a possible order of teaching english tenses in primary
TRANSCRIPT
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Professionalâpaper UDCâ81â366.58(=111):373.2.016(497.5)
A POSSIbLE ORDER Of TEACHING ENGLISH TENSES IN PRIMARY SCHOOL
JakobâPatekarPrimaryâSchoolââPeÄineâ,âRijeka,âCroatia [email protected]
Received:â16âAprilâ2016
TheaimofthispaperistosuggestapossibleorderofteachingEnglishtensesinCroatianprimaryschools.AfterashortintroductioninwhichweexplainwhysuchanordermightbeneededintheCroatiancontext,andafterabrief lookat possible foundations in scientific research,wereviewgrammarteachingfromthemethodologicalaspectanddis-cuss the notion of pedagogical grammar.Wealso bringa summaryof grammar contentprovided in the current primaryand secondaryschoolcurricula.Inthemainpartofthepaper,weanalysethetensesintermsofcomplexityandcommunicativepotentialandsuggestanorderofteaching.Intheend,weoffersuggestionstoteachersandtextbookauthorsregardingthepresentationandteachingofgrammarcontentinprimaryschool.
Keyâ words: teachinggrammar,English tenses, teachingorder, cur-riculumdevelopment, frequency-basedgrammar teach-ing,primaryschool
Introduction
AsâpartâofâtheâongoingâeducationâreformâinâCroatia,âaânewâcurricu-lumâforâteachingâEnglishâasâaâforeignâlanguageâinâprimaryâandâsecondaryâschoolâisâbeingâdeveloped.âUnlikeâtheâcurrentâcurriculaâ(Nastavnipro-gramizagimnazije,â1994;âOkvirninastavniprogramiopÄeobrazovnihpredmetau srednjimĆĄkolama,â1997;âNastavniplan iprogramzaos-novnu ĆĄkolu,â 2006),â itâ isâ notâ contentÂoriented.âRather,â itâ isâ basedâ onâlearningâoutcomes,âwithoutâmuchâfocusâonâgrammarâpointsâorâkeyâvo-cabulary.âTheâfocusâofâtheânewâcurriculumâisâonâwhatâstudentsâcanâdoâatâ theâendâofâaâcertainâ level,âandâ thisâsurelyâ isâaâgoodâ thing.â Itâgivesâ
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teachersâtheâfreedomâtoâdesignâuniqueâwaysâforâstudentsâtoâachieveâtheâsetâoutcomes.âHowever,âweâmustâalsoâacknowledgeâthatâtextbooksâareâatâtheâcoreâofâteachingâinâCroatia,âwhichâisânotânecessarilyâgood.âThisâmeansâ thatâ teachersâmoreâoftenâ thanânotâ teachâaccordingâ toâ theâ text-book,ânotâtheâcurriculum,âandâtakeâforâgrantedâthatâwhatâisâinâtheâtext-bookâneedsâtoâbeâtaughtâandâlearnt.âThisâwouldânotâbeâsuchâaâproblemâifâtheâtextbooksâwereâinâlineâwithâtheâcurriculum,âbutâthis,âunfortunately,âisânotâalwaysâtheâcase.âEvenâifâ theâteacherâdecidesâtoâworkââoutsideââtheâtextbook,âthisâmightâbecomeâaâproblem.âThisâisâbecauseâtheâcontentâinâtextbooksâisâintertwined,âwhichâmeansâthat,âforâexample,âaâtenseâisânotâ taughtâ separatelyâ fromâvocabularyâbecauseâ itâ isâ embeddedâ intoâaâtextâofâaâcertainâtopicâ(andâindeed,âthisâisâhowâitâshouldâbeâpresented).âChoosingânotâtoâdoâaâtextâbecauseâitâcontainsâgrammarâthatâtheâteacherâfindsâirrelevantâorâinappropriateâforâsomeâreason,âmeansâstudentsâcouldâbeâleftâwithoutâkeyâvocabulary,âorâevenâkeyâstructures,âneededâinâfur-therâlessons.âRecognizingâthatâteachersâperhapsâlackâtheâtimeâtoâworkââoutsideââtheâtextbook,âandârecognizingâthatâitâwillâtakeâtimeâforâteach-ersâ toâ transitionâ fromâcontentÂorientedâ toâ outcomeÂbasedâ curriculum,âinâthisâpaperâweâofferâaâpossibleâorderâofâteachingâEnglishâtensesâasâaâreferenceâpointâtoâbeâeitherâacceptedâorâchallengedâbyâpractitionersâandâresearchers.
Weâmustâ pointâ outâ thatâ suggestingâ anâ orderâ ofâ teachingâEnglishâtensesâdoesânotâmeanâ thatâweâregardâ languageâacquisitionâasâaâ linearâprocess.âRather,âwithâtheâproposedâlistâweâemphasizeâtheâneedâtoâfocusâonâwhatâisâimportantâinâclassâandâtoâadvocateâaâfunctionalâapproachâtoâteachingâgrammar.âSo,âforâexample,âifâaâtextbookâcoversâseveralâtensesâinâyearâ6,âtheâteacherâmightâconsultâtheâlistâofferedâhereâtoâseeâwhichâofâthoseâisâreallyâkeyâforâlearnersâofâtheâgivenâageâandâinâtheâgivenâcontext,âandâdecideâwhichâtenseâtoâfocusâon.
Soâfar,âresearchersâhaveânotâbeenâableâtoâscientificallyâpinpointâtheâageâofâtheâEFLâlearnerâwhenâaâcertainâgrammarâpointâcouldâorâshouldâbeâacquiredâ(thereâhaveâbeenâattempts,âe.g.âDulayâandâBurtâsâ1974âmor-phemeâorderâstudies).âThisâmightâevenâbeâimpossibleâsinceâlearnersâdif-ferâaccordingâtoâtheirâfirstâlanguages,âlearningâcontextâ(SLAâofâFLA),âteachingâhours,âandâotherâ individualâdifferencesâ(seeâDörnyei,â2005).âWeâknowâthatâaccordingâtoâProcessabilityâTheoryâ(Pienemann,â2007)âthereâisâaâhierarchyâthatâlearnersâfollowâinâlanguageâacquisitionâââtheyâcanâdealâonlyâwithâthoseâlinguisticâformsâthatâ theâlanguageâprocessorâcanâ handleâ atâ aâ certainâ stageâ ofâ development.âLightbownâ andâSpadaâ
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(2006,â160)âcallâitâtheââteachâwhatâisâteachableââposition.âWeâcanâfurtherârelateâtheâpositionâtoâDeKeyserâ(2005)âwhoârecognizesâthreeâfactorsâthatâdetermineâtheâlevelâofâdifficultyâofâaâgivenâgrammarârule:âcomplexityâofâform,âcomplexityâofâmeaning,âandâcomplexityâofâtheâformÂmeaningârelationship.âWeâshould,âofâcourse,âbearâinâmindâthatâwhatâgrammariansâandâresearchersâfindâcomplexâisânotânecessarilyâwhatâlearnersâperceiveâasâbeingâcomplex.âKrashenâ(2003),âforâexample,âbelievesâthatâ theâor-derâofâacquisitionâ inâL1â isânotâbasedâonâ theâsimpleâcomplexâdistinc-tion.âKrashenâdoes,âhowever,ârecognizeâthatâtheâorderâofâteachingâinâL2âdoesânotânecessarilyâreflectâtheâorderâofâacquisitionâinâL1.âLightbownâandâSpadaâ(2006,â177)âpointâoutâthatâthereâisâânoâstrongâevidenceâthatâteachingâaccordingâtoâtheâdevelopmentalâsequencesâisânecessaryâorâevenâdesirableâ,âbutâtheyâalsoânoteâthatâputtingâsequenceâintoâfocusâmayâhelpâteachersâsetârealisticâexpectations.âItâisâsafeâtoâsayâthatâwhatâisâstructur-allyâ simplerâ andâhasâ aâ clearerâ formÂmeaningâ relationshipâ isâ easierâ toâacquireâthanâsomethingâthatâisâtheâopposite,âatâleastâforâforeignâlanguageâlearners.âTakingâ anyâotherâ conclusionâ fromâpreviousâ researchâ onâ theâorderâofâacquisitionâasâtheâbasisâofâourâproposalâmightânotâbeâvalid,âes-peciallyâbecauseâweâareâunawareâthatâsuchâresearchâhasâbeenâcarriedâoutâinâtheâCroatianâcontext,âi.e.âwithâCroatianâasâaâfirstâlanguageâinâmind.âLightbownâandâSpadaâ(2006,â164)ârecognizeâtheâimportanceâofâtheâfirstâlanguageâ inâ theâmatterâandânoteâ thatâ theââtypeâofâ inputâandâ firstâ lan-guageâinfluenceâcanâinteractâwithâlearnersââdevelopmentalâreadinessâinâcomplexâwaysâ.âAlthoughâtheâgreatâYugoslavâSerboÂCroatianâââEnglishâcontrastiveâprojectâ(forâanâoverviewâseeâFilipoviÄ,â1975)âbroughtâforthâvariousâsuggestionsâ forâ teachingâ(i.e.ââpedagogicalâmaterialsâ),â itâdidânotâresultâinâaâsuggestedâorderâofâteachingâEnglishâtensesâtoâCroatianâspeakers.âSinceâweâcannotâbaseâourâchoiceâandâorderâofâtensesâonâre-searchâcarriedâoutâinâCroatia,âweâhaveâtoâlookâtoâtheâcurrentâcurricula,âtoâCroatianâandâEnglishâgrammars,âandâtoâtheâfindingsâofâcorpusÂbasedâre-searchâofâgrammarâuse.âAtâtheâsameâtime,âweâneedâtoâtakeâintoâaccountâtheâstatusâofâgrammarâ(andâgrammarâteaching)âinâtheâprevailingâcom-municativeâapproachâinâteachingâEnglish.âFinally,âweâareâalsoâguidedâinâourâreasoningâbyâourâbeliefâthatâgrammarâcontentâshouldâbeâreducedâinâprimaryâschool,âespeciallyâwhenâcomparedâtoâwhatâisâprescribedâinâtheâcurrentâcurriculaâandâwhatâisâpresentâinâtheâtextbooksâinâuseâinâCroatia.
Beforeâdiscussingâaâpossibleâorderâofâ teachingâ tenses,â inâ theâfol-lowingâpartâofâtheâpaper,âweâreviewâgrammarâteachingâfromâtheâmeth-odologicalâaspect,âandâweâtakeâaâbriefâlookâatâtheâcurrentâcurricula.
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1. Teaching grammar
GrammarâinâCroatianâschoolsâshouldâbeâtaught.âThisâconsensusâisâreflectedâinâtheâcurrentâprimaryâschoolâcurriculumâ(Nastavniplanipro-gramzaosnovnuĆĄkolu,â2006)âandâtheâsomewhatâoutdatedâsecondaryâschoolâcurriculaâ(Nastavniprogramizagimnazije,â1994;âOkvirninas-tavniprogramiopÄeobrazovnihpredmetausrednjimĆĄkolama,â1997).âTheânecessityâofâteachingâgrammarâisâreflectedâinâmanyâtheoreticalâandâpracticalâresourcesâregardingâEnglishâlanguageâteachingâmethodologyâ(e.g.â Cameron,â 2001;â Cowan,â 2008;â LarsenÂFreeman,â 2001;â Nunan,â1999;âPinter,â2006).âGivenâtheâfactâthatâourâstudentsâhaveâlimitedâtimeâtoâlearnâtheâlanguageâ(2âclassesâperâweekâfromâyearâ1âtoâyearâ4,â3âclassesâperâweekâfromâyearâ5âtoâyearâ8,âandâfromâ2âtoâ4âclassesâperâweekâinâsecondaryâschool),âitâwouldânotâbeâreasonableâtoâdisregardâgrammarâinâEnglishâclassesâ(Vilke,â2001).âHowever,âthatâdoesânotâmeanâthatâgram-marâshouldâbeâtaughtâinâsuchâaâwayâthatârequiresâstudentsâtoâmemorizeâandâreciteârules,âasâwasâdoneâinâtheâearlyâdaysâofâwidespreadâEnglishâlanguageâteaching,âespeciallyâduringâtheâyearsâofâtheâGrammarÂTrans-lationâMethodâ(SironiÄÂBonefaÄiÄ,â1999).âForâexample,âstudentsâtodayâshouldânotâbeâmadeâ toââknowââ thatâpresentâcontinuousâ isââformedâbyâusingâtheâPresentâTenseâIndefiniteâofâtheâverbâtobeâandâtheâPresentâPar-ticipleâofâtheâverbârequiredââ(FilipoviÄ,â1978,â90).âAsâWiddowsonâ(1991,â96)ânotes,ââtraditionalâteachingâhasâtendedâtoâdissociateâgrammarâfromâcontextâandâtoâdealâinâisolatedâsentencesâ.âWeânowâknowâthatâgrammarâshouldâ beâ taughtâ implicitly,â especiallyâ atâ theâ earlyâ stagesâ ofâ learningâ(Vilke,â1999),âandâthatâsomeâformâofâexplicitâlearningâcanâstartâtoâtakeâplaceâinâtheâyearâ4âorâyearâ5âofâprimaryâschoolsâ(withâ10ÂyearÂoldâorâ11ÂyearÂoldâstudents),âatâ leastâ inâtheâCroatianâcontext.âRegardlessâofâage,âgrammarâshouldâalwaysâbeâtaughtâinâcontext.âItâisâgrammarâthatârelatesâlanguageâtoâcontext,âandâtheâresultâofâthisâallianceâisâmeaning,âorâcom-municationâ(Widdowson,â1991).âVilkeâ(2001,â14)âproposesâsixâcondi-tionsâforâteachingâgrammarâtoâchildrenâupâtoâ11âyearsâofâage:â1)âthatâitâshouldâbeâtaughtâviaâfunctionalâcategories,â2)âthatâweâshouldâselectâwhichâcategoriesâtoâteach,â3)âthatâterminologyâshouldâbeâextremelyâlimited,â4)âthatâgrammaticalâmistakesâshouldâbeâtolerated,â5)âthatânativeâlanguageâshouldâbeâusedâasâanâasset,âandâ6)âthatâsocioculturalâcategoriesâshouldâbeâcontrasted.âToâclarifyâonâ1)âandâ2),âtheâfirstâconditionâmeansâthatâweâshouldâfocusâonâ theâmeaning,âandânotâ theâformâofâ theâgrammarâpointâ(Pinter,â2006),âandâtheâsecondâoneârefersâtoâtheâfactâthatânotâeverythingâ
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inâtermsâofâgrammarâcontentâisârelevantâforâyoungâchildren.âWeâhighlightâtheâformerâandâtheâlatterâasâtheâguidingâprinciplesâinâthisâpaper.
Inâtheâpastâ20âyears,âtheâissueâofâimplicitâvsâexplicitâteachingâhasâevolvedâ fromâ anâ eitherÂorâmatterâ toâ anâ attitudeâ thatâ bothâ approachesâareâneededâ forâ theâ successfulâ teachingâandâ learningâofâaâ foreignâ lan-guageâ(BagariÄ,â2003;âCowan,â2008).âWhereasâtheâGrammarÂTransla-tionâMethodâwasâallâ aboutâ explicitness,â andâ theâensuingâNaturalâAp-proachâmotivatedâbyâKrashenâsâideasâinâtheâ1980sâ(KrashenâandâTerrell,â1983)â wasâ allâ aboutâ implicitness,â todayâsâ takeâ onâ theâ matterâ leavesâroomâ forâ both.â Implicitâ teachingâ andâ learningâ developâ studentsââ lan-guageâawarenessâatâtheâlevelâofânoticing,âwhichâisâaâplatformâforâhigherâlevelsâofâawareness,âorâunderstandingâ(BagariÄ,â2003).âThisâapproach,âwhichâtakesâintoâaccountâtheâprogressionâfromâimplicitâtowardsâexplicitâteaching,â isâ reflectedâ inâ theâ currentâprimaryâ schoolâ curriculumâ (Nas-tavniplaniprogramzaosnovnuĆĄkolu,â2006).âBasedâonâherâresearchâofâCroatianâ studentsââ perceptionâofâ theâ complexityâofâ grammarâ rulesâinâEnglishâ(andâGerman),âBagariÄâ(2004)âconcludesâ thatâ implicitâandâexplicitâteachingâshouldâbeâcombinedâinâforeignâlanguageâclasses.âSheâhighlightsâtheâimportanceâofâdeterminingâwhichâgrammarârulesâareâsim-ple,âandâwhichâareâcomplex.âAsâaâsideânote,âweâwillâmentionâhereâthatâBagariÄâsâ(2004)âfindingsâindicateâthatâindirectâspeech,âpastâsimpleâinâcontrastâwithâpresentâperfect,âifÂclausesâandâpassiveâvoiceâareâatâtheâtopâofâtheâlistâofâcomplexâgrammarârulesâforâCroatianâstudentsâ(basedâonâtheâsampleâofâ135âsecondaryâschoolâstudentsâwithâ6âtoâ7âyearsâofâexperienceâofâlearningâEnglish).âBasedâonâseveralâstudiesâbyâdifferentâresearchers,âLightbownâandâSpadaâ(2006,â175)âconcludeâthatââformÂfocusedâinstruc-tionâandâcorrectiveâfeedbackâwithinâcommunicativeâandâcontentÂbasedâsecondâ andâ foreignâ languageâprogrammesâ canâhelpâ learnersâ improveâtheirâknowledgeâandâuseâofâparticularâgrammaticalâfeaturesâ.
SironiÄÂBonefaÄiÄâ(1999)âemphasizesâtheâimportanceâofâpedagogi-calâ grammarâ inâ formalâ learningâ contexts.âSuchâgrammarâ isâ basedâonâtheâpresentationâofâgrammarâitemsâthatâisâappropriateâtoâstudentsââageâandâcommunicativeâneeds.âIt,âofâcourse,âtakesâintoâaccountâtheânatureâofâlearningâatâschool,âtheânumberâofâteachingâhours,âlimitedâlanguageâcontact,âandâsoâon.âOneâofâitsâkeyâfeaturesâisârecycling,âwhichâweâfindâcrucialâinâteachingâgrammar.âTherefore,âaâtenseâmightâbeâimplicitlyâin-troducedâ inâoneâyear,âdealtâwithâmoreâexplicitlyâ inâanother,â andâ thenârecycledâ inâ theâ following,â expandingâ itsâ usesâ andâ contrastingâ itâwithâotherâtenses.âJarvisâandâPavlenkoâ(2008,â218)âpointâoutâtheâimportanceâ
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ofâcontinuousârecyclingâandâdistributedâlearningâandâcallâforâ teachersâandâtextbookâauthorsâtoâthinkâofâtheâwaysâtoââpresentâtheâsameâtopicsâseveralâtimes,âinâdifferentâformatâandâonâdifferentâlevels,âinâorderâtoâaidâdistributedâlearningâandâtoâofferâstudentsâmultipleâopportunitiesâtoâmas-terâconceptuallyâcomplexâissuesâ.âWeâbelieveâthatâtheâaboveÂmentionedâprinciplesâofâpedagogicalâgrammarâareâkeyâforâteachingâgrammar,âandâweâ hopeâ thatâ theâ suggestedâ orderâ ofâ teachingâEnglishâ tensesâwillâ beâinterpretedâwithâtheseâprinciplesâinâmind.
Finally,âwhatâshouldâbeâtakenâintoâaccountâwhenâdesigningâpeda-gogicalâgrammar,âthatâis,âwhenâplanningâwhatâgrammarâpointsâtoâteachâandâwhenâtoâteachâthem,âareâtheâfindingsâofâcorpusÂbasedâresearchâofâgrammarâuseâ(BiberâandâReppen,â2002).âForâteachersâandâtextbookâau-thors,â theâbestâsourceâofâsuchâ informationâupâ toâdateâ isâ theâLongmanGrammarofSpokenandWrittenEnglishâ(Biberâetal.,â2007)âthatâwasâfirstâpublishedâinâ1999.âAlthoughâitâisânotâtheâonlyâcorpusÂbasedâgram-marâ(seeâQuirkâetal.,â1985),â itâ isâ theâonlyâoneâ thatâoffersâ itsâ readersâinsightâintoâstatisticalâdataâregardingâtheâfrequencyâofâaâgivenâgrammarâpointâ(acrossâfourâregisters:âconversation,âfiction,ânewsâandâacademic).âForâtheâpurposeâofâthisâpaper,âitâisâinterestingâtoâobserveâdataâinâFigureâ1âonâtheâfrequencyâofâsimple,âperfectâandâprogressiveâaspectâinâtheâfourâregisters.âAsâcanâbeâseenâinâtheâbarâchartâbelow,âtheâsimpleâaspectâisâfarâmoreâfrequentâthanâtheâperfectâandâtheâprogressiveâaspect.âThisâshouldâcertainlyâbeâborneâinâmindâwhenâteachingâEnglish.
figure 1.â Frequencyâofâsimple,âperfectâandâprogressiveâaspectâinâfourâregistersâ â â â â â â â â â âperâmillionâwordsâ(basedâonâBiberâetal.,â1999,âFigureâ6.2)
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Weâ findâ anotherâ setâ ofâ interestingâdataâ inâKennedyâ (1998),âwhoâsummarizesâtheâresultsâofâcorpusâanalysisâofâEnglishâlanguageâuseâfromâthreeâresearchersâ(Tableâ1).âAsâcanâbeâseen,âpresentâsimpleâandâpastâsim-pleâtakeâupâfromâ70.9%âtoâ86.6%âofâfiniteâverbâforms,âdependingâonâtheâcorpus.âWhenâtheâdataâisâcombined,âtheâtwoâsimpleâtensesâareâfollowedâbyâpresentâperfect,âpresentâcontinuous,âpastâperfectâandâpastâcontinuous,âinâorderâofâfrequency.âAccordingâtoâKennedyâ(1998),âtheâresultsâofâtheseâmanualâanalysesâofârelativelyâsmallâcorporaâreceivedâsupportâfromâtheâcomputerâanalysisâofâtheâBrownCorpusâbyâFrancisâandâKuÄeraâ(1982).
Table 1. Relativeâfrequenciesâofâuseâofâfiniteâverbâforms â â â â â â â â â(basedâonâKennedy,â1998,âTableâ3.15)
Ota (1963) George (1963a) Joos (1964)
Verb forms
Spoken US
English (%)
Written US
English (%)
UK English plays (scripted
speech) (%)
Written UK English
(%)
Written UK English
(%)
Presentâsimple 64.4 26.4 67.6 38.4 39.6Pastâsimple 18.3 58.5 14.4 48.2 31.3Presentâperfect â 4.8 2.7 5.3 3.1 4.0Present continuous â 5.4 â 0.9 â 4.4 1.4 2.2
Pastâperfect â 0.4 â 3.4 â 0.9 4.1 2.0Pastâcontinuous â 0.9 â 1.1 â 0.4 1.4 2.2Presentâperfectâcontinuous â 0.5 â 0.1 â 0.6 0.1 0.2
Pastâperfectâcontinuous â 0.01 â 0.2 â 0.1 0.1
Allâotherâverbâforms 5.3 6.6 â 6.4 3.2 18.4
DataâshownâinâFigureâ1âandâTableâ1âhelpsâusâtoâputâthingsâintoâper-spectiveâwhenâitâcomesâtoâteachingâgrammarâââweâcanâseeâwhatâisâreallyâimportantâfromâaâcommunicativeâpointâofâview.âInâthisâwayâweâareâableâtoâfocusâonâteachingâourâprimaryâschoolâstudentsâtoâbecomeâproficientâinâusingâ theâmostâcommonâverbâ forms,â insteadâofâgoingâ forâquantityâandâ requiringâstudentsâ toâmasterâasâmanyâ tensesâasâpossible,âwithoutâ
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themâactuallyâbeingâaptâatâanyâofâthem.âHowever,âasâConradâ(2000,â556)âwarnsâus,ââ[f]requencyâdataâaloneâcannotâdictateâpedagogy.â
2. Grammar in the current curricula
WhatâgrammarâcontentâshouldâbeâtaughtâinâCroatianâprimaryâandâsecondaryâ schoolsâ accordingâ toâ theâ currentâ curricula?âTableâ2â showsâtheâyearâofâprimaryâandâsecondaryâschoolâinâwhichâanâitemâofâgrammarâisâintroducedâasâaâlearningâgoalâatâtheâlevelâofâuse.âItâshouldâbeânotedâthatâthereâareâotherâgrammarâpoints,âsuchâasâadverbs,âwordâorder,âetc.,âlistedâinâtheâcurricula,âbutâweâhaveânotâincludedâallâofâthemâinâtheâtable.âWeâdid,âhowever,â includeâsomeâotherâcomplexâgrammarâpoints,â suchâasâpassiveâvoice,âconditional,âetc.â toâindicateâtheâvolumeâofâgrammarâcontentâandâprogression.âItâshouldâalsoâbeânotedâthatâtheâitemsâofâgram-marâlistedâinâtheâtableâappearâsometimesâyearâafterâyearâinâtheâcurriculaâbecauseâtheyâareâsometimesâfirstâintroducedâatâtheâlevelâofârecognition,âthenâuse,âandâthenâtheyâareârecycledâandâcontrasted.âHere,âweâhaveâcho-senâtoâshowâonlyâwhenâtheyâareârequiredâforâtheâfirstâtimeâatthelevelofuse.âTheâcurriculumâforâprimaryâschoolâ(NastavniplaniprogramzaosnovnuĆĄkolu,â2006)ârefersâtoâstudentsâlearningâEnglishâfromâyearâ1,âasâthisâisâtheâmostâcommonâcaseâ(DrĆŸavniâzavodâzaâstatistikuâRepublikeâHrvatske,â2015).âTheâreasonâwhyâTableâ2âstartsâwithâyearâ5âisâthatâtheâcurriculumâstatesâthatâitâisâthenâthatâtheâteachingâofâgrammarâstartsâtoâbeâexplicit.âTheâcurriculaâforâtheâsecondaryâschoolâ(Nastavniprogramizagimnazije,â1994;âOkvirninastavniprogramiopÄeobrazovnihpredmetausrednjimĆĄkolama,â1997)âoriginallyâreferredâtoâstudentsâinâtheirâ5thâorâ6thâyearâofâlearningâEnglishâ(whenâstartingâsecondaryâschool),âasâtheseâdocumentsâhadâbeenâcreatedâbeforeâtheâintroductionâofâmandatoryâfor-eignâlanguageâlearningâfromâyearâ1âofâprimaryâschoolâinâ2003â(BuljanâCulej,â2012).âHowever,âsinceâtheâcurriculaâareâstillâused,âtheyâactuallyâapplyâ toâstudentsâ inâ theirâ6thâorâ9thâyearâofâ learningâEnglish.âClearly,âthereâisânotâaâuniqueâsecondaryâschoolâcurriculum,âsoâweâincludedâtheâcurriculumâforâtheâ4Âyearâgeneralâprogrammeâ(Croatian:âgimnazija)âandâ4Âyearâandâ3Âyearâvocationalâprogrammeâ(Croatian:âstrukovnaĆĄkola).âTheâreasonâwhyâweâincludedâsecondaryâschoolâcurriculaâinâthisâpaper,âwhichâdealsâwithâprimaryâ school,â isâbecauseâweâwantedâ toâ showâ theâextentâandâprogressionâofâgrammarâcontentâtaughtâtoâCroatianâstudentsâfromâyearâ1âofâprimaryâschoolâtoâyearâ3âorâ4âofâsecondaryâschool.
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Table 2.â Selectedâgrammarâcontentâinâcurrentâprimaryâandâsecondary â â â â â â â â âschoolâcurricula
level year grammar
primary
5ââpresentâsimpleââpresentâcontinuousââpastâsimpleâ(limitedâtoââaâfewâmostâfrequentâverbsâ,âp.â92)
6ââbeâgoingâtoââfutureâsimpleââpastâsimple
7ââpresentâcontinuousâforâfutureâeventsââpastâcontinuousââpresentâperfect
8 ââpassiveâvoiceâwithâpresentâsimple,âfutureâsimple,âpastâsimple
level year 4-yeargeneralprogram
4-yearvocationalprogram
3-yearvocationalprogram
secondary
1
ââpresentâperfectâ â ââcontinuousââconditionalâ1,â2âârelativeâclauses
ââpresentâperfectâ â ââcontinuous
2ââfutureâperfectâ â ââsimpleââsubjunctive
ââfutureâperfectâ â ââsimple
ââpresentâperfectâ â ââcontinuous
3 ââconditionalâ3 ââconditionalâ1,â2 ââconditionalâ1,â2
4ââcausativeâhave ââconditionalâ3
âârelativeâclausesââcausativeâhave
notâapplicable
Afterâ aâ shortâ reviewâ ofâ theâ principlesâ ofâ teachingâ grammarâ andâaâ lookâatâ theâcurrentâcurricula,â inâ theâ followingâpartâofâ theâpaperâweâdiscussâaâpossibleâorderâofâteachingâEnglishâtensesâinâCroatianâprimaryâschools.âOurâchoiceâandâorderâofâtensesâisâbasedâonâtheâfollowingâten-ets:âa)ânotâeveryâgrammarâpointâisâ(equally)ârelevantâforâprimaryâschoolâlearners,âb)âlearnerâsâcommunicativeâneedsâareâimportant,âandâc)âsimpleâstructuresâshouldâbeâtaughtâbeforeâcomplexâstructures.âToâclarifyâonâtheâlatter:âweâdoânotâbelieveâ thatâexposingâlearnersâ toâaâvarietyâofâ tensesâthroughoutâaâyearâisâanâissue;âhowever,âweâwouldâargueâthatâtheâteach-ingâofâtensesâ(inâaâmoreâformalâway)âshouldâbeâbasedâonâtheâprogressionâ
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fromâsimplerâtowardsâmoreâcomplexâstructures.âLetâusâthenâlookâatâtheâproposedâprogression.
3. What, when, and why
Atâ theâbeginningâofâ thisâpartâofâ theâpaper,âweâmustânoteâ thatâal-thoughâweâacknowledgeâtheâdifferenceâbetweenâtenseâandâaspect,âandâweâpointâtoâitâatâtimesâinâtheâdescriptionâofâtheâtenses/aspects,âweâuseââtenseââthroughoutâthisâpaperâtoâcoverâbothâcategories.
Weâknowâthatâteachingâaâforeignâlanguageâtoâyoungâlearnersâshouldâstartâwithâ theirâ immediateâ surroundingsâ andâ theâ presentâmomentâ be-causeâ ofâ theirâ cognitiveâ abilitiesâ andâ attentionâ spanâ (Patekar,â 2014).âThatâmeansâitâmakesâmoreâsenseâtoâstartâlearningâaâpresentâtenseâbeforeâaâ pastâ tenseâ orâ aâwayâofâ expressingâ future.âTheâmostâ commonâ tenseâisâpresentâ simpleâ (GaÄiÄ,â 2009).âPresent simpleâ orâ simpleâpresentâ is,âclearly,âaâpresentâtense.âMostâoften,âweâuseâitâtoââtalkâaboutâpermanentâsituations,âorâaboutâthingsâthatâhappenâregularlyâorâallâtheâtimeââ(Swan,â2005,â448).âWeâcanâalsoâuseâitâtoâtalkâaboutâtheâfutureâ(e.g.âTheâplaneâar-rivesat3.00pm.).âItâcanâalsoâreferâtoâpastâeventsâwhenâusedâasâhistoricâpresentâ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010),âespeciallyâinâstorytellingâ(e.g.âOnChristmasEve,hedecidestogodownstairs,andhesneaksrightpasthis parentsâŠ),â orâ newsâ headlines.âHowever,âwhenâweâ startâ teachingâitâ inâ theâ lowerâyears,â theâ focusâ isâ alwaysâonâpermanentâ situationsâorâthingsâthatâhappenâregularly.âToâexpressâthisâmeaningâinâCroatian,âweâuseâprezentâ (present),âwhichâ canâ alsoâ expressâ pastâ andâ futureâ eventsâ(SiliÄâ andâ PranjkoviÄ,â 2007).â But,âweâ alsoâ useâ prezentâ toâ talkâ aboutâsomethingâhappeningârightânowâ(SiliÄâandâPranjkoviÄ,â2007),âwhichâisâcoveredâinâEnglishâbyâanotherâpresentâ tenseâââpresentcontinuousâ (orâpresentâprogressive).âTheâlatterâisâusedâtoâtalkâaboutââtemporaryâactionsâandâsituationsâ thatâareâgoingâonânowâorâ âaroundânowâââ(Swan,â2005,â451).âPresentâcontinuousâcanâalsoâbeâusedâtoâtalkâaboutârepeatedâeventsâ(e.g.âIâmdoingawholelotofcleaningthesedays.),âdevelopmentsâandâchangesâ(e.g.âHeâsgettingcockiereveryday.),âinâstorytelling,âandâforâfutureâevents.âAgain,âwhenâ firstâ taughtâexplicitlyâ toâ students,â itâ isâ itsâ
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functionâforâtalkingâaboutâtheâmomentâthatâisâemphasized.âToâhelpâstu-dentsâdifferentiateâbetweenâtheâtwoâtenses,âwhenâtheyâareâcontrastedâaf-terâtheyâhadâbeenâtaught,âteachersâusuallyâtryâtoâdrawâstudentsââattentionâtoâtimeâadjuncts.âForâexample,âpresentâsimpleâisâusedâwithâeveryday, onFridays, insummer, onweekends, usually, rarely,âetc.,âandâpresentâcontinuousâ isâusedâwithânowâ andâat themoment.âSometimes,â timeâ isânotâindicated,âbutâimpliedâ(e.g.âLook!Thebusiscoming!),âsoâteachersâneedâtoâdrawâstudentsââattentionâtoâtheâ(actualâorâpossible)âcontextâofâtheâsentence.
Theâquestionâis,âwhichâofâtheâtwoâtensesâshouldâchildrenâstartâlearn-ingâfirst?âNeedlessâtoâsay,âchildrenâwillâbeâexposedâtoâbothâofâthemâfromâyearâ1.âYoungâlearnersâfirstâlearnâaboutâtheirâclassroom,âtoys,âpets,âfam-ily,âfood,âhome,âandâsoâon.âTheyâalsoâpickâupâclassroomâlanguageâsuchâasâlisten,openthebook, cleantheboard, showmethenotebook,âandâtheseâinstructionsâareâformedâinâimperative.âTheyâuseâpresentâsimple,âbutâmostlyâofâtheâverbâbe,âforâexample,âwhenâtheyâintroduceâthemselvesâorâsomeoneâ(e.g.âMynameisLuka.Thisismysister.)âorâtalkâaboutâwhatâtheirâfavouriteâcolourâis.âTheyâalsoâuseâtheâpresentâsimpleâformâofâtheâverbsâhaveâ andâ like,âwhichâareâ tiedâ toâ theirâ immediateâworldâofâpos-sessionâandâattitude.âOnâtheâotherâhand,âtheyâuseâpresentâcontinuousâtoâdescribeâwhatâsomeoneâisâdoing,âforâexample,âwhenâplayingâmimeâ(e.g.âSheisjumping!Heisridingabike!)âorâdescribingâaâpictureâinâaâbook.âTheyâalsoâuseâpresentâcontinuousâ toâdescribeâwhatâsomeoneâ isâwear-ing.âContent,âthen,âdoesânotâleaveâusâwithâanâunequivocalâanswerâtoâtheâquestionâofâwhichâofâtheâtwoâtensesâtoâteachâfirst.
Ifâweâ lookâ atâ theâmorphologicalâ andâ structuralâ variabilityâ ofâ theâtwoâtensesâinâTableâ3,âitâisâdifficultâtoâsayâatâfirstâhandâwhichâofâtheâtwoâisââsimplerâ.âForâexample,âwhenâusingâpresentâsimple,âstudentsâshouldâpayâattentionâtoâ3rdâpersonâsingularâinâaffirmative,ânegative,âandâinter-rogativeâsentences.âOnâtheâotherâhand,âwhenâusingâpresentâcontinuous,âstudentsâneedâtoâtakeânoteâofâtheâauxiliaryâverbâbeâinâitsâthreeâformsâthatâvaryâaccordingâtoâpersonâandânumberâ(am, are, is).âSomeâvariationsâareâonlyâimportantâinâwriting,âsuchâasâaddingâeâtoâwordsâendingâinââchâorââshâinâpresentâsimpleâ(e.g.âwatches, brushes),âorâdroppingâeâinâpresentâcontinuousâ(e.g.âsmileâââsmiling, leaveâââleaving).
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Table 3.â Comparisonâofâtheâmorphologicalâandâstructuralâvariabilityâofâpresentâ â â â â â â â â âsimpleâandâpresentâcontinuous
present simple present continuous
affirmative
ââeatââeatsâ(addingâsâinâ3rdâpersonâsingular)ââwatchesâ(addingâe)ââcriesâ(changingây to iâandâaddingâe)
ââamâeatingââareâeatingââisâeatingâârunningâ(doublingâtheâ â ââconsonant)ââsmilingâ(droppingâe)
negativeââdoânotâ(donât)âeatââdoesânotâ(doesnât)âeatâ(droppingâs)
ââamânotâ(Iâmânot)âeatingââisânotâ(isnât)âeatingââareânotâ(arenât)âeating
interrogativeââDoâŠ?ââDoesâŠ?
ââAmâŠ?ââAreâŠ?ââIsâŠ?
Whenâitâcomesâtoâquestions,âinâpresentâcontinuousâstudentsâcanâworkâwithâwhatâtheyâhaveâinâtheâaffirmativeâsentenceâbyâreorderingâwordsâtoâformâtheâinterrogative.âThisâisânotâtheâcaseâinâpresentâsimpleâwhereâstu-dentsâareârequiredâtoâuseâtheâauxiliaryâdoâinâoneâofâitsâtwoâformsâ(doâandâdoes).âInâaddition,âstudentsâneedâtoârememberâthatâtheâmainâverbâinâtheâinterrogativeâorânegativeâformâinâtheâ3rdâpersonâsingularâdoesânotâhaveâanââs.âInâCroatianâpresentâtense,âwhichâweâsaidâcoversâtheâmeaningsâofâbothâpresentâsimpleâandâpresentâcontinuous,âitâisâpossibleâtoâmakeâquestionsâinâtwoâways.âAsâweâcanâseeâinâTableâ4,âtheâcommon,âbutânonstandardâwayâtoâmakeâaâquestionâisâtoâuseâtwoâauxiliaryâparticlesâdaâandâliâinâfrontâofâtheâSVOâstructureâthatâremainsâintact,âjustâasâinâEnglish.âThisâisâfrownedâuponâbyâ proofÂreadersâ andâ prescriptiveâ linguistsâ (seeâ FranÄiÄ,â HudeÄekâ andâMihaljeviÄ,â2006)âwhoâoptâforâtheâmoreâformalâwayâofâusingâliâbetweenâtheâverbâandâtheâsubject.âTheânonÂstandardâinterrogativeâformâinâCroatianâisâthusâstructurallyâsimilarâtoâbothâpresentâsimpleâandâpresentâcontinuous.
Table 4.â FormingâquestionsâinâCroatianâpresentâtenseâandâinâpresentâsimple â â â â â â â â âandâpresentâcontinuous
affirmative interrogativeFilipâigraânogomet. DaliâFilipâigraânogomet?â
(nonstandard,âbutâcommon)IgraâliâFilipânogomet?(standard)
Phillipâplaysâfootball. DoesâPhillipâplayâfootball? âPhillipâisâplayingâfootball.
IsâPhillipâplayingâfootball? â
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Soâfar,âitâseemsâthatâcomparingâtheâtwoâEnglishâtensesâtoâeachâotherâandâtoâtheâCroatianâpresentâtenseâdoesânotâprovideâanâeasyâanswerâtoâtheâquestionâofâwhichâtenseâtoâstartâteachingâfirst.âWhatâmightâhelpâisâtoâlookâatâtheâgrammaticalâcategoryâofânumber.âChildrenâstartâbyâtalk-ingâaboutâthemselvesâ(1stâpersonâsingular)âandâthenâtalkâaboutâtheâotherâperson,âanimal,âorâthingâ(3rdâpersonâsingular).âAfterâthat,âtheyâuseâpluralâtoâ referâ toâ themselvesâasâpartâofâaâgroupâ (we)âandâ thenâ toâ talkâaboutâotherâgroupsâ(you, they).âByâtheâtimeâchildrenâreachâyearâ4,âtheyâcanâdif-ferentiateâamongâI, you, he, she, it, weâandâthey,âbutâthisâdoesânotâmeanâtheyâdoânotâhaveâproblemsâusingâpronouns.âForâthatâreason,âitâmayâmakeâsenseâ toâstartâwithâ theâ tenseâwithâ lessâvariabilityâ inâ termsâofânumber,âandâthatâisâââpresentâsimple.âInâpresentâsimple,âlearnersâneedâtoâpayâat-tentionâonlyâtoâthirdâpersonâsingular.âInâyearâ4âtheâsystemâofâpronounsâwillâ settleâ in,â studentsâwillâ learnâhowâ toâuseâpresentâ simple,âandâ thisâwillâopenâtheâdoorsâtoâteachingâpresentâcontinuousâinâyearâ5.âInâaddi-tion,âwhenâusingâpresentâsimple,âstudentsâneedâtoââaddââonlyâoneâthingâtoâtheâverb,âandâthatâisââsâinâ3rdâpersonâsingular.âInâpresentâcontinuous,âtheyââaddââauxiliaryâverbsâinâthreeâdifferentâformsâinâfrontâofâtheâverb,âandââingtoâtheâverb.âTheâdecisionâtoâstartâwithâpresentâsimpleâinsteadâofâpresentâcontinuousâisâalsoâsupportedâbyâtheâfindingsâofâcorpusâresearchâthatâclearlyâshowâthatâtheâsimpleâaspectâisâfarâmoreâfrequentâthanâtheâprogressiveâaspectâ(seeâFigureâ1âandâTableâ1).âIfâweâbelieveâthatâwhatâisâstructurallyâsimplerâisâeasierâtoâlearn,âthenâteachersâshouldâstartâteach-ingâpresentâsimpleâinâyearâ4âandâmoveâtoâpresentâcontinuousâinâyearâ5,âwhenâtheyâshouldâalsoâcontrastâtheâtwoâtensesâinâtermsâofâtheirâuse,âafterâpresentâcontinuousâhasâsettledâin.
Whatâtenseâshouldâbeâtaughtâinâyearâ6?âHavingâspentâtwoâyearsâex-ploringâtwoâpresentâtenses,âweâbelieveâthatâinâyearâ6âstudentsâareâreadyâtoâmoveâtoâpastâsimpleâââandâfutureâsimple.âChildrenâsâcognitiveâabili-tiesâatâtheâageâofâ11âorâ12âcertainlyâallowâthemâtoâtalkâaboutâpastâevents,âsuchâasâwhatâtheyâdidâlastâweekend,âorâtoâthinkâaboutâwhatâtheyâwillâdoâinâtheânearâfuture.âLearningâtoâtalkâaboutâtheâpastâandâtheâfutureâcertain-lyâincreasesâstudentsââabilitiesâtoâexpressâthemselvesâinâaâforeignâlan-guage.âPastsimpleâisâaâversatile,âbutâsimpleâtense.âItâisâusedââforâmanyâkindsâofâ pastâ events:â short,â quicklyâ finishedâ actionsâ andâhappenings,âlongerâsituations,âandârepeatedâeventsââ(Swan,â2005,â394).âItsâreferenceâtoâdefiniteâpastâtimeâisâcommonlyâindicatedâbyââdefiniteâtimeâadjunctsâandâdefiniteâtimeâadverbialâclausesââ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010,â609),âsuchâasâyesterday, lastweekend, fiveminutesago,whenwewereyoung,
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etc.âThereâareâcasesâwhenâdefiniteâpastâtimeâisâsimplyâimpliedâbyâtheâcontext,âsuchâasâsharedâknowledgeâ(e.g.âFridaKahlopainted55self-portraits.).âPastâ simpleâcorrespondsâ toâ theâCroatianâperfektâ (perfect),âtheâmostâcommonâofâtheâfourâpastâtensesâ(SiliÄâandâPranjkoviÄ,â2007).âInâ contrastâ toâEnglishâpastâ simple,âperfektâ requiresâ anâ auxiliaryâverbâbeâ (inâ itsâpresentâ form).âUnlikeâ theâpresentâ tensesâmentionedâbefore,âpastâsimpleâdoesânotâshowâvariabilityâaccordingâtoânumberâorâperson.âItâdoes,âhowever,ârequireâstudentsâtoâpayâattentionâwhenâwriting,âinâcasesâsuchâasâstoppedâorâcried,âwhereâcertainâchangesâneedâtoâbeâmadeâpriorâtoâaddingââed.âAnotherâthingâstudentsâneedâtoâbeâcarefulâaboutâareâir-regularâverbsâthatâhaveâtheirâownâpastâforms,âsuchâasâbuyâbought,flyâflew,understandâunderstood,âetc.âFinally,âwhenâmakingâquestionsâorânegativeâsentences,âstudentsâhaveâoneâformâofâtheâauxiliaryâtoâworkâwithâââdidâââandâ theyâneedâ toâ rememberâ toââputââ theâverbâbackâ intoâtheâpresentâtense.âOverall,âthereâareâfewerâthingsâtoâworryâaboutâthanâwhenâusingâpresentâsimpleâorâcontinuous.âForâthatâreason,âandâbecauseâofâ theirâmoreâdevelopedâcognitiveâabilities,âweâ findâ itâ reasonableâ forâstudentsâtoâexploreâanotherâtenseâinâyearâ6.âWeâbelieveâthatâshouldâbeâfutureâtense.
Futuretenseâisânotâactuallyâaâtenseâperâseâasâthereâareânoâinflectionsâtoâ expressâ futureâ timeâ (Carterâ andâMcCarthy,â 2010;âGreenbaumâ andâQuirk,â1998).âInstead,âweâuseâmodalâauxiliariesâwillâandâshallâtogetherâwithâ theâ infinitiveâ toâ âgiveâ informationâ aboutâ theâ futureââ orâ toâ âtalkâaboutâpossibleâfutureâeventsâwhichâareânotâalreadyâdecidedâorâobviouslyâonâtheâwayââ(Swan,â2005,â186)â(e.g.âIâllhaveababytigeroneday.).âItâshouldâbeânotedâthatâshallâisâunusualâinâAmericanâEnglishââinâmostâsituationsââ(Swan,â2005,â187).âUsingâwillâisâcertainlyâtheâmostâcommonâwayâtoâexpressâfuture,â inâcontrastânotâonlyâtoâshallâbutâtoâotherâwaysâofâexpressingâfutureâasâwellâ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010;âGaÄiÄ,â2009;âGreenbaumâandâQuirk,â1998).âInâCroatian,âweâuseâeitherâfuturprviâ(fu-tureâfirst)âorâfuturdrugiâ(futureâsecond)âtoâexpressâfutureâtime,âbutâitâisâtheâformerâthatâweâcanârelateâtoâtheâmeaningâofâtheâEnglishâfutureâtense.âTheâstructureâofâCroatianâfutureâtenseâisâsimilarâtoâtheâEnglishâstructureâasâit,âtoo,ârequiresâanâauxiliaryâverbâwithâtheâinfinitive.âThisâsimilarity,âhowever,âisâsuperficialâbecauseâtheâratherâfreeâwordâorderâinâCroatianâallowsâ forâ theâ auxiliaryâ toâ comeâ afterâ theâ verb,âwhichâ isâ clearlyâ notâtheâcaseâinâEnglishâ(Patekar,â2013).âNonetheless,âthatâshouldânotâbeâaâproblemâforâCroatianâlearnersâsinceâfutureâtenseâisâstructurallyâsimple.âObviously,âfutureâtenseâdoesânotâshowâanyâvariabilityâonâtheâmainâverb,â
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andâtheâauxiliaryâonlyâchangesâinâBritishâEnglishâfromâwill to shallâinâ1stâpersonâsingularâandâplural.âMakingânegativeâsentencesâorâquestionsâisâequallyâsimple.âForâthatâreason,âweâbelieveâitâwouldânotâbeâtooâtax-ingâ forâ theâ studentsâ toâ learnâ aboutâ anotherâwayâ toâ talkâ aboutâ future,âespeciallyâwhenâtheyâneedâtoâexpressâconcreteâplansâââbyâusingâbeâgo-ingâto.âTheâstructureâbegoingtoâ+âinfinitiveâisâactuallyâaâpresentâtenseâ(Swan,â2005).âItâisâusedâwhenâweâwantâtoâtalkâaboutââfutureâactionsâandâeventsâthatâhaveâsomeâpresentrealityââ(Swan,â2005,â188,âemphasisâinâoriginal).âThisâmeansâthatâwhatâweâareâtalkingâaboutâhasâalreadyâbeenâdecided,âitâisâstartingâtoâhappen,âorâweâcanâseeâitâcomingâ(e.g.âWearegoingtovisitthezooonSaturday.).âTheâstructureâbeâgoingâtoâisâveryâcommonâinâspokenâandâinformalâcontextsâ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010;âSwan,â2005).âTheâstructureârequiresâstudentsâtoâbeâwellâacquaintedâwithâpresentâcontinuousâinâtermsâofâvariabilityâofâtheâauxiliaryâverbâbeâandâwithâtheâwaysâofâformingânegativeâsentencesâandâquestions.âThisâcouldâmakeâitâmoreâdemandingâforâstudentsâtoâuseâitâproperly.âAnotherâreasonâisâthatâinâCroatianâtheâdifferenceâbetweenâtheâtwoâfutureâtensesâisânotâbasedâonâtheâissueâofâcertaintyâorâevidenceâtoâwhetherâsomethingâwillâhappenâorâisâgoingâtoâhappen,âbutâonâtheâissueâofâabsoluteâandârelativeâfutureâ (SiliÄâ andâ PranjkoviÄ,â 2007).âWeâ believeâ thatâ teachersâ shouldâthereforeânotâinsistâonâzealouslyâcontrastingâwillâandâbeâgoingâto,âespe-ciallyâasâthereâareâcasesâwhereâbothâareâequallyâacceptableâ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010).
Althoughâtheâprogressionâfromâpresentâsimpleâtoâpresentâcontinuousâmightâinvokeâtheâintroductionâofâpastâcontinuousâafterâpastâsimple,âweâbelieveâthatâshouldânotâbeâtheâcase.âInâyearâ7,âstudentsâshouldâturnâtheirâattentionâtoâpresentâperfectâsimple.âWeâcanâfindâsupportâforâthisâchoiceâinâtheâworkâofâMirjanaâVilkeâ(2000).âPresentperfectsimpleâisâprimarilyâusedâwhenâweâwantâtoâsayâthatââaâfinishedâactionâorâeventâisâconnect-edâwithâtheâpresentâinâsomeâwayââ(Swan,â2005,â438)â(e.g.âIâvealwayscaredforyoudeeply.).âItâisâalsoâusedâwhenâannouncingânewsâregardingârecentâeventsâ(e.g.âTheleadershavedecidedtocalloffthesummit.),âorâwhenâreferringâtoâeventsâthatâoccurârepeatedlyâ(e.g.âShehasinfluencedmanyyoungresearchers.).âInâAmericanâEnglish,ârecentâeventsâareâusu-allyâreportedâinâpastâsimpleâ(GreenbaumâandâQuirk,â1998)â(e.g.âWejustwonatriptoNewYork!).âPresentâperfectâseemsâtoâbeâquiteâaâchallengeâtoâCroatianâspeakersâofâEnglishâ(ĆœicâFuchs,â2009).âThisâisâbecauseâtheâCroatianâlanguageâdoesânotâofferâanâentirelyâcorrespondingâwayâofâcon-nectingâaâpastâeventâtoâtheâpresent,âorârather,âdoesânotâfindâsuchâaâcon-
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nectionârelevant.âNevertheless,âitsâcommunicativeâpotentialâtoâconveyâinformationâaboutâoneâsâexperienceâthatâisâstillârelevantâatâtheâmomentâofâspeakingâisâwhatâencouragesâusâtoâsuggestâteachersâandâstudentsâtoâfocusâonâpresentâperfectâsimpleâ inâyearâ7.âByâlearningâ toâuseâpresentâperfect,âstudentsâareâableâtoâtalkâabout,âforâexample,âhowâmanyâcoun-triesâtheyâhaveâvisited,âaskâsomeoneâifâtheyâhaveâeverâdancedâinâtheârain,âtalkâaboutâthingsâtheyâhaveâneverâdone,âandâsoâon.âThisâaspectârequiresâthemâtoâlearnâtheâpastâparticipleâformâofâirregularâverbs,âbutâotherâthanâthat,âpresentâperfectâisânotâstructurallyâchallenging,âespeciallyâsinceâtheânegativeâandâinterrogativeâformsâdoânotârequireâanyâchangesâtoâtheâverb.âToâmakeâquestionsâandânegativeâsentences,âstudentsâjustâneedâtoâlearnâtoârearrangeâtheâorderâofâwordsâorâinsertânot.âTheâbiggestâchallengeâis,âofâcourse,âconceptual.âPresentâperfectâcanâperhapsâbestâbeâcontrastedâwithâpastâsimpleâbyâfocusingâonâtimeâadjuncts,âwhetherâindicatedâ(e.g.âsince, for, so far, recently, in my life, to date, uptillnowâwithâpresentâperfect,âyesterday, lastweek, twomonthsago, onMonday, theotherdayâwithâpastâsimple)âorâimplied.âWeâshould,âhowever,âbearâinâmindâthatâsomeâtimeâadjuncts,âsuchâasâalready, once, this morning, before, recently, to-dayâcanâbeâusedâwithâbothâtensesâ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010).
Upâtoâ thisâpoint,âstudentsâhaveâmasteredâtwoâpresentâ tenses,â twoâwaysâofâexpressingâtheâfuture,âandâtwoâpastâtenses.â(Consideringâthatâinâthisâpaperâweâexploreâtheâteachingâofâtensesâinâprimaryâschool,âweâcategorisedâpresentâperfectâasâaâpastâtense;âweâare,âhowever,âwellâawareâthatâpresentâperfectâisânotâaâtense,âletâaloneâpurelyâaâpastâone.)âByâyearâ8,âstudentsâhaveâbecomeâwellâversedâinâpresentâcontinuousâandâpastâsim-pleâandâareâthereforeâreadyâtoâfocusâonâpastâcontinuous.âPastcontinuous (orâpastâprogressive)âisâusedâwhenâweâwantâtoâsayâthatââsomethingâwasâinâprogressâ(goingâon)âaroundâaâparticularâpastâtimeââ(Swan,â2005,â422)â(e.g.âYesterdayat5oâclockIwasworkingoutinthelivingroom.).âPastâcontinuousâisâoftenâusedâwithâpastâsimple.âInâsuchâcases,âpastâcontinu-ousârefersâtoâaâlongerâaction,âandâpastâsimpleâtoâaâshorterâactionâorâeventâthatâinterruptsâitâorâhappensâinâtheâmiddleâofâtheâformerâ(e.g.âHewaspettingthedogwhenthecatscratchedhim.).âSinceâbothâpastâsimpleâandâpastâcontinuousâreferâtoâfinishedâpastâevents,âtheâmainâdifferenceâtoâbeâhighlightedâisâthatâpastâcontinuousââsuggestsâthatâtheâeventsâmayâbeâseenâmoreâasâbackgroundâorâofâsecondaryâimportance,âorâtheirâtem-poraryânatureâmayâbeâmoreâemphasisedââ(CarterâandâMcCarthy,â2010,â612).âInâCroatian,âperfektâisâusedâtoâexpressâtheâmeaningsâofâpastâsimpleâandâpastâcontinuous.âTheâonlyâdifferenceâisâthatâforâpastâsimple,âweâuseâ
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theâperfectiveâaspectâofâtheâverbâinâperfekt(e.g.âtheywavedâââCro.âmah-nuliâsu),âandâtheâimperfectiveâaspectâforâpastâcontinuousâ(e.g.âtheywerewavingââCro.âmahalisu).âThisâperhapsâmakesâitâeasierâforâtheâteacherâtoâexplainâtheâdifferenceâbetweenâtheâtwo,âasâCroatianâlearnersâcertainlyâhaveâtheâconceptâofâtwoââkindsââofâpastâââoneâforâeventsâthatâoccurred,âandâoneâforâactionsâthatâlastedâforâsomeâtime.âNevertheless,âweâbelieveâthatâpastâcontinuousâmightâbeâ theâmostâstructurallyâchallengingâ tenseâtoâprimaryâschoolâstudents,âandâperhapsâtheâleastâneededâforâtheirâcom-municativeâneeds.
Withâ pastâ continuousâ weâ roundâ upâ ourâ suggestionâ ofâ theâ orderâofâ teachingâEnglishâtensesâfromâyearâ4âtoâyearâ8âinâCroatianâprimaryâschools.âTableâ5âbelowâgivesâaâclearâoverviewâofâtheâsuggestedâorder.
Table 5.âSuggestedâorderâofâteachingâEnglishâtenses
level year tense
primary
4 ââpresentâsimple5 ââpresentâcontinuous
6 ââpastâsimpleââwill/beâgoingâto
7 ââpresentâperfect8 ââpastâcontinuous
Conclusion
Ifâtheâtableâaboveâseemsâscant,âweâshouldânotâforgetâthatâthereâisâmoreâgrammarâcontentâthatâstudentsâareârequiredâtoâlearn,âbutâthatâweâhaveânotâmentionedâinâthisâpaperâdueâtoâitsâscope.âTheâpurposeâofâtheâlistâofâsuggestedâtensesâisâtoâencourageâteachersâandâtextbookâauthorsâtoâavoidâfocusingâonâseveralâtensesâaâyear,âoverburdeningâinâthatâwayâstu-dentsâwhoâalsoâneedâtoâacquireâadditionalâgrammarâcontentâsuchâasâar-ticles,âadverbs,âpronouns,âpassiveâvoice,âconditionalâsentences,ârelativeâclauses,âgerund,âetc.âWeâbelieveâthatâeachâyearâteachersâshouldâfocusâonâoneâtenseâandâselectedâgrammarâcontent,âandâthenâinâtheâfollowingâyearsârecycleâ thatâ tenseâ throughâ useâ inâ differentâ contextsâ andâ forâ differentâpurposesâ(whenâpossible).âThisâdoesânotâmeanâthatâstudentsâshouldânotâbeâexposedâtoâseveralâtensesâatâonce.âOnâtheâcontrary,âteachingâmaterialsâ
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shouldâreflectâtheâlanguageâofâtheârealâworldâasâmuchâasâpossible,âandâsuchâlanguageâisârarelyâexpressedâinâaâsingleâtense.âWhatâweâwouldâlikeâtoâseeâisâteachersâandâtextbookâauthorsâthinkingâaboutâwhatâstudentsâre-allyâneedâatâaâcertainâlevel.âDoesâaâ12ÂyearÂoldâneedâpastâcontinuousâforâhisâorâherâcommunicativeâneeds?âHowâmanyâtensesâ(orâstructures)âdoesâaâstudentâneedâtoâknowâafterâeightâyearsâofâlearningâEnglishâatâschool?âItâseemsâthatâweâasâteachersâareâoftenâtooâfocusedâonâgrammar,âperhapsâbecauseâweâhaveânotâquiteâembracedâtheâcommunicativeâapproach,âorâbecauseâweâclingâtoâtheâwayâweâwereâtaughtâgrammar.âAâlotâofâteachersâteachâaccordingâtoâtheâtextbook,ânotâreflectingâonâtheânecessityâofâteach-ingâsomethingâatâaâcertainâlevel.âTextbookâauthors,âonâtheâotherâhand,âdoânotâalwaysâadhereâtoâtheâcurriculum,âandâtheyârarelyâprovideâoppor-tunitiesâforârecyclingâgrammarâandâvocabulary.âTheâlatter,âweâbelieve,âhappensâbecauseâitâtakesâaâlotâofâcreativity,âifânotâingenuity,âtoâdesignâaâtextbookâseriesâthatâcontainsâlessonsâinâwhichâaâgrammarâpointâcanâbeârecycledâorâusedâinâaâdifferentâway,âandâthatâcanâofferâsomethingânewâatâtheâsameâtime.
Weâbelieveâ thatâ byâ yearâ 8â studentsâ shouldâ beâ ableâ toâ talkâ aboutâpresent,âpast,âandâfutureâevents,âandâthatâtheyâshouldâbeâableâtoâindicateâthatâanâactionâisâorâwasâgoingâonâforâsomeâtimeâinâ theâpresentâorâ theâpast.âItâisâbeyondâtheâscopeâofâthisâpaperâtoâdiscussâwhatâotherâgrammarâcontentâ shouldâbeâ requiredâ inâprimaryâ school,âbutâwhateverâ itâ is,â theâchoiceâshouldâbeâbasedâonâstudentsââcommunicativeâneeds,âtheâCroatianâteachingâandâlearningâcontext,âandâtheâresultsâofâcorpusÂbasedâresearchâofâgrammarâuse.
Finally,âweâmustâemphasizeâonceâagainâthatâweâdoânotâregardâfor-eignâlanguageâlearningâaâlinearâprocess,ânorâdoâweâthinkâthatâstudentsâshouldâmasterâ Englishâ grammarâ byâ gradualâ accumulation.â Grammarâshouldâbeâ taughtâ inâaâwayâ thatâ combinesâ implicitâ andâexplicitâ teach-ingâandâ learning,âandâ itâ shouldâbeâ taughtâ inâcontextâandâalwaysâwithâuseâ inâmind.âRecyclingâofâ grammarâ (andâvocabulary)â isâ aâmust.âButâmoreâimportantâthanâallâofâthisâisâaâreflectiveâteacherâwhoâcanâapproachâtheâtextbookâ(andâtheâcurriculum)âcritically,âandâwhoâisâableâtoâselectâappropriateâteachingâmaterialsâandâactivities.âRatherâthanâprovidingâaâdefinitiveâlistâofâtensesâandâappropriateâyearsâwhenâthoseâtensesâshouldâbeâtaught,âourâintentionâwasâtoâmotivateâpractitionersâtoâthinkâaboutâtheâcontextâ (availableâ teachingâhours,â learnersâânativeâ language,â learnersââcommunicativeâneeds)âinâwhichâtheyâselectâgrammarâcontentâandâteachâ
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grammar.âWeâalsoâhopeâthatâthisâpaperâwillâmotivateâresearchersâtoâex-ploreâtheâissueâfurther.
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MOGUÄIâREDOSLIJEDâPOUÄAVANJA ENGLESKIHâGLAGOLSKIHâVREMENAâUâOSNOVNOJâĆ KOLI
JakobâPatekar
UovomeseradupredlaĆŸemoguÄiredoslijedpouÄavanjaengleskihglagolskihvremenauhrvatskimosnovnimĆĄkolama.NakonkraÄegapregledaukojemuobjaĆĄ-njavamozaĆĄtobitakavredoslijedmogaobitipotrebanuhrvatskomekontekstutenakonkratkogaosvrtanautemeljenjetakvogaredoslijedauznanstvenimistraĆŸi-vanjima,uradusagledavamopouÄavanjegramatikesaspektametodikenastaveengleskogajezikateraspravljamoopojmupedagoĆĄkegramatike.Donosimoipri-kazgramatiÄkogasadrĆŸajautrenutnimnastavnimprogramimazaosnovnuĆĄkoluisrednjeĆĄkole.Uglavnomedijeluradapotomanaliziramoglagolskavremenaupo-gledunjihovesloĆŸenostiikomunikacijskogapotencijalatepredlaĆŸemoredoslijednjihovapouÄavanja.Nakraju,predlaĆŸemosmjernicezauÄiteljeiautoreudĆŸbenikauvezispredstavljanjemipouÄavanjemgramatiÄkihsadrĆŸajauosnovnojĆĄkoli.
KljuÄneâ rijeÄi: pouÄavanje gramatike, glagolska vremena, redoslijed pouÄava-nja,razvojkurikula,pouÄavanjegramatiketemeljenonauÄesta-losti,osnovnaĆĄkola