Innovations in Education and Teaching Intemational s j RoutledaeVol. 42, No. 2, May 2005, pp. 181-194

A model for synchronous learning using theInternetNian-Shing Chen^, Hsiu-Chia Ko^, Kinshuk * and Taiyu Lin^National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan; Massey University, New Zealand

Improvements in technology and the increasing bandwidth of Internet access have led to an increasing popu-larity for synchronous solutions for instruction. Not only do they provide savings in terms of time and cost, inmany situations they can also outperform both asynchronous online instruction and traditional facc-to-faceeducation. However, until now, the lack of a pedagogical framework for synchronous instruction has limitedthe effective use of this medium. This paper describes an online synchronous learning model that aims to pro-vide guidelines for teachers and students to conduct synchronous instruction. The model provides a broadrange of scenarios to suit individual requirements and covers both synchronous lecturing and 'office-hours'modes.

Introduction

Traditional distance education has typically been constrained by the limitations of time andlocation, making it difficult for instructors and students to perform educational activities satis-factorily (Sauve, 2000). Recent advances in distance education, however, provide a bridgebetween teachers and students and enable them to communicate more easily and interact moreflexibly.

In recent years, Internet technologies have matured significantly. These advances, combinedwith the Internet's inherent characteristics of information availability through unrestricted timeand space, means that it can now provide a uniform access medium for both asynchronous andsynchronous learning. The technological advances include not only the rapid growth of infor-mation technologies but also the increasing availability of broadband Internet access, hencesolving the problem of insufficient bandwidth. This technological growth has also resulted inthe development of a variety of applications for online learning. For example, teachers can nowuse synchronous or asynchronous instruction methods in their courses—as deemed appropri-ate. Furthermore, one of the traditional teaching activities, namely 'office-hours' (wherestudents meet their teachers in order to get individual responses to their queries) can now be

* Corresponding author. Advanced Leaming Technologies Research Centre, Information Systems Department,Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmcrston North, New Zealand. Email: kinshuk@ieee.Grg

ISSN 1470-3297 (print)/ISSN 1470-3300 (online)/05/020181-14<:•• 2005 Taylor & Francis Group LtdDOI: 10.1080/14703290500062599

182 N.S. Chen etal

performed over the Internet, resulting in enhanced and timely learning interactions and betteronline classroom management.

Currently, the majority of research described in the literature has focused on the asynchro-nous mode of instruction, with very little discussion on the issues related to online synchronousinstruction. The literature that does exist on synchronous instruction mostly focuses on theimplementation aspects rather than on the pedagogical issues.

The main objective of this paper is to discuss the pedagogical aspects of online synchronouslearning. A synchronous learning model is then proposed. In addition, a new method to performonline instruction and online 'office-hours' activities is also proposed. Finally, two case studiesof online synchronous instruction and 'office-hours' activities are discussed to demonstrate thefeasibility of the proposed methods.

Background

The mode of interaction for online instruction can be categorised into asynchronous andsynchronous. Asynchronous learning allows the sequence of interaction between a teacher anda student to happen at different times. 'Research on the effectiveness of asynchronous onlinelearning, which includes case studies, student/educator surveys, and behavioural analysis, hasindicated that there is a need for learning tools that support synchronous communications'(Hotcomm, 2003).

Synchronous learning requires the presence of both parties at the same time for teaching andlearning to take place (It-analysis, 2001). It is therefore also referred to as 'live' or real-timeinstruction. Due to the limitation of network bandwidth and less complex technology involvedin asynchronous learning (Hotcomm, 2003), the tools available for asynchronous learningoutnumber those for synchronous learning; for the latter, the simplest form usually includes onlya variation of some form of text-based chat facility (Scavo et al., 1998).

It seems, on the surface, that synchronous learning imposes more restrictions on both teachersand students in the time dimension, but its similarity to traditional classroom interaction in bothtime and psychological dimension endows it with many benefits that asynchronous learningwould have difficulty in achieving. The trend of online learning is towards a blended modecombining asynchronous and synchronous delivery, which increases flexibility. Withoutsynchronous learning this blended mode would not be possible.

There are still some instances in the literature reflecting the use of synchronous learning meth-ods by educators. For example, synchronous learning was applied in the learning of probabilitytheory in a simulation tool called Kansas (Scanlon et al., 1997). This provided a 2D virtual spacefor all the students to move around and meet others, and facilitated real-time links among thestudents, such as video, audio and shared application, so that the students can form groups andwork with each other. Synchronous learning was also applied in the learning of a computationalscience course using TANGO (Scavo et al., 1998). This was a Java-based collaborative tool thatincluded a shared browser, a whiteboard, 2D/3D chat tools, and enabled two-way video and audiostreaming. Synchronous learning has been considered as a solution for the difficulties encoun-tered in distant music education—where non-verbal and synchronous interaction is critical forthe success of learning (Ruippo, 2002).

The most important advantages of synchronous learning are as follows:

Synchronous leaming using the Intemet 183

• Immediate feedback can be provided to students so that they can immediately correct them-selves or strengthen what they have learned. This is especially essential for activities such asgroup decision making, brain storming and analysis (Hotcomm, 2003).

• Increased level of motivation and an obligatiofi to be present and participate which in turn wouldincrease students involvement in learning activities, hence resulting in better learning experi-ences (It-analysis, 2001).

The systems identified above support synchronous learning only in terms of technical function-ality. Kansas (Scanlon ei al., 1997) only provided a virtual space with synchronous collaborationtools so that students could get together freely. Similarly, TANGO (Scavo et al..^ 1998) includedsome synchronous collaboration tools to convert a large repository of digital teaching materialto online synchronous courses. However, since these systems achieved positive results by themere inclusion of synchronous collaboration tools, it is not hard to see how the benefits ofsynchronous learning could be multiplied if an appropriate pedagogical framework was availableto analyse synchronous learning situations in different dimensions.

Evidence is also available in the literature to support the fact that synchronous instructionusing the Intemet not only facilitates the tasks of a traditional face-to-face learning environ-ment, but also has some distinct advantages over the conventional approaches. These advan-tages can be grouped into three major categories: logistical, instructional and economic(Hannum, 2001). Logistical advantages have to do with case of distribution and use. Thegreatest logistical advantage of online synchronous instruction perhaps is its flexible, distrib-uted delivery that allows learners and instructors to take part in a learning/instruction processfrom any geographic location. An obvious instructional advantage of online synchronousinstruction is the ability of learners to interact with rich multimedia resources (McManus,1996), which is virtually impossible to achieve in face-to-face instruction. Of course, it is notnecessary to have all multimedia elements in all lessons, but when used appropriately, theseelements enhance instruction and leaming (Bagui, 1998). An additional benefit of onlinesynchronous instruction over asynchronous learning is that it also eliminates the costs relatedto travel and time away from home or worksite (Hannum, 2001), while still providing immedi-ate interaction among teachers and students. Synchronous instruction also allows team teach-ing where experts from different parts of the world could teach together without having tospend time and money in travel and other such non-educationally related activities.

In the next section, a model for synchronous learning that can serve as a pedagogical frame-work is proposed. The model contains several modes suitable for different educational situations.

A model for synchronous learning

Synchronous leaming employs videoconferencing and other multimedia techniques to allowteachers and students to interact with each other at the same time even if they are not at the sameplace. Synchronous learning management systems (SLMS) such as the National Sun Yat-senCyber University (NSYSU-CU) and K12 Digital School are now available (Chen, 1997, 2000).These systems facilitate various functionalities that are crucial to synchronous leaming. Forinstance, a digital whiteboard provides many functions for teachers to explain course content,and a roll-call book helps teachers mark the attendance register. In addition, SLMS also

184 N.S. Chen el a\.

provides discussion rooms that allow students to ask questions and share ideas online. Duringthe discussion period, teachers can observe the interaction among students and the discussioncontent of the whole class, and give students appropriate support whenever needed.

In order to prevent the problems of distraction during the course program, teachers can alsoask students to answer some questions by text or audio. All such conversations along with courseprograms and contents can be recorded using tools such as Anicani-Live (Chen & Huang, 2002)and made available to the students for review either after completion of the class or in the formof course material for asynchronous learning. This possibility does not exist in traditional face-to-face teaching. Synchronous delivery can therefore provide a far greater variety of teachingmodes.

Despite the varied benefits of synchronous learning, the lack of pedagogical research in thisarea has meant that effective online management techniques are still to be developed for the vari-ous activities that mimic traditional instruction such as lectures and 'office-hours'. In thisregard, an online synchronous learning model is proposed that classifies various possiblesynchronous learning modes. By considering how a traditional face-to-face instructional processcould be facilitated in a corresponding synchronous manner using the Internet, five dimensionsof the model can be identified. These are: role (teacher, student), participant (individual, group),venue (specific, any), interaction (one-way, two-way) and delivery (playback, live). These areshown in Table 1.

In online synchronous learning activities, there are two major 'role' players: teachers andstudents. Both teachers and students are expected to use the teaching and learning environ-ment flexibly and freely; the only requirement for them is that they should be using the onlineclassroom at the same time. They can be situated anywhere, either in their own environmentin any part of the world or in a specific laboratory location provided by the educational insti-tution. Hence, the 'venue' dimension can be either any or specific. If people are situated intheir own environment, then they participate within the conditions imposed by the environ-ment, such as distractions due to family at home, or distractions due to phone calls andknocks-on-the-door at the office. In a laboratory location, people might participate in groupswith physical interaction possible with their peers. Therefore, the 'participant' dimensionincludes individual and group. The instruction in synchronous environments can either beone-way, just as a broadcast of the lectures, or two-way with interaction between teachers andstudents and even communication among students. Therefore the 'interaction' dimension canbe one-way or two-way.

Finally, the 'delivery' dimension includes the ways in which the course material is deliveredto the students: live, video-on-demand (VOD) and hybrid. When teachers lecture remotely in realtime, the delivery is referred to as live mode. If teachers opt to play the pre-recorded video, eitherof themselves or of other experts, then this constitutes the VOD playback delivery mode. Ofcourse, teachers may also employ a combination of these two modes to provide better flexibility,hence the hybrid mode.

Table 1 summarises the main facets of the synchronous learning model. Each cell of this tablerepresents one synchronous learning mode. The model is intended to provide options forteachers in terms of possible modes—once they have identified one or more constraints in theirteaching situation.

Synchronous leaming using the Intemet 185

Table 1. Facets of the online synchronous learning model

Mode

Dimension

Role Participant Venue Interaction Delivery

1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTSSSS

ssssssssssss

IIIIIIIIGG

GGGGGGIIIIIIIIGGGGGGGG

ssssAAAASsssAAAAS

sssAAAASSS

sAAAA

PLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPLPL

Key: Role: S, student;T, teacher. Participant: G, group; I, individual. Venue: A, any; S, specific. Interac-tion: 1, one-way; 2, two-way. Delivery: L, live; P, playback.

In order to illustrate the application of the model, an online synchronous live instructionmode and an 'office-hours' activity mode have been designed. Initially, in the online synchro-nous live instruction mode, teachers perform the role of teaching material editors—similar totraditional teaching. The sources of the course materials include a large variety that containlectures that were recorded by the teachers themselves or others, material from publishers (suchas books, films and teaching manuals), CDs and content that is available in the public domain

186 N.-S. Chen etal

Teachingcontent

Publisher

MateriaJ fromexpert

Material fromInternet

Additionalcontent

and teaching units

./" Unit

Teaclier

TPatterns of

Figure 1. Teaching material editing task

on the Internet. This approach ensures the sharing and reuse of the teaching resources (seeFigure 1).

Scenario 1: online synchronous live instruction mode

During the online instruction task, through the assistance of a synchronous leaming manage-ment system and videoconferencing tools, teachers and students interact synchronously. Thiskind of teaching mode is called online synchronous live instruction ('live' because the teachersorchestrate the instruction process in real-time; it is not a pre-determined sequence). Besidesplaying the previously edited teaching material, teachers can also give additional explanation ofthe content using annotation tools such as free-hand writing, drawing line, circle or rectangle,and so on. After a teaching segment finishes, teachers can either ask students if they have anyquestions, or assign a question and ask students to discuss it in an online chat room for a briefperiod of time and reply back. If students have any other queries, teachers can give anotherexplanation or play back other teaching materials to address students' confusion. Once thequeries have been answered, teachers can continue playing the next teaching material online andundertaking other teaching tasks (see Figure 2).

Teachers in online synchronous instruction situations are expected to create a leamingenvironment that is interesting for the learners and which suits their learning process. The diver-sified and interesting nature of online synchronous instruction not only enhances the learners'interest and involvement but also allows them to perceive that they are not alone and that thereare many other learning partners around them (Tuckman, 2004). The interactions with peersand tutors enable the re-evaluation of the information perceived through association, integra-tion, validation and appropriation, thus allowing deep learning to take place (Armitt et al.,

Synchronous learning using the Internet 187

Teacher initiates teaching

Teacher uses material to explain orplay the previously recorded video

Students synchronously learn online

Students ask question Teacher assigns questions Students discuss online

Teacher responds Students respondStudents interact with each

other

Teacher gives additionalexplanations

Students askany furtherquestions

Teacher proceeds to next unit

Figure 2. Online synchronous live instruction task

2002). Hence, the students in the online synchronous instruction mode benefit from interestingand high-level interactions with many online learning partners, resulting in a more participativeand better-quality learning process managed by a human teacher (Roshan, 2002). The reuse andsharing of teaching resources also ensures that the teaching load on the teachers is reduced.

188 N.-S. Chert Qtal

Scenario 2: online synchronous 'office-hours' activity mode

Traditional 'office-hours' activity allows students to discuss their questions with teachers on aone-to-one basis. Therefore, this task is as important in the online leaming environment as it isin traditional methods of instruction.

'Office-hours' activity can be classified according to two dimensions: media richness of discus-sion content (text, audio and video) and the role of users (teachers,, students and teaching assis-tants). The classification is shown in Table 2. This shows that there are nine feasible 'office-hours' interaction modes in the model. The symbol 'T ' means that interaction is by way of text;'A' means that interaction is by means of audio—however, users can combine text and audio ifthey wanted to. The symbol ' V indicates that teachers, students and teaching assistants employvideo to interact with each other—but they could also combine text and audio.

Because of its lower bandwidth requirements, text is more accessible than audio, and audio ismore accessible than video. From the network bandwidth limitation and the cost points of view,it is natural for users to use text more than audio and video, and audio more than video. Sinceteachers have institutional equipment available, it is more likely for teachers to have higher spec-ification equipment available than students and even teaching assistants. As represented inTable 2, the scenario in Mode 1 is most likely to happen even if it is the least desirable scenariodue to the least possible channels of interaction (only text). On the other hand, the scenario inMode 9 is least likely, due to the requirement of the highest specification equipment, despite thefact that it provides the most channels of interaction (text, audio and video). It should be notedthat Table 2 represents only those modes that are found feasible in our experience of runningonline 'office-hours' at NSYSU-CU for the last five years (Chen, 1997).

In the first mode in Table 2, text is used as the way of the interaction. It is similar to the discus-sions that take place in the online chat rooms. The roles in the discussion room include teachers,students and teaching assistants.

The third mode means that the students employ text whereas the teachers and teaching assis-tants use both text and audio for the interaction. This mode has more interaction than the firstone. In the fifth mode, the students employ text and the teachers and teaching assistants use text,audio and video to communicate. In this mode, the interaction among students, teachers and

Table 2. Synchronous 'office-hours' mode used in the course

Mode

123456789

Students

TTTTTAA

AV

Teaching assistants

TTAAVAA

VV

Teachers

TAAVVAV

VV

Tool used

Chat roomAnicam-LiveAnicam-LiveAnicam-LiveAnicam-LiveJoinNetJoinNetJoinNetJoinNei

Used status

YesYesNoNoYesNoYesYes

Yes

Key:T, text; A, audio (with possibility of text); V, video (with possibility of text and audio).

Synchronous leaming using the Internet 189

teaching assistants is more varied. For example, if students' questions are of an operationalnature, teachers can choose to show the steps of the operation by synchronously transmittingthe images or video of the functions performed in those steps whereas teaching assistants canfollow up with audio communication. Furthermore, with the help of assistant tools, such as Join-Net (httpiZ/wvi-w.homemeeting.com/) or Anicam-Live (http://anicam.elearn.com.tw/), teacherscould use their computers as the blackboards. In the sixth mode, the students, teachers andteaching assistants all employ audio to communicate. In the eighth mode, the students use audioand the teachers and teaching assistants use video. Finally in the ninth mode, the students,teachers and teaching assistants all use video for interaction.

Now we shall describe two concrete case studies to illustrate how to achieve the onlinesynchronous live instruction and 'office-hours' activities in a cyber university environment.

Case studies and evaluation

In order to test the synchronous learning model described in this paper, we implemented it in aComputer Network and Internet course at the NSYSU-CU in Taiwan (http://cu.nsysu.edu.tw).In this course, we employed the online synchronous live instruction mode and mixed manydifferent 'office-hours' modes to conduct the course. The instructional tools we used wereAnicam-Live (Chen & Huang, 2002) and JoinNet; the functions of these tools were integratedwithin the NSYSU-CU in Taiwan. The whole teaching process was completed synchronously.A more detailed description of these two examples of the online synchronous learning model isgiven below. It should be noted that the attempt here is not to generalise the results over inter-national student population but to verify the feasibility of the model. Further future studies,focused on a diverse student population, would be needed in order to assess the generalisationissues.

Case study 1: live instruction mode

We deployed the online synchronous live instruction mode using a tool called Anicam-Live(Verhaart, 2003). This tool provides many functions suitable for synchronous teaching. Forexample, it enables teachers to use their computer screen as a blackboard to explain coursecontent and provides 'canvas' functions—such as a painting brush and blackboard eraser to beused on the blackboard. In addition, all of the course presentation and interaction processes canbe recorded synchronously and can be provided to students for review after the class is over.

The synchronous learning environment was implemented within the Cyber University, andvarious tools (such as the camera, microphone and handwriting board) were developed in thissystem. Then, the existing teaching material was converted into HTML format and put into theenvironment so that students could access it prior to the start of the teaching.

Seventy students enrolled in the Computer Networks and Internet course. The duration ofthe course was one semester (four months). There was one instructor and three teaching assistants.Most of the students were working adults. More details about these students are included in Table3. In order to attend the online synchronous lectures, students had to log into the Cyber Universityand enter the Computer Networks and Internet course room. The teacher could then registertheir attendance through the roll-call area at any time. The teacher then delivered the teaching

190 N.S. Chen etal.

Table 3. Profile of participants (n = 70)

Variable Category Percentage

Gender

Marital status

Maior

Residence

Age

Job status

Degree

Occupation

Years after graduation

MaleFemaleMarriedSingleIT-relatedNon-IT-relatedSouthern TaiwanCentral TaiwanNorthern TaiwanEastern Taiwan21-3031-4041-5051 or aboveIT-related jobNon IT-related jobUnemployedMasterCollegeJunior collegeFull-time studentPart-time studentFull-time employeePart-time employeeOthers1-23-45-67-89 or above

673356443070521225

12558161

593741162272778310715131747

session. All the teacher's actions, such as typing words, live images, and the teacher's voice wererecorded and delivered to the online students' computers synchronously through the media server.Moreover, if students had any questions, they could discuss these using text chat in the discussionroom. During the synchronous session the teacher could navigate to the discussion room to seewhether students had any queries. Overall, the teacher had control over building an interestinglearning environment, including the way in which the class should be run and managed.

Case study 2: 'office-hours'

The synchronous online 'office-hours' modes that were employed in the above course are shownin Table 2. The first mode was employed to perform the textual discussion. The teachers,

Synchronous leaming using the Intemet 191

students and teaching assistants were all required to enter into the discussion room and theywere asked to specify individual colours for the text they typed in order to separate the diverseidentities. This made it easy to discriminate between the questions asked by the students andthe answers provided by the teachers and the teaching assistants.

In Modes 2-5, the main tool used was Anicam-Live, which allowed teachers to enable ordisable his/her live image from the CCD. Disabling the live image constituted Mode 2, whereaswhen the teacher enabled the live image, Mode 5 came into operation, similar to the onlinesynchronous live instruction modes.

In Modes 6-9, the main tool used was JoinNet. This allowed online videoconferencing. In thissituation, the teacher acted in the role of the host of the meeting, where all students and teachingassistants could join the meeting to discuss questions and share ideas. As long as students had aCCD camera and microphone (or just a microphone) attached to their computers, they couldask to speak. The host could decide who should talk at any given time. JoinNet also enabledgroups of four people to discuss at the same time. In addition. It also provided the functionalityto allow information sharing, where everyone could upload their documents to the whiteboardand discuss their queries and share ideas. The teacher could also upload his/her teaching mate-rials in order to address students' queries and to give any other additional explanations.

When the students had access to only a microphone. Modes 6, 7 and 8 were employed. Butif the students had both microphone and CCD camera, then Mode 9 was employed. Asmentioned before, we found that through Modes 6-9, students showed more willingness to askquestions and discuss their queries with others.

Evaluation of online synchronous instruction

In order to understand students' leaming outcomes and satisfaction with online synchronouslive instruction, a survey was conducted in the above-mentioned Computer Networks and Inter-net course in 2003. Out of 70 students, 50 students participated in the survey. Table 3 showsthe profile of the participants.

The students were given a questionnaire to evaluate their learning experience at the end of thecourse (see Appendix 1). This appendix also shows the percentage responses to each questionin the questionnaire. Students were also invited to give free-form comments. According to thesurvey results, 97% of students responded that they were satisfied with the online synchronouslive instruction mode and 89% of students responded that the live instruction mode couldprovide very good interactions among teachers and students. Furthermore, considerable posi-tive feedback was also found in the form of free-form comments, for example (translated fromChinese):

I can feel that all participants have a high commitment to this live class even when we are all logged-inNSYSU-CU from different locations.

Live instruction enables me to concentrate more; actually it is not easy to be distracted because teachercould call anyone's name for response to questions.

I like this kind of live instruction mode. The feeling is just like I went back to school for class.

I prefer live instruction mode, because the feeling is just like in a real class with the atmosphere of face-to-face lecture and the opponunity for interaction is higher.

192 N.S. Chen etal

Some students did experience difficulties like 'my computer is not powerful enough to carrymultimedia applications'. Some of them were using dial-up access with only 50 kbps band-width—which is impossible for the Anicam-Live lectures. Sometimes the network traffic causedso much congestion that they could not hear the audio very clearly. Some found navigatingmultiple windows at the same time somewhat annoying. These comments were taken on boardwhile developing later versions of the tools used in the instruction.

Based on the survey results shown above, we believe this kind of online synchronous liveinstruction mode and online 'office-hours' activities provide excellent learning outcomes andsatisfaction for online courses.

Conclusion

Synchronous leaming is becoming more and more important with the improvements in technol-ogies such as broadband Intemet access and video compression techniques. This paper hasdescribed an online synchronous learning model which attempts to classify different onlinesynchronous learning modes. We have also described and discussed the design and implemen-tation of two examples of this approach; the online synchronous live instruction mode and theonline 'office-hours' mode. In our examples, we used Anicam-Live and JoinNet as teaching tools.Teachers could use any other tools they were familiar with—provided those tools containedsimilar functions to support them in running and managing the synchronous instructionprograms.

In terms of future research, work is required to enhance the functionality of the synchronousleaming management system (SLMS) and build a more flexible, easy and convenient leamingenvironment for teachers and students. The effects of students' learning styles and teachers'teaching styles are also significant factors that need to be considered in order to improve thestudents' leaming processes (Kinshuk et al.^ 2001).

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan (NSC92-2511-S-l 10-001-X3).

Notes on contributors

Nian-Shing Chen has been a professor with the Department of Information Management,National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan since 1996. He been strongly involved in thedevelopment of the Taiwan Academic Network (TANet) for more than 14 years. Hisresearch areas include e-learning, knowledge management and the use and development ofonline and wireless technologies to enhance learning.

Hsiu-Chia Ko is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Information Management at NationalSun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. Her research areas include knowledge management,e-leaming, information security and electronic commerce.

Kinshuk is Associate Professor of Information Systems at Massey University, New Zealand. Healso directs the Advanced Leaming Technology Research Centre. His research interests

Synchronous leaming using the Internet 193

include adaptivity in e-leaming and mobile learning. He is the editor of the EducationalTechnology & Society journal and Leaming Technology Newsletter.

Taiyu Lin is a postgraduate researcher at the Advanced Leaming Technologies Research Centrein Massey University, New Zealand. His research interests include student modelling,adaptive hypermedia systems and instructional design. He is an assistant editor of theEducational Technology & Society journal.

References

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Bagui, S. (1998) Reasons for increased leaming using multimedia, Joumai of Educational Multimedia andHypermedia, 7(1), 3-18.

Chen, N. S. (1997) National Sun Yat-sen University—Cyber University. Available online at: http://cu,nsysu.edu.tw/ (accessed 18 April 2004).

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lecturing systems, Joumai of Interactive Educational Multimedia, 4, 62-75.Hannum, W. (2001) Web-based training: advantages and limitations, in: B. H. Khan (Ed.) Web-based training

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Educational Technology Publications), 13-20,Hotcomm (2003) Synchronous tools and the emerging online leaming model. Available online at: http://

www.hotcomm.com/tec/dlwp.pdf (accessed 18 April 2004).It-analysis (2001) Synchronous vs asynchronous leaming. Available online at: http://www.it-analysis.coni/

article.php?articleid=2236 (accessed 7 November 2004).Kinshuk, Hong, H., Patel, A., Oppermann, R, & Russell, D. (2001) Role of human teacher in web-based

intelligent tutoring systems, Joumai of Distance Leaming, 6(1), 26-35.McManus, T. F. (1996) Delivering instmction on the World Wide Web. Available online at: http://www.csuhay-

ward.edu/ics/htmls/Inst.btml (accessed 18 April 2004).Roshan, V. (2002) How one corporation got a charge out of e-leaming—Internet review. Available online at: http://

www,cpsnet.com/reprints/2002/02/eleaming.pdf (accessed 30 April 2004).Ruippo, M. (2002) Music studies in synchronous leaming environments. Available online at: http://www.tukkk.fi/

tutu/Vision/Papers/MattiRuippo,pdf (accessed 18 April 2004).Sauve, V, L. (2000) Issues, challenges and altematives in teaching adult ESL (Don Mills, ON, Oxford University

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Scavo, T., Bemholdt, D. E., Fox, G. C , Markowski, R,, McCracken, N. J. & Podgomy, M. (1998) Synchro-nous leaming at a distance experiences with TANGO, paper presented at the SC98 Conference. Availableonline at: http://grids.ucs.indiana,edu/ptliupages/publications/disted/tr_9829.pdf (accessed 18 April 182004).

Verhaart, M. (2003) Software review: Anicam: developing stream based teaching resources. EducationalTechnology & Society, 6(4), 173-176,

Tuckman, B. W. (2004) The effect of motivational scaffolding on the effectiveness of distance leaming, paperpresented at the AERA Conference, San Diego, CA. Available online at: bttp://all.successcenter.ohio-state.edu/references/ScaffDist-Procras%20AERA%2004.htm (accessed 30 April 2004).

194 N.S. Chen etal

Appendix L Student evaluation questionnaire (originally in Chinese)

Student response (%)

9.

21

16

21

7.

52

.43

.67

.43

14

61.90

57.14

57.14

42.86

57.14

26.

19.

23.

26.

28.

19

05

81

19

57

Student evaluation of synchronous online courses SD" D U A SA

1. I gained much benefit from questions/responses raised 0 2.38by other students during the JoinNec office-hour

2. I was able to communicate effectively with teachers and 0 2.38classmates during the jfoitiNei office-hour

3. JoittNet office-hours enabled the teacher [o more easily 0 2.38answer my questions than in text-based office-hours

4. It was easier to ask questions by speaking than by text 0 9.52typing during the JainNct office-hour

5. I was able to concentrate more during Anicam-Live in- 0 7.14struction (lecture sessions) than pre-recorded instruc-tion (lecture)

6. I understood the teacher's explanations hetter when we 0 2.38 7.14 59.52 30.95used JoinNet office-hours than when we used text-basedoffice-hours

7. Participating in/Iw/ttim-L/i'£'instruction (lecture ses- 0 9.52 19.05 47.62 23.81sions) is much like panicipating in a traditional class-room

8. Anicam-Live instruction (lecture sessions) allowed me 0 0.00 14.29 38.10 47.62to make up classes I missed and to review the whole in-struction again and again

9. Anicant-Live instruction (lecture sessions) was just as ef- 0 9.52fective as traditional classroom instruction

10. Participating inJomA'L'f office-hours helped my learning 0 0.00in this course

11. Participating in ^e Anicam-Live lecture sessions helped 0 0.00my learning in this course

12. Overall, I was satisfied with the quality of the Anicam- 0 2.38Live instruction (lecture). Please also explain your rea-son in the open-ended text-area

13. Overall, I was satisfied with the quality of the JO/HA'̂ T of- 0 2.38 16.67 61.90 19,05fice-hour. Please also explain your reason in the open-ended text-area

•"SD = strongly disagree; D = disagree; U ~ unsure (no commeni); A = agree; SA - strongly agree.

21

9.

9.

9.

.43

52

52

52

42

61

64

61

.86

.90

.29

.90

26.19

28.57

26.19

26.19