a primer for new teachers of economics

Southern Economic Journal 2014, 80(3), 839-854DOI: 10.4284/0038-4038-2013.054

Targeting Teaching

A Primer for New Teachers of Economics

Brandon J. Sheridan,* Gail Hoyt,t and Jennifer ImazekiJ

In many economics programs, both graduate students and new assistant professors are throwninto the classroom without guidance, with the potential for negative ramifications that can lastthroughout their careers as teachers. This article is a primer in which we offer unique insightsinto useful methods and practices for new teachers in the economics profession. We discussorganizational and logistical issues that new teachers must consider and then offer otjr adviceon specific pedagogical tools and techniques. Following the growing literature on the benefitsof student-centered and interactive instruction, we focus on ways instructors can move awayfrom the traditional "chalk and talk" approach. We organize and present these alternativepedagogies in terms of their level of complexity and time required. We conclude withsuggestions and resources for the continued growth and development of new teachers ineconomics.

JEL Classification: AlO, A22

1. Introduction

Often the first few teaching experiences encountered by new teachers can shape theirattitudes about teaching as well as their effectiveness in the classroom. Yet in many economicsdepartments, both graduate students and new assistant professors are thrown into theclassroom with little or no guidance, with the potential for negative ramifications that ean lastthroughout their careers as economic educators. McGoldrick, Hoyt, and Colander (2010)survey a large group of graduate students and find that of those with teaching assistant duties,approximately one-third of their sample are responsible for teaching their own sections.However, two-thirds of those reported teaching without the guidance of an experienced facultymember. Moreover, nearly half of those teaching without a supervisor say they received notraining or preparation prior to teaching their course. When we add in those who do not teachat all until their first academic appointment (given that few departments provide any training toassistant professors), this translates into a large contingent of economics teachers who areteaching with no training at all. On the positive side, about one-third of economics graduate

* Department of Economics and Finance, 30 N Brainard Street, North Central College, Naperville, IL 60540,USA; E-mail [email protected].

t Department of Economics, Gatton College of Business and Economics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY40506-0034, USA; E-mail [email protected]; corresponding author.

t Department of Economics, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, MC4485, San Diego, CA 92182-4485, USA; E-mail [email protected].

We would like to thank Nicole Simpson, Bill Bosshardt, and our anonymous SEJ referees for their insightfulcomments and advice.

Received March 2013; accepted May 2013.

® Southern Economic Association, 2014 839

840 Sheridan, Hoyt, and Imazeki

teaching assistants report that their department provides credit and/or noncredit coursestailored specifically to teaching. However, we have limited information on the content of thesecourses and no information on the quality.

Being an effective teacher can be hard work, and it is no secret that economics as adiscipline has not always valued teaching as highly as other activities (see Becker 1997), somany graduate students and new assistant professors may not consider the rewards to be worththe time and effort. But aside from the intrinsic value of knowing you have done a job well,Becker (2000) points out that teaching appears to be of increasing importance in tenure andpromotion decisions, even at institutions that have traditionally focused much more onresearch. Also, when the teaching aspect of a new instructor's job suffers, there are oftennegative spillover effects into other activities such as research and service. With this in mind,this primer offers advice to improve teaching effectiveness with the additional goal of helpingthe new instructor to be more efficient in the teaching enterprise.

Fortunately, economists who wish to improve their teaching have an increasing variety ofresources available to them. For example, the Journal of Economic Education features bothpedagogical research and articles that describe specific teaching innovations. Books such asthose by Saunders, Welsh, and Hansen (1978), Saunders and Walstad (1990, 1998), Becker andWatts (2000), Becker, Watts, and Becker (2006), and Salemi and Walstad (2010) provide in-depth discussion of many interactive methods for teaching economics. Hoyt and McGoldrick(2012) also offer advice on interactive technique along with advice from individual economistswho are well known in their fields on how to effectively teach specific courses. Additionally,Bowmaker (2011) and Colander (2006) give insights from the classrooms of individualeconomists. Starting Point: Teaching and Learning Economics Web site serves as a portal to amultitude of additional resources both on- and off-line.

This abundance of assistance, however, can also be potentially overwhelming for newinstructors who may have little idea where to begin. In this primer, we draw from these existingresources and from our own unique experiences as tenured, experienced professors and a newlyminted assistant professor to highlight the methods and practices we believe will be most usefulfor new teachers in the economics profession. We begin with a discussion of the organizationaland logistical issues that new teachers must consider the first time they walk into a classroom.We then offer our thoughts on specific pedagogical tools and techniques. Following thegrowing literature on the benefits of student-centered and interactive instruction (see, e.g..Marburger 2005; Yamarik 2007), we focus on ways instructors can move away from thetraditional "chalk and talk" approach. Recognizing that new instructors have many competingdemands on their time, we have organized and presented these alternative pedagogies in termsof their level of complexity and time required. And while we believe the advice we offer to besound advice for new teachers in any discipline, we tailor our discussion to the uniqueexperience of the teaching economist.'

A primer such as this must, by design, provide only an introduction to selected issues andtools; therefore, throughout our discussion, we refer the reader to other sources that canprovide more detailed information. We also conclude with suggestions and resources for thecontinued growth and development of the new teacher in economics.

Our advice is also largely directed toward instructors of at least some face-to-face classes. Many of the issues raisedhere also apply to teachers of online courses, but a discussion of best practices for online classes is beyond the scope ofthis primer.

A Primer for New Teachers of Economics 841

2. Preparing to Teach

There are several ways to prepare for your first venture into the classroom. While ourapproach highlights some characteristics of successful teachers, our focus is moremethodological and instructional in nature. We elaborate on some of the basic elements ofteaching in this section.

Gather Information

Prior to entering a room full of students, we recommend going to the classroom in whichthe class will be taught. This allows you to see the layout of the room and ensure the classroomtechnology works properly. It is also useful to look at the class roster prior to the first classperiod to see what kind of diversity exists. What is the demographic profile of the class? Whatare the students majoring in? What year are the students? New teachers are hkely to teacheconomics principles courses, which are usually composed of a diverse student body. Knowingas much as possible about student characteristics and background will allow you to betterprepare lectures and engage students with the material. Consider having students complete afirst day questionnaire that will provide you with additional useful background information.

Don't Re-Invent the Wheel

There is certainly value in developing an entire course and the accompanying notesindependently; however, as economists, we appreciate the idea of comparative advantage andspecialization, perhaps more so than other disciplines. Moreover, it is typical for graduatestudents to be extremely busy with completing their own coursework and/or dissertation whilethey are teaching, and new assistant professors will be working against the tenure clock in manyinstances (McConnell 1998). These days, many basic materials (e.g., notes, slides, test banks,etc.) are available from textbook publishers. Most of these materials can be modified andpersonalized for use in your class. Also, experienced faculty members are often happy to sharetheir materials. Seeing how others have taught a course can help you gain a sense forappropriate pace, emphasis, and depth of content coverage. One would also hope that newteachers share materials and advice with each other and that informal mentoring between newteachers and more seasoned teachers occurs on campuses.

Set Course Goals and Think about Your Teaching Philosophy

Setting course goals helps to focus lectures and classroom materials as well as givesstudents an idea of what they can expect to learn from the course. There are the specificlearning goals that an instructor might have on a given day and the overarching learningobjectives that the instructor might have for the overall course experience.^ Both are importantif the instructor hopes to achieve a focused and effective presentation. Often learning objectivesand content selection are provided for a teaching assistant, but sometimes new instructors must

^ Different institutions may use the terms "course/learning goals," "course/learning objectives," and/or "course/learningoutcomes" in similar ways. We use these terms somewhat interchangeably to refer to the specific skills or content thatteachers want their students to learn, either in an individual class meeting or over the length of a course term.

842 Sheridan, Hoyt, and Jmazeki

determine these for themselves. Whether the new instructor uses the table of contents of theirtextbook or the syllabus of a predecessor for initial guidance, a new instructor should stillengage in a deliberate process of setting their own course objectives and thinking about thecontent they present. Some instructors also look to the "proficiencies in economics" developedby Hansen (2001).-' We encourage new teachers to incorporate course objectives that reflecttheir overall teaching philosophy into their syllabus. This allows students some insight into howthe instructor will approach the course. The teaching philosophy is something that will growand evolve with more teaching experience.''

Before entering the classroom each day, instructors should also take a moment to reflectand ask themselves what is important about that day's lecture and how students will benefitfrom this new information. If you answer these questions for yourself, you are more likely toprovide a focused class discussion and better convey the relevance of what is being covered on agiven day. The ability to convey relevance is often a challenge for the more seasoned teacher aswell.

3. Nuts and Bolts: Classroom Management

There are many ways to approach teaching an economics course. Although methods maydiffer depending on the size of the class and the level of the course (e.g., introductory,advanced, etc.), there are several basic strategies that need to be considered for every course. Inthis section, we discuss classroom management techniques; in the following sections, we exploreclassroom pedagogical techniques and resources for further development.

Set Guidelines for Student Behavior

Managing a classroom involves utilizing aspects of the syllabus that guide studentbehavior, making your expectations clear on the first day of class, and even being aware of howyou use physical space during class. Although most schools have formal guidelines for studentbehavior, it is crucial to highlight expectations for students within the course syllabus and onthe first day of class. Areas to emphasize include attendance policies, classroom behavior, andparticipation expectations. New teachers should focus on fostering a learning environment thatis free of distractions, such as students' texting, talking, entering and exiting class frequently orat inappropriate times, or otherwise being disruptive.

Hansen's proficiencies (2001): (i) accessing and organizing existing knowledge; (ii) displaying command of existingknowledge; (iii) interpreting existing knowledge; (iv) interpreting and manipulating quantitative data; (v) applyingexisting knowledge; (vi) creating new knowledge; and (vii) questing for knowledge and understanding,

•* When developing a teaching philosophy it might be helpful to consider the following questions. What is your academichistory? Has your experience as a student influenced your ideas about teaching? If you have had the opportunity toteach, how has that experience molded your current ideas about teaching? Why do you like to teach or why do youthink you might like to teach in the future? What do you think makes teaching rewarding? What things have professorsdone in the classes you have taken that you vow never to do when you teach? When teaching economics, what are thereally big concepts or ways of thinking that the students should take with them at the end of the semester? What aresome of the elements of your own teaching that you hope to improve and how do you plan to make thoseimprovements? What are your personal goals for your teaching in the future?


A related issue is the students' use of technology in the classroom. An increasing numberof students wish to use technology (e.g., laptops, tablet devices, etc.) during class to take notesand/or follow along with lectures. Keep this in mind so you are adequately prepared to handlesuch requests. Although using such technology can be a great leaming facilitator for somestudents, it will prove to be a distraction for others as they now have an easy way of browsingthe internet during class. Even students without electronic devices are likely to be distracted bythose around them who are using the devices.""" Properly outlining technology use and otherpolicies in the syllabus can help set the tone at the beginning of the semester.

Treat the First Day as the Most Important Day

Instructors, both new and seasoned, often treat the first day as an easy day—walking throughthe syllabus and perhaps saying a few words about content and then letting students leave. Thesuccessful first day, however, should take more effort and thought than any other day. It is a day ofhigh energy and excitement and the day when you make a first and lasting impression. This mightbe especially important in a discipline such as economics, where many students have notexperienced the class in high school or they have had a bad experience or heard negative thingsabout the discipline (after all, it is the dismal science!). Often students are concemed about the rnathand graphs associated with economics. The first day is your best opportunity to build rapport,establish a productive and comfortable classroom environment, lay out course expectations, calmfears, and get students excited about economics and the specific content of your course.

Here are some steps to consider for a fruitful first day. Consider how you will introduceyourself. How do you want to portray yourself to students? Do the things you say and thethings you do on the first day contribute to that image and the overall atmosphere you desirefor the classroom experience? As mentioned previously, clearly lay out course guidelines andexpectations in writing and verbally with explanations. Give specific examples to make yourpoints clear. Conduct some sort of simple icebreaker that allows students to speak and get toknow each other. Perhaps allow them to meet each other and introduce their neighbor to theclass if class size allows. Also consider a demonstradon or acdvity, ideally something that willalso give students a taste of the content and your teaching style. For instance, inMicroeconomic Principles, many instructors auction or sell some item on the first day ofclass to demonstrate that students weigh costs and benefits when making choices and to helpemphasize that as consumers we each have a threshold value with regard to our willingness topay for something. This type of example makes economics relevant and exciting for thestudents and demonstrates an interactive and engaging teaching style on your part.

Move around the Classroom

Although the syllabus is an immensely useful tool, it has a tendency to fade from theforefront of students' minds as the semester progresses. As such, the use of physical space in theclassroom is also a vital classroom management tool, pardcularly in larger classes. If a group ofstudents is being disruptive or browsing the intemet rather than paying attendon, simply moveto that side of the room or directly next to the disruptive students. In some cases, this approach

^ If you do not wish to ban computers and phones completely, one compromise is to allow the use of electronic devicesonly in one area of the classroom (such as the back row) to minimize the negative externality created for others.


can be equally if not more effective than confronting students directly. In addition to quellingdisruptive behavior, moving throughout the classroom during the lecture can stimulate studentengagement, as students must remain more alert when the instructor is constantly moving. Weencourage new economics instructors to actually plan a minimal amount of movement whenpreparing each lecture. Because they frequently need to be at the board to draw and discussgraphs or equations, new instructors may otherwise forget to move around the room. Thistechnique is also useful in mitigating the infiuence of one or two students who may bedominating a discussion. By gradually moving away from the overly involved student, space iscreated that draws the rest of the class into the discussion.

Use Technology Effectively

PowerPoint is perhaps the most commonly used technology in today's classroom.Although we encourage instructors to avoid too much straight lecturing (see the next section oninteracfive pedagogies), a certain amount of lecturing is unavoidable in most classes, andPowerPoint can be an effective and efficient way to give a lecture, especially for economies. Afew key considerations are necessary, however, for using slides effectively,(i) Do not have too much information on one slide.(ii) Make sure the pace of progression through slides is appropriate—not too fast or too

slow,

(iii) If students have handouts in front of them with everything that is on the slide, youshould expect very little attention and engagement from students (see below),

(iv) If you teach large classes, a remote mouse is crucial so you can still move around the room,(v) Graphs should have each piece presented in sequence so students can see how to

construct a graph.For additional advice on creating effective PowerPoint presentations, see Atkinson (2011)

and Reynolds (2008), among others.

Consider Availability of Materials

Addifionally, new instructors must decide if they will post their notes or PowerPoint slidesonline and if they will do so before or after class. In general, posting notes alleviates students'concern about missing material because of absence or because of slow note-taking abilities,particularly for economics courses because of the number of definifions, graphs, and equationsinvolved. For a select group of students, posfing the notes before class can be beneficial. Theseare the students who learn more from listening and absorbing than writing down notes withoutthinking about what they are writing; however, for others, posting notes before class mayreduce the incentive to attend class. Furthermore, some students may be less apt to payattention during class (and will text, pass notes, talk, etc.) if they already have the notes. Evenwhen posting notes after class, poor attendance may still be a problem because students knowthey can access the content from class.* Posting notes after class, however, allows more

' Note that attendance problems can be greatly mitigated by incorporating activities that cannot be replicated outside ofclass.


complete notes to be posted rather than the incomplete or skeleton copies that may bepreferable when posting prior to class.

Some new teachers find the use of skeleton notes to be quite effective. Skeleton notes arepartial lecture note handouts and are a tool used by many instructors to try to maintain studentengagement throughout a class period (Buckles, Hoyt, and Imazeki 2012). Some instructorsmake a partial version of their PowerPoint presentation available before class, while others usecourse packets and handouts. Typically, only pieces of the lecture content are included in theskeleton notes, such as definitions of economics concepts or basic supply-demand graphs.Enough information is provided so that students are not preoccupied with writing lengthydefinitions or formulas, and they can actually listen to what the instructor says; however, someparts are left incomplete so students must maintain enough focus and engagement to completetheir notes.^

4. Classroom Pedagogy

The vast majority of economics courses are still taught primarily via lecture (Watts andBecker 2008; Watts and Schaur 2010), and, not surprisingly, many new teachers find it easiestto continue this tradition, given that they may have rarely seen any alternatives. But researchconsistently shows that students learn more deeply when they actively engage with the material(among many others, see Salemi 2002). Of course, eliciting classroom discussion and deeplyengaging students in the economic content can be done in a number of ways. Active learning isa term that has become common language for most college professors, and informationregarding interactive-learning techniques abounds. While an abundance of resources mightseem beneficial, it can also be daunting for a new instructor. Thus, for new instructors, it isimportant to identify active-learning pedagogies that are accessible, easy to implement, andeffective. We call these gateway pedagogies, as they allow new instructors to ease into a moreinteractive approach. In this section, we discuss several such techniques in order of increasingcomplexity and cost to the instructor. Gateway I outlines easy, low-cost modifications thatinstructors can make to their teaching style to more effectively engage students. Gateway IIfocuses on ways instructors can directly involve students in the learning process, which allowsfor deeper learning, but also requires more preparation in advance. Gateway III focuses on theuse of technology, which can provide a richer learning experience yet often involves larger start-up and maintenance costs.

Gateway I: If You Must Lecture, Make Relevance Clear and Change Format Regularly

In discussing how to approach lecturing, Elzinga (1998, p. 81) writes, "The differencebetween a job and a calling is illustrated by two masons at work on a church building. Whenasked what they are doing, one says, 'I'm laying bricks.' The other replies, 'I'm building acathedral."' We encourage new teachers to think of giving lectures as being similar to "buildinga cathedral." Economic theory, facts, and terminology presented in a lecture are the bricks but

' For more information on how to use skeleton notes, visit the Interactive Lectures module on the Starting Point inEconomics Web site.


having bricks without the mortar to hold them together is useless. As such, motivating topicsand conveying relevance is vital. Students need to know why they should care about a particulartopic. Properly motivating a topic is similar to setting up the plot in a good story—it initiatesstudents' interest and keeps them engaged. Communicating how a specific topic is, or will be,relevant to their lives is part of the mortar that contributes to the stability of the economicfoundation under construction.

As an example, consider the classroom treatment of a price fioor. The content "brick" isthe definition of the fioor, the graphical coverage, and the discussion of results andimplications. The mortar around this brick is a more general opening discussion of a naturalmarket outcome without intervention and reasons government might intervene in these cases.Mortar also is added as you select an example of a price fioor that is relevant to students, suchas the minimum wage, and as you provide a working institutional knowledge. The last touch ofmortar is added when you ask students to weigh the pros and cons and decide for themselves ifwe should raise minimum wage. Along these same lines, you might also ask students to thinkabout their reply if a potential employer was to ask their thoughts on minimum wage during ajob interview.

One way to show students how content is relevant to their lives is with evocative visuals,video or audio clips, or interactive learning pedagogies such as the demonstrations describedbelow. These also serve to change the format so you do not simply lecture for an hour (or more)straight. Research shows that regardless of the topic, most people will lose focus after roughly20 minutes (Hartley and Davies 1978; Wankat 2002), so it is always good to break up lecturesinto shorter segments.**

Gateway II: Have Students Learn from Each Other

One easy gateway interactive technique is "think-pair-share," in which the instructor posesa question, the students discuss the concept with a neighbor for 1-2 minutes, and then thestudents share their responses with the class. By keeping the discussion time short, it requiresstudents to pay attention during the lecture, as they do not have an abundance of time to thinkabout an answer to the question. For first-time teachers, moving away from the standardlecture format can seem frightening, so the think-pair-share exercise is often one of the easiestinteractive learning techniques for new instructors to incorporate as it makes for an easytransition. For additional advice on the effective use of the think-pair-share technique ineconomics, see Hoyt et al. (2010).

A slightly more advanced way to foster discussion and evaluate students' understanding ofa topic is through small-scale cooperative learning. One possibility is dividing students intoteams to work on structured problem solving. For instance, in Microeconomic Principles, whenteaching about production possibility frontiers and comparative advantage, an easy way toassess students' comprehension is to have them work on a problem in which they mustsynthesize the concepts they have just been presented (see Appendix A). Although the questionsposed typically require more thought and effort than the simple think-pair-share technique, thistechnique can be especially useful for gauging students' comprehension of new graphicalconcepts or mathematical techniques. It is also a great structure for allowing peer instruction as

See the Interactive Lectures module on the Starting Point in Economics Web site for many ideas of ways to segmentlectures.


students help each other comprehend the concept and complete the task at hand. These types ofexercises are generally low cost in the sense that they do not take long to develop, yet they areuseful in demonstrating complex concepts to students and ensuring they understand the issue.'

Simple demonstrations are yet another way to engage students and generate lastinglearning. If not too intricate, this type of activity is also an excellent gateway activity for thenew instructor. For example, illustrating the concept that trade creates value can be easily andeffectively incorporated into a lecture by playing a simple game. First, distribute four or fivedifferent types of candy so that each student has a single piece. Second, ask the students to ratetheir happiness on a scale of 1-5 and record each student's indicated utility. Then, allowstudents to trade but only with someone seated in the same row. Again, record the utility levelof the students. Finally, allow students to trade freely with each other. Record a final utilitytally and display the results to the class. Students immediately learn that engaging in voluntarytrade can create value and increase societal wealth, even if no new resources are introduced intothe economy. This simple demonstration is low cost but high impact.'"

Gateway III: Make Use of Technology

First, an important caveat: Do not try to do too much at once! For new teachers, often justlearning how to deliver a lecture and administer a class is challenging enough in itself withoutthe complication of learning new technologies and how to incorporate them into a class. Thatbeing said, students are now typically digital natives and, as such, seem to prefer a variety ofmedia for effective learning. There is a wide range of uses for technology in the classroom fromsimple PowerPoint presentations to clickers, blogs, and more.

Audience response systems, commonly known as clickers, are becoming more prevalentacross college campuses. These devices are a potentially powerful pedagogical tool when usedappropriately. One advantage of using clickers is the ability to receive immediate feedback fromstudents. Without clickers, a teacher might pose a question and ask for a show of hands forvarious answers. This approach is cumbersome and does not always accurately gauge studentcomprehension. Many students may conform and pick the same choice as everyone else,regardless of whether they know the correct answer, or they might abstain from participatingaltogether. Clickers circumvent these issues. For advice on the use of various classroomtechnologies in the economics classroom, see Buckles et al. (2012), Calhoun and Mateer (2012),Salemi (2009), and Hoyt et al. (2010).

Blogs can also be a powerful tool when used appropriately (Cameron 2012). If the blog isbeing used as a way for the students and instructor to interact directly with each other, then it isusually most effective with smaller class sizes. An excellent way for students to learn economicsconcepts is through writing, and blogs are an informal way of accomplishing this goal. Withblogs, you can incorporate relevant and/or controversial topics to reinforce basic economicprinciples while allowing the students to remain anonymous to each other in responding.Students must organize their thoughts clearly and effectively to communicate their point and, indoing so, can usually identify the strengths and weaknesses in their understanding of the

' See Bartlett (2006) and the Cooperative Learning module on the Starting Point in Economics Web site for additionalexamples.

'" See the Interactive Lecture Demonstrations module on the Starting Point in Economics Web site for additionalexamples.


concepts being considered. This lends itself to areas that need to be further studied by thestudent and/or reviewed in the classroom. In addition, using popular economics blogs can be agood way to supplement course readings or as a source of mainstream uses of economicsconcepts (Haab, Schiff, and Whitehead 2012). Commonly used blogs include Greg Mankiw'sBlog, Marginal Revolution (Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok), The Conscience of a Liberal(Paul Krugman), Freakonomics (Steve Levitt and Steve Dubner), and Grasping Reality withthe Invisible Hand (Brad De Long), as well as numerous others."

There is a multitude of ways to use technology in the classroom, with the number ofdifferent applicadons sure to quickly grow over the coming years. Many of these, however,including podcasts, course/homework management systems, and online videos, among myriadothers, can sometimes involve much greater preparation time and investment by an instructor.We recommend that new instructors seek support from campus instructional and technologyservices and plan their course(s) carefully to avoid taking on too much.

5. Continuing Development

Performance assessment and evaluation are vital for the new instructor. At someinstitutions, teaching assistants and new professors are monitored through written studentevaluations and classroom observadon. Each new instructor may meet with a supervisor ormentor privately at various points during the semester to discuss his or her developmental needsas a teacher. Even without these formal external assessments, there are many ways to continuallydevelop and improve as an economic educator. For example, Elzinga (1998) suggests revisinglectures immediately after giving them, as this is when the teacher is best able to assess whatworked well in the lecture and what did not work as well. We encourage new teachers to take fulladvantage of the many resources available to help you continually develop your skills.

Learn from Your Students

An easy way to begin working on improvements is by reviewing student evaluations toassess strengths and weaknesses, as well as how to address them in subsequent courses. Whiletraditional student evaluations conducted at the end of the semester are helpful, they generallyhave low response rates and do not provide feedback to the instructor until after the semesterends. As such, halfway through the semester, we encourage new teachers to conduct their ownmidsemester evaluadon (see Appendix B). Doing so gives students the opportunity toanonymously provide feedback while there is still time to improve their leaming experience.This not only gives you a chance to enhance your teaching methods, it also further engagesstudents and lets them know that you genuinely care about their progress.

Learn from Your Colleagues

Faculty and/or peer review are also encouraged. For the faculty review, an experiencedfaculty member observes the new teacher and provides constructive feedback on how to become

' ' A more comprehensive list of blogs can be fotmd at the National Association for Business Economics Web site. Inaddition, a survey by Davis et al. (2011) shows which blogs are favored by economists.


a more effective teacher. The peer review is similar, except new teachers are observing oneanother. In addition to advising peers, the peer evaluation also serves as a learning experiencebecause new teachers will often notice a technique in the lecture of a peer that they then includein their own teaching repertoire. Furthermore, these evaluations can serve as a useful jobmarket and professional development tool, as the results of peer/faculty reviews are oftenconsidered more reliable and provide more relevant information than the standard studentevaluation of teacher performance that typically involves bubbling in Likert-type scaleresponses.'^ In the review and promotion process, a good letter of review from an observer caneven help mitigate the negative impact of poor student evaluations of teaching.

Even without structured peer reviews, mentors ean also be a valuable supplement to ateacher's confinuing development. For graduate students, these mentors may be other graduatestudents with more teaching experience or faculty members with whom the graduate studentfeels comfortable discussing pedagogy. For faculty members new to teaching, mentors may bean experienced colleague within the department or even a faculty member from anotherdepartment or school.

Attend Professional Development Events

Teaching workshops and conferences typically produce excellent forums that discussthe latest innovative pedagogical techniques and showcase recent research. The regionalassociations such as the Eastern, Southern, Western, and Midwest Economics Associationmeetings all have sessions covering pedagogy in economics both in practice and research.The American Economic Association (AEA) has economic education sessions, panels, anda continuing education teaching workshop at the Allied Social Science Associationsmeetings all organized by the Committee on Economic Education. Also, the AEA nowsponsors a full three-day workshop each summer devoted entirely to the scholarship ofteaching, and publishing companies host a wide array of economic teaching conferencesoften featuring their authors. In addition, many campuses also have some type of campusteaching and learning center. These offices usually offer advice and training on technologyuse as well as general teaching methods and can be particularly helpful for departments thatdo not independently offer such resources. Additionally, it may be useful to have periodicmeetings with colleagues to specifically discuss pedagogy and ways to improve learningoutcomes.

Use Internet Resources on the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning

There are many internet resources that may be of particular interest to new teachers, suchas the Starting Point in Economics Portal. This Web site has a wide array of modules thatexplain how to apply various pedagogical techniques in economic instruction. The directionsfor successful implementation are extensive, and there are many examples available from whichto choose.'^ Other Web sites focus more narrowly on one aspect of teaching, such assimulations (Games Economists Play: Non-computerized Classroom Games for College

'" Appendix C shows a simple classroom observation form. For additional insight on instructor evaluation techniques,see DeLoach (2012).

" See the Starting Point in Economics Web site.


Economics) or the use of movies to motivate economic concepts (Movies for Economics). Thereare also numerous journal articles and books devoted to advice for economics teachers, manyincluded in the references for this article and in Appendix D.

6. Conclusion

For new economics instructors, whether they are still graduate students or new facultymembers, getting off to a good start with teaching is vitally important. We all want to beeffective, but with rnany demands for limited time the new instructor also must learn to beefficient in preparing for and managing a class. This means bearing the appropriate start-upcosts that have the biggest payoff and learning to develop a personal teaching style while at thesame time not re-inventing the wheel. Additionally, incorporating gateway pedagogies canoften be the most fruitful approach to increasing classroom engagement for the new teacher.Seek out course materials from colleagues, publishers, campus resources, and the internet. Seekout helpful and supportive mentors. And most importantly, remember that no matter howaccomplished a teacher you become, you can always be better, and there is always somethingnew to learn.

Appendix A: In-class Example—Gains from Trade

ECO 201United States and Mexico

It is clear from the Labor Costs table that the United States can produce both cars and computers more cheaplythan Mexico; therefore, it is given that the United States has an absolute advantage in producing both goods. This doesnot necessarily mean, however, that the United States also has a comparative advantage in producing both goods. Showthis by filling in the opportunity cost in the Opportunity Costs table.

Assume that Mexico has 250 labor hours to use and that the United States has 180 labor hours to use. Show thatthey can each gain from specialization and trade by first drawing each country's production possibility frontier and thenshowing the points they can attain before and after trade (see the Gains from Trade table).

Labor Costs

Country

United StatesMexico

Opportunity Costs

Country

United StatesMexico

Cars

15

20

Opportunity Cost of

Cost per Unit in

1 Unit of Cars

Labor Hours

Computers

2040

Opportunity Cost of 1 Unit ofComputers


Gains

UnitedMexicoTotal

from

States

Trade

Before

Cars

66.25

12.25

Trade

Computers

4.53.1257.625

After Specialization

Cars Computers

After Trade

Cars Computers

Appendix B: Mid-Semester Evalnation Form

Instructor:Course:Time and days of class:Section number:Approximately how many days have you missed this class this semester?

The following questions are designed to provide your instructor feedback regarding the course. All answers arecompletely confidential and used solely for improving the course. When answering the questions, consider elements ofthe class such as lectures, assignments, and exams.

1) What do you like the most about this course?2) What do you like least about this course?3) What suggestions would you make to the instructor for improving the course? Especially consider suggestions

that could be implemented for the remainder of the semester.4) What could you do differently this semester in this course that might improve your experience?5) At this point in the semester, how would you rate the instructor of this course on a scale ofl to 10 with 10 being

the highest score? (Circle only one number.)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6) At this point in the semester, how would you rate the overall quality of this course on a scale of 1 to 10 with 10being the highest score? (Circle oaly one number.)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Appendix C: Sample Classroom Observer's Report

Economics Deparlmen!, University of Kentucky

Instructor: Observer: Title of Class:Date of Visit: Time of Class:Location: Topic Covered:

1 ) Evaluate the instructor's rapport with the class and describe the overall classroom atmosphere.2) Does it appear that the instructor has made an appropriate effort to know students?3) Do you detect any discipline problems? If yes, please explain.4) What sort of media does the instructor use and do they use the media effectively? (handouts, PowerPoint,

whiteboard, overhead, video, etc.)5) Are there any issues related to the instructor's use of physical space? Does the instructor stay in one place, favor

one side of the room, face the board and never look at the class, etc.?6) Is the instructor able to communicate clearly?7) Are there any physical distractions of the instructor that detract from the lecture? (e.g., pacing, saying "uh" too

much, etc.)8) Does the instructor appear to be well-prepared and organized for class?9) Does the instructor display a good command of the subject?

10) Does the instructor seem to be able to provide effective explanations of content?11 ) Does the instructor effectively answer student questions?12) Does the instructor pose questions to students and seek student contributions?13) Does the instructor show concern for student understanding?14) Do students appear to be intellectually engaged?


15) How well does the instructor relate the subject to students through examples and other techniques?16) Does the instructor present interesting, relevant, and stimulating lectures given the nature of the course (core vs. elective)?17) To what extent does the instructor integrate classroom activities, readings, and other materials?

Additional Comments

Please use this space for any additional comments about this class visit. To the extent possible, please compare thisclass to other similar classes at the University of Kentucky that you have observed. Also provide suggestions fortechniques or examples that might enhance this instructor's effectiveness.

Appendix D: Resources for New Economics Teachers

General Economics Resources

(i) Starting Point; Teaching and Learning Economics; http;//serc.carleton.edu/econ/mdex.html(Ü) Resources for Economists, Teaching Resources: http;//www,aeaweb,org/rfe/showCat,php?cat_id=91

(iii) Teaching Economics discussion mail list: http://org,elon,edu/econ/tch-econ/(iv) Economics for Teachers (Jennifer Imazeki's blog): http;//economicsforteachers,blogspot.com/(v) Teachingeeonomies to undergraduates: Alternatives to chalk and talk, edited by William E. Becker and Michael Watts(vi) Teaching economies: More alternatives to chalk and talk, edited by William E. Becker, Michael Watts, and

Suzanne R. Becker(vii) Teaching innovations in economics: Strategies and applications for interactive instruction, edited by Michael K,

Salemi and William B. Walstad(viii) International handbook on teaching and learning economics, edited by Gail Hoyt and KimMarie McGoldrick

Pop Culture

(i) Dirk Mateer's Web site: http://dirkmateer.com(ii) Movie scenes for eeonomics: http://www,moviesforecon,com/

(iii) ABBA to Zeppelin, Led: Using music to teach economics: http://www,divisionoflabour,com/music/(iv) The Economics of Seinfeld: http://yadayadayadaecon.com/(v) The literary book of economics: Including readings from literature and drama on economic concepts, issues and

themes by Michael Watts(ix) Teaching Undergraduate Economics: A Handbook for Instructors, edited by William Walsted and Phillip

Saunders

Experiments, Simulations

(i) Games Economists Play: http://www.marietta.edu/~delemeeg/games/(ii) Vecon Lab: http://veconlab,econ,Virginia,edu/

(iii) Budget Hero simulation: http://marketplace,publicradio,org/features/budget_hero/(iv) Tragedy of the Bunnies: http://www,bunnygame.org/

Technology (Not Econ Specific)

(i) Teaching with cia.'/sroom respome systems by Derek Bruff (Bruff also blogs at http://derekbruff.org/)(ii) Blogs, wikis, podcasts and other powerful web tools for classrooms by Will Richardson

Gênerai Teaching

(i) Profhacker blog: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/(ii) Faculty Focus blog: http://www,facultyfocus,com/topic/articles/teaching-professor-blog/

(iii) McKeachie's teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers by MarillaSvinicki and Wilbert J, McKeachie

(iv) Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers by Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia Cross(v) Teaching what you don't know by Thérèse Huston


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