error rates, as well as increasing

retention of employees. Consequently costs can be cut. Improved environmental management as

part of a CSR strategy helps in a similar way: By using the resources as economically and

effectively as possible, operational cost can be cut drastically.


C. CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES

Corporations deal with a wide variety of social issues and problems, some directly related to

their operations, some not. It would not be possible to adequately describe all of the social issues

faced by business. This section will briefly discuss three contemporary issues that are of major

concern: the environment, global issues, and technology issues. There are many others.

1. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Corporations have long been criticized for their negative effect on the natural environment in

terms of wasting natural resources and contributing to environmental problems such as pollution

and global warming. The use of fossil fuels is thought to contribute to global warming, and there

is both governmental and societal pressure on corporations to adhere to stricter environmental


21

standards and to voluntarily change production processes in order to do less harm to the

environment. Other issues related to the natural environment include waste disposal,

deforestation, acid rain, and land degradation. It is likely that corporate responsibilities in this

area will increase in the coming years.

2. GLOBAL ISSUES

Corporations increasingly operate in a global environment. The globalization of business appears

to be an irreversible trend, but there are many opponents to it. Critics suggest that globalization

leads to the exploitation of developing nations and workers, destruction of the environment, and

increased human rights abuses. They also argue that globalization primarily benefits the wealthy

and widens the gap between the rich and the poor. Proponents of globalization argue that open

markets lead to increased standards of living for everyone, higher wages for workers worldwide,

and economic development in impoverished nations. Many large corporations are multinational

in scope and will continue to face legal, social, and ethical issues brought on by the increasing

globalization of business.

Whether one is an opponent or proponent of globalization, however, does not change the fact

that corporations operating globally face daunting social issues. Perhaps the most pressing issue

is that of labor standards in different countries around the world. Many corporations have been

stung by revelations that their plants around the world were "sweatshops" and/or employed very

young children. This problem is complex because societal standards and expectations regarding

working conditions and the employment of children vary significantly around the world.

Corporations must decide which the responsible option is: adopting the standards of the countries

in which they are operating or imposing a common standard world-wide. A related issue is that

of safety conditions in plants around the world.

Another issue in global business is the issue of marketing goods and services in the international

marketplace. Some U.S. companies, for example, have marketed products in other countries after

the products were banned in the United States.


22

3. TECHNOLOGY ISSUES

Another contemporary social issue relates to technology and its effect on society. For example,

the Internet has opened up many new avenues for marketing goods and services, but has also

opened up the possibility of abuse by corporations. Issues of privacy and the security of

confidential information must be addressed. Biotechnology companies face questions related to

the use of embryonic stem cells, genetic engineering, and cloning. All of these issues have far-

reaching societal and ethical implications. As our technological capabilities continue to advance,

it is likely that the responsibilities of corporations in this area will increase dramatically.

Corporate social responsibility is a complex topic. There is no question that the legal, ethical, and

discretionary expectations placed on businesses are greater than ever before. Few companies

totally disregard social issues and problems. Most purport to pursue not only the goal of

increased revenues and profits, but also the goal of community and societal betterment.

Research suggests that those corporations that develop a reputation as being socially responsive

and ethical enjoy higher levels of performance. However, the ultimate motivation for

corporations to practice social responsibility should not be a financial motivation, but a moral

and ethical one.

Source: © 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.


23

D. Findings

1. From the research on local and international corporations’ activism in this approach I

have found a big number of socially responsible enterprises which include: H&M,

Starbucks, Lebanese Development Network, CSR Lebanon, Lebanese Transparency

Association, Rural Women's Co-operative, Dunkin Donuts, McDonalds, Burger King,

Zaatar w Zeit, Hyundai Motors, Hilton’s Blue Energy Committee and Boecker.

Elaboration about some examples follows.

i. ―We are committed to creating economic value, but we are not indifferent to how

we do it. ... Progressive businesses are gaining competitive advantage by

responding to societal signals. ... We prosper by helping society to prosper.‖ Idar

Kreutzer, CEO Store brand, 2005.

ii. An article published in ―Global Issues‖ about H&M’s CSR strategy. (by Anup

Shah)

A major global trend, CSR has become an expected part of operating a business according to

auditing behemoths KPMG, Deloitte, Ernst & Young and PWC. Fashion companies are starting

to adopt CSR principles, creating sustainability visions and policies. Some are taking it further

compiling and publishing CSR reports. In Australia Country Road and Pacific Brands are clear

market leaders. While genuineness and depth of CSR reporting varies, (Just Group) any

contribution is positive.

Internationally H&M, of Sweden, are celebrating their commitment to CSR with the publication

of their tenth annual CSR report, Conscious Actions Sustainability Report 2011. Published this

week it is one of the most comprehensive fashion CSR reports, ever. They are aiming to be the

fashion leaders in CSR: ―The level of social and environmental responsibility we take, places

H&M’s sustainability work at the forefront of the fashion industry globally‖, claims Karl-Johan

Persson, CEO at H&M.

Their report looks at the environmental impacts of many aspects of their fashion model,

including materials, design, fabric production, manufacturing, transport, sales and even the way

that their customers use their clothes, finding ways to minimize the environmental impacts of

http://www.kpmg.com/cn/en/whoweare/corporate-social-responsibility/pages/default.aspx

http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_au/au/078c3fc7711fb110VgnVCM100000ba42f00aRCRD.htm

http://www.ey.com/GL/en/About-us/Corporate-Responsibility

http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/corporate-responsibility

http://www.countryroad.com.au/#/about_us/corporate_responsibility

http://www.pacificbrands.com.au/about-us/planetbrands.html

http://www.justgroup.com.au/asp/terms.asp#ethical

http://about.hm.com/content/dam/hm/about/documents/en/CSR/reports/Conscious%20Actions%20Highlights%202011_en.pdf


24

each stage in a garment life cycle. Their Conscious Collection, launched in tandem with the 10th

CSR report, uses a variety of eco-fibers ranging from organic cotton to recycled plastic bottles,

organic hemp and Tencel.

Some of the highlights from their sustainability actions are:

- Using the equivalent of 9.2million PET bottles in recycled Polyester

- 7.62% of their cotton comes from either organic cotton, Better Cotton or recycled cotton (they

are the number one user of organic cotton in the world)

- Training more than 442 000 Bangladeshi workers on their rights since 2008

- Saving 300 million liters of water in denim production compared to 2010.

iii. An interview I did with the HR regional manager at “Boecker – Public Health”,

Mr. George Bou Malhab and the marketing officer Ms. Nour Naffi, shows

Boecker’s effective role in the societies of the Middle East markets.

a) There is no doubt that Hygiene, Pest Management, Germ awareness and

Public Health have become the priority of any successful business. With more

emphasis on quality standards and differentiation in a highly competitive

market, your business needs a reliable Public Health partner. Boecker Public

Health, the region’s largest Pest Management, Food Safety and Bio-security

services provides World Class services for the most demanding commercial,

food service and residential sectors. Boecker operates in Lebanon, UAE,

Qatar, KSA, Kuwait, and Nigeria, where it is divided into four main

departments: Pest Management, Food Safety, Bio-security, and Trade.

(Detailed information in the appendix)


25

b) A summary of the answers to my questions is stated below.

Boecker tried to be socially responsible since foundation in 1994, as Mr. Bou Malhab said. When

asked in what fields it socially invests in, the response was: Environment, Kids, Health, Women

Associations, Community service in times of War, and families.

Those activities have brought them indirect financial gains as clients and public awareness, said

Boecker’s marketing manager. Some of them are: Health awareness campaigns in Beirut and

Tripoli on the occasion of the environment day.

Source: Boecker’s Middle East Facebook page

I asked: ―How does your management manage social responsibility projects? Decision on where

to do the activity‖: They said that it is done most of the time on the event activity premises or

Boecker’s (depending on location, equipment, resources, caliber of people…)

Decision on how much to invest (budget): they answered that it must be based on a win-win

situation.

Decision on the timeline of the projects (duration): Depending on the type of the event and its

field of action.

When asked if they face any legal problems when doing any activity the response was no. And in

my opinion this is because Lebanon relies on such companies to handle socially responsible

activities in the absence of the government’s role.

In the first place what caught my attention to have Boecker as an example of socially responsible

corporation was an olive tree center point planted in Hamra – Beirut, having the sign, Boecker

loves Beirut and can be seen in the picture following.


26

The planted olive trees reminded us of Lebanon’s nature and ex- healthy environment in the

middle of its city, Beirut. This initiative shows environmental awareness, care for a healthy air to

breathe, and gives a beautiful scenery midst an area full of buildings and cars. ―12 Boecker

center points around Beirut are installed and maintained my Boecker‖, says Nour Naffi.

c) Organizations can ―go green‖ by using different approaches, as shown in

figure 11, and as mentioned previously in part III, A, 2 of this project. The

light green approach is simply doing what is required legally, or the social

obligation approach. Using the market approach, organizations respond to the

environmental preferences of their customers. Using the stakeholder approach,

organizations respond to the environmental demands of multiple stakeholders.

Both the market and stakeholder approaches can be viewed as social

responsiveness. The activist or dark green approach involves an organization

looking for ways to respect and preserve the earth and its natural resources,

which can be viewed as social responsibility.

Fig. 11 Approaches to Being Green SOURCE: Based on R.E. Freeman, J. Pierce, and R. Dodd, Shades of Green: Ethics and the Environment (New York: Oxford University Press,

1995). The shades of corporate Green

The interview continues and I ask: ―Why did you decide to be socially responsible?‖ They

answered that one of Boecker’s core values is Community Service and employee engagement in

such activities.


27

d) Social auditing is a term I came upon through my research and found it

essential to be mentioned here. In the era of corporate social responsibility,

where corporations are often expected not just to deliver value to consumers

and shareholders but also to meet environmental and social standards deemed

desirable by some vocal members of the general public, social audits can help

companies create, improve and maintain a positive public relations image. HR

and marketing departments said that they have constant support regarding this

approach, saying ―A Good Public Relations is the key because the way a

company is perceived will usually have an impact on its bottom line.‖

Socially responsible companies have their ways of indulging their employees into their activities,

as well, it is necessary to know a part of their internal policy on how they motivate them. The

human resources manager answered by saying: ―Attractive packages, human capital

development, employee engagement, immediate incentive policy, and where our company has

the image of an employer of choice‖. And whether they prefer to motivate them by financial or

non-financial rewards he said that they do it by either of the means. (1)

Fig. 12 Levels of social involvement Source: © 2007 Prentice Hall, Robbins and coulter 9th edition

iv. Hyundai CSR

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has become the key issue in company-

society relations. CSR has taken a position of the core pillars of Hyundai Motor as

the company strives to establish a new Sustainable Business Management System

based on its five primary business principles. Hyundai Motor Company does not

see itself as a mere profit-making entity. It is a Contributing member of global

society based on the responsible corporate citizenship. It is one of the main

purposes to make a better world in close cooperation with all people and groups,

including stake holders, employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers, and local

communities in the world. Specifically in April of 2007, Hyundai Motor

announced its socially responsible management plan to fulfill its responsibility to

global society.

Hyundai Motor socially responsible management covers three conceptual areas:

economic responsibility, social responsibility, and environmental responsibility.


28

Fig. 13 Source: Hyundai CSR Website

a. Areas of strategic focus:

Corporate social responsibility covers three areas: trust-based management, environmental

management, and social contribution. For trust-based management, we will focus on

enhancement of labor relations, mutually beneficial cooperation with suppliers, ethics

management, and transparent management. As for environmental management, we will

proactively respond to global trends and regulations related to the environment. For social

contribution, we plan to enlarge our capacity and obtain expertise to effectively carry out global

social contribution projects and participate in volunteering programs to contribute to

development of local communities.



29

b. Global CSR website

In 2007, a year dedicated to global social contribution, Hyundai Motor Company prepared its

infrastructure to execute corporate social responsibility, as well as social contributions. It

established the 'Hyundai Motor Global CSR Network' with primary production and sales

subsidiaries around the world, and will establish a network covering all its subsidiaries

worldwide, by continuously extending the network. Hyundai also laid foundations by promoting

global CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) activities, and by developing and opening the

'Global CSR Web site' for information exchange.)


v. A very interesting special report on CSR, done by Executive Magazine (Issue 110

September, 2008) shows how major Arabic companies are giving back to the

region’s people. Including the following as they were listed: Abdali, ADC,

ALFA, BANK AUDI, BYBLOS BANK, BREI, BANQUE LIBANO-

FRANÇAISE, IMPERIAL PLACE HOTEL, CISCO SYSTEMS, INTEL, COCA-

COLA, HSBC, DHL, SARAYA HOLDINGS, LEBANESE CANADIAN BANK,

PROCTER & GAMBLE, MCDONALD'S, and SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC. The

complete article may be found in the appendix.

vi. Figure 16. Shows the results of a survey of Stated Values of Organizations where

managers’ opinions summed to 76% for Ethics or integrity and 33% for social

responsibility.

Fig. 16 Source: ―AMA Corporate Values Survey,‖ (www.amanet.org), October 30, 2002

http://www.executive-magazine.com/getissue.php?issue=110

http://www.executive-magazine.com/getissue.php?issue=110

http://csr.hyundai.com/eng/

http://csr.hyundai.com/download/2009_Sustainability report.pdf

http://csr.hyundai.com/download/2008SocialContributionActivitiesWhitePaper(ENG).pdf


30

2. After many attempts for finding socially irresponsible & unethical enterprises in Lebanon

and the Middle East, the World Wide Web couldn’t give me answers and direct results to

my search and this in my opinion is the lack of awareness on such issue. We need more

standards and laws to be set on corporations and enterprises for a minimal result

implication of having such socially irresponsible parties. An excerpt below, about ISO

26000, found in CSR implementation guide for business – by Paul Hohnen.

i. ISO 26000

In March 2005, negotiations began within the ISO framework on a new International Standard

on Social Responsibility. To be known as ISO 26000, the Standard will be a guidance document,

and not intended for certification. It is expected to provide a definition on what is understood by

the term ―social responsibility‖ and how organizations of all kinds might go about responding to

social responsibility issues and opportunities. Negotiations on the new Standard are ongoing, and

a final product is expected to be available in 2009.

(http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/pressreleases/archives/2005/ Ref972.html)

ii. Rania Touma the general manager of ―Healthy Basket‖ speaks about

unethical business in a study done by Ramy Zurayk)

The business model imposes certain norms when dealing with clients delineated by the ―good

business practices‖ approach. It helps instituting a professional code of conduct and

enhancing accountability. The management lines are clear and so is accountability. Finally,

unlike development projects, businesses exist in the real world. They have to worry about

bank balances, market fluctuations, competition and tax returns rather than donor priorities,

politics, evaluation teams and quarterly reports. In Lebanon, as in the rest of the world, the

word ―business‖ is often synonymous with ―unethical practices. This decision makes

business sense too, as ―people can invest in their principles‖.

Many social and non-profit organizations, social movements, and bloggers, light on

social unethical issues. Such as the Lebanese Development Network and CSR Lebanon.

CSR Lebanon says: ―What’s good for the community is good for the company‖

iii. Since managing social responsibility across borders isn’t an easy thing to

do, four approaches have been stated in International Business book, 4th

Edition (by Ricky W. Griffen & Michael W. Pustay), they are:

Obstructionist stance which is the least responsible, Defensive stance

which is doing what’s legally required, Accommodative stance which is

going beyond the ethical and legal requirements, and Proactive stance

which is the highest degree that a firm can exhibit.

http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/pressreleases/archives/2005/


31

iv. Speaking of socially irresponsible businesses from around the world some

names are listed: De Beer, Pfizer, Wal-Mart, BP, Exxon Mobil (oil spill),

Dow Chemical, Chevron, Monsanto (Genetically engineered crops),

Nestle (accused of violating World Health Organization codes controlling

marketing of infant formula in less developed countries), Halliburton, Hp,

GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Enron, and WorldCom.

v. De Beer Source: Study report File 6/4a. St. Antoninus Institute

―DeBeers is therefore also guilty of corrupting, or at least of aiding and abetting the

evil operations of a whole political system, South Africa's Apartheid system. Out of

this system DeBeers has drawn two advantages: one with its labor force which had to

comply to its harsh managerial policies and two by unwarranted enrichment when it

took over corporations which were driven out of business through no managerial

errors of their own.

DeBeers has also undermined the government of other diamond rich African nations

and helped enrich their presidents to the tune of several billions of dollars while their

population had to beg money from the UN and the World Bank to survive.‖

3. Modern CSR teaching, workshops, and planning businesses

Fig. 17 CSR Lebanon Conference Advertisement Source: SCR Lebanon

i. A newly developed kind of business which makes corporate social responsibility

strategies and plans for clients formed of entrepreneurs and corporations. Such as

CSR Asia (Business Solutions for Global Challenges). More information on

http://www.csr-asia.com/index.php

ii. As part of strategic management, CSR is being taught in universities and

workshops are being performed about

it.http://www.iese.edu/en/files/CORPORATE_SOCIAL%20FINAL%20_tcm4-

64403.pdf

iii. CSR Lebanon was founded as a national Lebanese company with an Arab vision

to accomplish two main goals: 1) Raise awareness about the importance of

Corporate Social Responsibility for companies as a core business value, and

establish a regional CSR media platform based in Lebanon. 2) Help banks and

http://www.csr-asia.com/index.php

http://www.iese.edu/en/files/CORPORATE_SOCIAL%20FINAL%20_tcm4-64403.pdf



32

other Lebanese companies by offering our consulting services, social reporting

expertise and projects to raise profit, cut cost and improve corporations’ services

and their relationship with society. An excerpt from the website about the principles of

responsible investment is found in the appendix. The website address is

http://www.csrlebanon.com/pri.html

iv. Ranking countries on their commitments to corporate social responsibility

The Responsible Competitiveness Index (RCI), from the British non-profit, AccountAbility, and

Brazilian business school, Fundação Dom Cabral, looks at how countries are performing in their

efforts to promote responsible business practices. Their 2007 index looks at 108 countries

covering over 96% of global GDP, with geographical representation on all five continents.

A common criticism is that advanced economies have often moved their more dirty industries to

other parts of the world where there are less stringent environmental and social standards. As a

result, other countries may be polluting on their behalf, and these indexes do not factor those in.

This ―Pollution Haven Hypothesis‖ has been raised as one reason the US does not want to

participate in Kyoto because China and India will be exempt from emission caps and some

domestic industries will head there. (Though this has been a concern way before, too.)

Furthermore, China and others have also argued that their centrality in manufacturing for many

around the world does not factor this in.

For example, a recent study showed that up to 40% of air pollutants in the Pearl River Delta in

low-scoring China are directly linked to exports to high-scoring importers across Europe and

North America. Unfortunately, at this stage there is inadequate systematic data across our large

country sample to test this hypothesis within the main RCI. … The data [looked at so far]

remains at this stage too weak to test the hypothesis with any confidence. We are committed to

doing more work on this issue in future editions. (Simon Zadek, Alex MacGillivray, Editors, The

State of Responsible Competitiveness 2007: making sustainable development count in global

markets, AccountAbility, July 2007)


http://www.accountability21.net/publications.aspx?id=878




33

IV. Conclusion

Social entrepreneurs play an important role in solving social problems by seeking out

opportunities to improve society by using practical, innovative, and sustainable approaches. They

want to make the world a better place and have a driving passion to make that happen. There is

interdependency between business needs and wider social concerns. Thus all corporative

decisions should work in the societal context within which they’re operating.

CSR is not to be confused with charity, nor is it about expenditure, on the contrary, it’s a

profitable investment; as the founder and CEO of CSR Lebanon, Mr. Khaled Kassar, once said

As we saw in the project most of the socially responsible firms in Lebanon are multinationals

therefore, it should be a prime target for more Lebanese firms to join.

To some extent a business which takes greater corporate responsibility will face similar

challenges to those which follow a more ethical approach. A business accepting greater corporate

responsibility might have to change some of the following to take into account the effects of its

actions: (1)

The aims and the objectives of the business, (2)

operating methods, (3)

might lead to

increasing costs, (4)

and the relationship with the employees. This might involve changing work

practices, the relationship with other stakeholders, including suppliers and people in the local

community, changing the organization of the business, taking into account the needs of

consumers when making marketing decisions, and providing help to bodies and organizations

outside the business.

Recommendation

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is becoming a necessity nowadays for any business to

succeed in a global environment.

As socially responsible citizens we should raise the awareness of the society and businesses to

act in a socially responsible way.

The Lebanese government should adopt standards and benchmarks upon which firms should be

evaluated and compared.


34

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http://wps.pearsoned.ca/ca_ph_robbins_mmgt_8_9/87/22466/5751482.cw/-/5751531/index.html

http://www.ethicsworld.org/corporatesocialresponsibility/surveysandtrends.php

http://www.ethicsworld.org/corporatesocialresponsibility/corporatesocialresponsibility.php

http://www.ethicsworld.org/corporatesocialresponsibility/sociallyresponsibleinvesting.php

http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-06182011-184232/unrestricted/dissertation.pdf

http://www.moe.gov.lb/The-Ministry/Laws-Regulations/Laws/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%85-667-%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%81%D9%8A-29-12-1997.aspx




http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/social-audit.asp#ixzz1wFAyBkFE

http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_robbins_man_8/16/4183/1070961.cw/index.html

http://admin.wadsworth.com/resource_uploads/static_resources/0324405715/8910/0-324-40571-5_04_REV.pdf

http://admin.wadsworth.com/resource_uploads/static_resources/0324405715/8910/0-324-40571-5_04_REV.pdf
