A Level Psychology

DEPARTMENT HANDBOOK

The study of human behaviour "Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all"

Aristotle

2017-19

Mr Judge: BTh. MA: mrj@leventhorpe.net :

2nd in Social Science Faculty – 5 x 60 minute lessons per fortnight

Mrs Bowen: BSC Hons Psychology: nxb@leventhorpe.net :

Teacher of Psychology – 4 x 60 minute lessons per fortnight

The Psychology department email: Psychology@leventhorpe.net

Make sure you know your school email - we cannot email you back

except through the school system

Make sure you have your school emails forwarded to your private email

account - if in doubt talk to IT, it`s easy.

We put all homework on Show My Homework

We have a twitter account, follow us for the latest

@Levenpsych

Paper 1 -7182/1 120 mins PM for yr 13

Paper 2-7182/2 120 mins PM for yr 13

Paper 3- 7182/3 120 mins PM for yr 13

Exam board = AQA

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Social Science Basics These are basic standards that we expect of you as students. They will enable you to learn and help you to achieve your potential. Simple!

Mr Judge and Mrs Bowen are a team and work together for your success.

1) Be on time for lessons. If you are late you disrupt the start of the lesson for others

and you also miss information. Lateness is recorded on SIMS and this will have an impact on home study and is regularly monitored.

2) If you are absent you must catch up. Copy notes from another student, make sure you find out if any work has been set, read around the topic and ask the teacher if you are stuck. You will be expected to complete homework within a reasonable time.

3) Hand work in on time. Deadlines are set to make sure you are working effectively. They are not optional. Handing work in late makes marking and assessing work more complicated than it should be. If there are legitimate reasons for not completing work you must see your teacher before the lesson. You will be asked to complete work to an appropriate standard during lunchtimes if it is late. If work is rushed or not up to standard you will be asked to repeat the task.

4) Read your textbook and other sources e.g newspaper, enews &/or subject magazines. In lessons we only have time to discuss issues briefly. You must either pre read topics before they are covered in class or to supplementary notes or solidify concepts after lessons.

5) Don’t disrupt the learning. During lessons you are expected to behave in a manner that assists learning. It is important that you are attentive to both the teacher and fellow students when discussing topics. If you disrupt the learning of others in the lesson by talking to your friends you will be asked to leave, if the teacher sees this as necessary. Students who are asked to leave will need to see the Head of Department before being re-admitted to lessons. If a student persists in disruptive behaviour then you will be referred to the 6th Form Leadership Team and your parents/guardians may be informed and asked in to discuss the problem. Behaviour problems will be logged on SIMS.

6) Students MUST attend lessons with the necessary equipment for your designated subjects e.g ruler, pen, pencil, calculator.

7) Always check electronic communication regularly e.g. Moodle, SMH and school email, NO PRIVATE emails use school account please.

8) Your 2 exams take place at the end of the summer term in yr 13, but there will be an assessment each term and a mock exam in summer 2018 for yr 12.

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You will be provided with the GREEH HAIR TEXTBOOK in year 12 IT WILL LAST FOR 2 YEARS- YOU WILL ALSO BE PROVIDED WITH THE BLACK MASK TEXTBOOK in class- there are copies in the library and we have some copies in each classroom -if you want to buy your own green hair book you can

use it for 2 years – it might be a good idea

`Opening Skinners Box, great psychological experiments of the 20th century, ISBN -978-0-7475-6860-5 by Lauren Slater, especially chapters 2, 3 & 8.

A great fun and useful book to read is Ben Goldacre`s `Bad Science` to help you to spot dodgy science.

USEFUL PSYCHOLOGY TEXTBOOKS for year 13, the Pink Hair is provided

http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/Product?Product=9781471832604

Subscribe to Psychology Review – you can get a discount if you subscribe through Leventhorpe.

Contains great information to spice up your essays!

Use newspaper

database on Moodle

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Prior Learning/Attainment

No prior knowledge of the subject is required. It is recommended that candidates have attained communication and literacy skills at a level equivalent to GCSE Grade B in Additional or Core Science. You must be aware that there is a substantial element of science related statistics, so, to succeed, even though you do not have to have a good grade in maths, it is desirable. All psychology research and theory takes place within a social context and these issues are addressed throughout. Cultural issues will be addressed in parts of the specification. Thus the specification offers opportunities that can contribute to an understanding of these issues.

THE EXAMINATION - Assessment criteria

App weblink http://www.illuminatepublishing.com/psychapp/

AQA website http://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/psychology/as-and-a-level/psychology-7181-7182/specification-at-a-glance

This qualification is linear. Linear means that students will sit all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course in year 13. Loopa website- we have lots of booklets for this course already- they are on Moodle and Mr Judge has copies. https://www.loopa.co.uk/

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Subject content in year 12

1 Social influence (page 11) 2 Memory (page 11) 3 Attachment (page 12) 4 Approaches in Psychology (page 12) 5 Psychopathology (page 13) 6 Research methods (page 13) Introductory Topics in Psychology

THE YEAR 13 EXAMINATION - Assessment criteria

The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives. •• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge (facts) and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures. •• AO2: Apply knowledge (there might be a story about a person with a problem) and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures:

•• in a theoretical context •• in a practical context •• when handling qualitative data

•• when handling quantitative data. •• AO3: Analyse,(strengths and limitations) interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in relation to issues, to:

•• make judgements and reach conclusions

•• develop and refine practical design and procedures.

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7.2 A-level-Mathematical component

• In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in psychology, students need to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of mathematics as indicated in the table of coverage below.

• Overall, at least 10% of the marks in assessments for psychology will require the use of mathematical skills. These skills will be applied in the context of A-level Psychology and will be at least the standard of higher tier GCSE mathematics.

• The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching or could be assessed.

• This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed in other areas of specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified throughout the specification.

Subject content in A level- 4.2 Psychology in context These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through ethical practical research activities, involving: •• designing research •• conducting research •• analysing and interpreting data. In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use information and communication technology (ICT). 4.2.1 Approaches in psychology •• The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is ID, ego and superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages. •• Humanistic psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions 4.2.2 Biopsychology •• Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.

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•• Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem examinations. •• Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these rhythms. The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle. 4.2.3 Research methods •• Content analysis. •• Case studies. 4.2.3.1 Scientific processes Features of science: objectivity and the empirical method; replicability and falsifiability; theory construction and hypothesis testing; paradigms and paradigm shifts. •• Reporting psychological investigations. Sections of a scientific report: abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion and referencing. 4.2.3.2 Data handling and analysis •• Content analysis and coding. Thematic analysis. 4.2.3.3 Inferential testing •• Factors affecting the choice of statistical test, including level of measurement and experimental design. When to use the following tests: Spearman’s rho, Pearson’s r, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, related t-test, unrelated t-test and Chi-Squared test. 4.3.1 Issues and debates in psychology •• Gender and culture in psychology – universality and bias. Gender bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. •• Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism; biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis on causal explanations. •• The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour; the interactionist approach. •• Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in psychology. Biological reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism. •• Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation. •• Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to social sensitivity. 4.3.3 Gender-MRJ •• Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory. •• The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome.

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•• Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory. •• Psychodynamic explanation of gender development, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation. •• Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles. •• Atypical gender development: gender identity disorder; biological and social explanations for gender identity disorder. 4.3.5 Schizophrenia-NXB •• Classification of schizophrenia. Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including hallucinations and delusions. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including speech poverty and avolition. Reliability and validity in diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia, including reference to co-morbidity, culture and gender bias and symptom overlap. •• Biological explanations for schizophrenia: genetics, the dopamine hypothesis and neural correlates. •• Psychological explanations for schizophrenia: family dysfunction and cognitive explanations, including dysfunctional thought processing. •• Drug therapy: typical and atypical antipsychotics. •• Cognitive behaviour therapy and family therapy as used in the treatment of schizophrenia. Token economies as used in the management of schizophrenia. •• The importance of an interactionist approach in explaining and treating schizophrenia; the diathesis stress model. 4.3.9 Forensic psychology-MRJ •• Problems in defining crime. Ways of measuring crime, including official statistics, victim surveys and offender surveys. •• Offender profiling: the top-down approach, including organised and disorganised types of offender; the bottom-up approach, including investigative Psychology; geographical profiling. •• Biological explanations of offending behaviour: an historical approach (atavistic form); genetics and neural explanations. •• Psychological explanations of offending behaviour: Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality; cognitive explanations; level of moral reasoning and cognitive distortions, including hostile attribution bias and minimalisation; differential association theory; psychodynamic explanations. •• Dealing with offending behaviour: the aims of custodial sentencing and the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. Recidivism. Behaviour modification in custody. Anger management and restorative justice programmes.

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Preparing for exams Visit http://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/psychology/as-and-a-level for everything you need to prepare for your exams, including:

Past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports

Specimen papers and mark schemes for new courses

Exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries

British Psychological Society ethical principles for conducting research with human participants (edited) 1993-ESSENTIAL YOU KNOW AND UNDERSTAND THESE GUIDELINES

1. Consent The investigator should inform all participants of the objectives of the research or that might reasonably be expected to influence willingness to participate. Where research involves anybody, under 16 years of age, consent should be obtained from parents or from those in loco parentis.

2. Deception The withholding of information or the misleading of participants is unacceptable if the participants are typically likely to object or show unease once debriefed. Participants should never be deliberately misled without extremely strong scientific or medical justification.

3. Debriefing In studies where the participants are aware that they have taken part in an investigation, when the data have been collected, the investigator should discuss with the participants any necessary information to complete their understanding of the nature of the research. Debriefing does not provide a justification for unethical aspects of any investigation.

4. Withdrawal from the investigation Investigators should make plain to participants their right to withdraw from the research at any time, irrespective of whether or not payment or other inducement has been offered, and to require that their own data be destroyed.

5. Confidentiality Subject to the requirements of legislation, including the Data Protection Act, information obtained about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance.

6. Protection of participants Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation. Participants should not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in their normal lifestyles.

7. Observational research Studies based upon observation must respect the privacy and psychological well-being of the individuals studied. Unless those observed give their consent to being observed, observational research is only acceptable in situations where those observed would expect to be observed by strangers.

8. Giving advice During research, an investigator may obtain evidence of psychological or physical problems of which a participant is, apparently, unaware. In such a case, the investigator has a responsibility to

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inform the participant if the investigator believes that by not doing so the participant’s future wellbeing may be endangered.

9. Colleagues Investigators share responsibility for the ethical treatment of research participants with their collaborators, assistants, students and employees. A psychologist who believes that another psychologist or investigator may be conducting research that is not in accordance with the principles above should encourage that investigator to re-evaluate the research.

AS Psychology Phrasing

Original wording Suggested improvement

1 Milgram said…. Milgram proposed / hypothesised….

2 Freud thought the mind was split Freud proposed / put forward the idea that the mind was…

3 Bandura`s results prove that…. Bandura`s results demonstrate that….

4 Savage-Rumbaughs results go along with the idea that….

Savage-Rumbaugh’s findings support the theory that…

5 Samuel and Bryant`s findings go against the idea that…

Samuel and Bryant`s findings challenge the theory that….

6 Rosenhan did his study in 1973 Rosenhan conducted his study in 1973

7 They put participants in 2 groups Participants were divided into 2 groups

8 An example of this is…. This is illustrated in …..’s study

9 Griffiths wanted to see if… Griffiths aimed to investigate….

10 Bandura thought that…. Bandura hypothesised that…

11 The questionnaire was completed after the study

Participants were asked to complete a post-experiment questionnaire

12 Studies said… Empirical studies concluded that…

13 Researchers said… Researchers outlined in their conclusions that…..

14 Freud thought… Freud discussed these major factors in his conclusions…

15 They did…. The method they employed was…

16 Piaget said…. Piaget constructed a generic theory

17 The hypothesis of the study of Dement and Kleitman was correct…

The findings of Dement and Kleitman’s study support the hypothesis….

18 Control might increase levels of stress A low level of control is often considered to increase….

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Using connectives

Connectives will help you make every sentence count. They are the things like ‘resulting in’, ‘leading to’, ‘consequently’ - words that will help you build your chain of argument. It’s the “who, what, when, why, how” that will expand your answer and add depth of application, analysis and evaluation to your work. Here’s a list to get you started …

Add a point with Contrast a point with

Provide an example

Move to the next point

Also

In addition,

Similarly,

Not only did …, but … also

Moreover,

Furthermore,

However,

Although

On the other hand

In contrast,

Nevertheless,

Yet (and yet …)

In fact

In spite of this

For example,

Clearly,

To illustrate

For instance

Similarly

Then,

After this / that

Subsequently,

Explain consequences

summarise or draw a conclusion

To introduce a list of points

Time

So,

Therefore,

Consequently,

Despite

Since

Resulting in (as a result …)

Because of this

Finally,

In conclusion,

To summarise,

Ultimately

Firstly,

Secondly,

Finally,

Next

Lastly

Presently

Currently

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AQA training gems for students 8 markers = 10 minutes = AO1:3 and AO3: 5

16 markers = 20 minutes = AO1:6 and AO3: 10 Psychology is an evidence based discipline so it is expected that

you will include research in your essays (8, 12 and 16 markers) Scenario-based questions You must refer back to the scenario in your answer. However, it is expected that you will rephrase the language in the stem as opposed to using the same words – if you do this, you will just be copying the stem rather than answering the question Outline and evaluate and discuss questions Outline and evaluate will tend to be used for topics where strengths and limitations are appropriate. For topics where strengths and limitations are not appropriate, ‘discuss’ is likely to be used eg discuss the nature-nurture debate in Psychology. It would not be appropriate to evaluate the nature-nurture debate ie give strengths and limitations of it. Summary of the Faculty’s Feedback Policy Aim of the Feedback Policy

• To close the gap in learning

• To show you specifically how to improve their writing technique and academic content.

• To change/challenge learnt negative behaviours eg poor spelling, illegible handwriting etc

• To provide DIRT (Dedicated, Improvement and Reflective Time) • To encourage you to submit work to a good standard at all times What is Expected of You

Before submission of extended writing work, you will self-mark your work based on set criteria as provided by the faculty (may be different based on subject area) eg, the perfect paragraph.

You provide a two (2) inch margin down right side of page) in your assignment to allow for DIRT response

Your teachers’ feedback will be in the form of a question to which you will respond. Eg instead of ʌʌ to indicate that something is missing, a question could be asked e.g. ‘What other factor is missing?’

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Where spelling is incorrect, you are expected to write the correct spelling out for yourselves in the space provided in your assignment.

Essay assignments will be returned with a mark scheme with highlighted areas that you have achieved.

There will be WWW and EBI along with a reflection section for you to respond in purple pen and set your targets for your next assignment.

Where verbal feedback is given to the whole class, there should be evidence of this in your work with the you responding to such feedback eg

DIRT Dedicated Improvement and Reflection Time. Every time you get assessed work returned you’ll be given some DIRT time. Use it to read my comments and make amendments to your work.

WWW – what went well EBI – even better if

The WWW will help you understand how you have used terminology, concepts or structured a really good argument to get your ideas across. The EBI isn’t a criticism and its only purpose is to give you some tips so you can improve next time. The idea is that you go “Oh yeah, I can see how that would be better” and can make progress. So read it, make sure you understand it and then interpret it in your feedback (so don’t just rewrite what the teacher has said!)

The perfect paragraph for Psychology 16 markers

Tick if present

1 Opens with words from the question / title for focus 2 3 points given related to the title

3 Evidence used appropriately from a study or a theory to support every point

4 Follows a logical chain of analysis which includes counterarguments using connectives

5 Refers to ‘hook’ words from the question or scenario to form / support points

6 Comes back to the question at the end of every paragraph for focus

7 All points made are taken one step further using ‘This means that…’ phrase

8 Finishes with an evaluative or analysis phrase with a cherry where necessary

VF:

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The perfect 2 mark answer in Psychology

Tick if

present 1 Accurate and detailed definition given where necessary

2 Correct answer identified

3 Reference to scenario present where necessary 4 Example given to support your definition or answer

The perfect 3 mark answer in Psychology

Tick if present

1 States a point that responds to the requirements of the question

2 Correct answer identified 3 Uses evidence to support the point made

4 Reference to scenario present where necessary 5 Explain why this evidence supports the point made

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Reliability types - see methodology handbook on Moodle

There are three types of reliability – internal and external reliability, inter-rater reliability

Validity types - see methodology handbook There are 2 main types of validity:

1. Internal validity is related to what actually happens in a study. In terms of an experiment it refers to whether the independent variable really has had an effect on the dependent variable or whether the dependent variable was caused by some other confounding variable.

2. External validity refers to whether the findings of a study really can be generalised beyond the present study. We can break external validity down into four types: ecological validity (generalisability), population validity, temporal validity and predictive validity

You will also be learning the following types of validity

1. Face validity or surface validity. 2. Concurrent validity 3. Mundane realism

Just think: Reliability - consistency - keeps giving the same result.

Validity - accuracy – are you actually measuring what you intend to measure?

Class and Homework http://www.wikihow.com/Take-Cornell-Notes How to take notes in 6th form- please check this out You cannot gain marks if the examiner cannot read your work. Look through your work before you hand it in for content and presentation. Your work should have:

Use A4 paper

Your name

Date

Title or question (underlined)

Class number and tutor name

A 2” left-hand margin (for corrections) Space at the bottom for feedback.

Use full sentences, paragraphs and no abbreviations (don’t, can’t etc). Make sure your work is legible and the spelling is correct (there really is no excuse for not being able to spell psicologhy properly!)

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Be proud of your work. Don’t rush it and always aim for your target grade. Homework is set every week and it is your responsibility to complete it on time and to a good standard. You might not get an essay every week, so sometimes it may be research – that still needs time and not a two minute copy and paste. Work that’s considered below standard will need to be repeated, so get it right first time and manage your workload. Self-assessment will help you structure great answers. Develop the habit and watch your grades improve! Before handing in your work refer to the Assessment Objectives and the guidance you’ve been given. Plan your answer and as you write keep referring back to the question, this will make sure that every point you make is valuable.

Command words

Command words are the words and phrases used in exams and other assessment tasks that

tell students how they should answer the question. The following command words are taken

from Ofqual’s official list of command words and their meanings that are relevant to this

subject. In addition, where necessary, we have included our own command words and their

meanings to complement Ofqual’s list.

Analyse - Separate information into components and identify their characteristics.

Calculate - Work out the value of something.

Choose - Select from a range of alternatives.

Comment - Present an informed opinion.

Compare - Identify similarities and/or differences.

Complete - Finish a task by adding to given information.

Consider - Review and respond to given information.

Describe - Give an account of.

Design - Set out how something will be done.

Discuss - Present key points about different ideas or strengths and weaknesses of an

idea.

Distinguish - Explain ways in which two things differ. Provide detail of characteristic that

enable a person to know-the difference between …

Draw - Produce a diagram.

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Evaluate - Judge from available evidence.

Explain - Set out purposes or reasons.

Explain how - Give a detailed account of a process or way of doing something.

Explain why - Give a detailed account of reasons in relation to a particular situation.

Identify - Name or otherwise characterise.

Give - Produce an answer from recall or from given information.

Justify - Provide reasons, reasoned argument to support, possibly provide evidence.

Label - Provide appropriate names on a diagram.

Name - Identify using a recognised technical term.

Outline - Set out main characteristics.

Select - Choose or pick out from alternatives.

State - Express in clear terms.

Suggest - Present a possible case/solution.

Which is - Select from alternatives.

What is meant by - Give a definition.

Write - Provide information in verbatim form.

AQA Glossary

Absorbtion-addiction model

This term refers to a possible explanation for the existence of parasocial

relationships. The suggestion is that people form parasocial relationships when real

relationships are unpleasant or absent. People may follow a celebrity to escape from

reality, gain a sense of personal identity or achieve a sense of fulfillment.

Agentic state

A term used in the context of obedience to an authority figure. It refers to the way in

which an individual may obey an order, perhaps to do something that they see as

'wrong', because the individual hands over the responsibility for the outcome of the

action to the authority figure.

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Androcentrism

This term refers to a bias in psychological research in which a male perspective is

over-emphasised at the expense of a female one.

Androgyny

This is a term used in the context of gender. It refers to the way in which a biological

male or female may show high levels of both typical masculine traits and typical

feminine traits.

Atavistic form

A term used in forensic psychology as a possible explanation for criminal offending.

The idea is that offenders may represent a more primitive evolutionary stage of

development than their contemporaries. This may be shown in a range of facial and

physical features.

Aversion therapy

A treatment used to reduce addictive behaviours broadly based on classical

conditioning. The addictive behaviour is paired with an unpleasant (aversive)

experience such as alcohol with an emetic so that the addictive behaviour becomes

associated with discomfort. Covert sensitisation is a therapy designed to create the

same associations through imagery, graphic description and mental rehearsal.

Authoritarian personality

This title describes a person who holds rigid beliefs, is intolerant of ambiguity,

submissive to authority and hostile to those of lower status or members of an out-

group. This may be the outcome of a person experiencing harsh authoritarian

parenting as a child. It is used as an explanation for high levels of obedience to

authority figures and prejudice against out groups.

Avolition

This term refers to a common negative symptom of schizophrenia where the person

involved has little energy, motivation to act or emotional response to situations.

Beck's Negative Triad

A model of the cognitive biases which are characteristic features of depression. The

triad consists of three elements, pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the

world and the future.

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Cognitive priming

A term that refers to increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience.

Unconscious memories are stored and then activated when we experience similar

situations or cues. eg violent scenes from TV, films or even song lyrics may be stored

and when similar situations or cues occur in our own lives these memories are

activated and influence or prime how we behave.

Co-morbidity

This term refers to the situation when a person has two disorders at the same time.

For example, schizophrenia can be co-morbid with OCD.

Congruence

A term used in the humanistic approach to psychology, particularly the person-

centred therapy pioneered by Carl Rogers. It refers to a state in which there is

agreement/consistency between a person's 'real self' and 'ideal self'. He suggested

that a higher level of congruence is a sign of better psychological health.

Conditions of worth

A term used in the humanistic approach to psychology. It describes a situation in

which a child has to behave in ways that parents approve of in order to gain their

praise and love. Carl Rogers suggested that this was the origin of many psychological

problems. To counteract this, the therapist would offer unconditional positive regard

to the client.

Correlation

This term refers to a method of research in which the researcher investigates a

possible association between two variables, called co-variables. Data from such

research is displayed on a scattergram. Correlational analysis involves measuring the

extent of the relationship between the variables by working out the correlation co-

efficient. The process could be used, for example, to investigate the relationship

between levels of obesity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Unlike

experiments, correlations do not show a cause and effect relationship between the

variables.

Co-variables

These are the variables investigated in a correlation. They are not refered to as the

independent and dependent variables because the study is investigating the

relationship between them, not trying to show a cause and effect relationship.

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Cue reactivity

This is an example of classical conditioning, where objects and environments

become conditioned stimuli. In the context of addictive behaviour it refers to the

way in which people experience a greater craving and a physiological reaction, such

as an increased heart rate, when exposed to objects and environments associated

with their addiction. For example, cigarettes, syringes and bottles of alcoholic drinks,

in the context of substance abuse, or the betting shop, in the context of problem

gambling. The increased craving may lead to an increase in the addictive behaviour.

Cultural relativism

This term refers to the way in which the function and meaning of a behaviour, value

or attitude are relative to a specific cultural setting. Interpretations about the same

behaviour may therefore differ between cultures. For example hearing the voice of a

deceased relative could be a religious experience or an indication of psychosis.

De-individuation

A term used in the context of aggression and obedience. It refers to a state in which

individuals have lower self-awareness and a weaker sense of personal responsibility

for their actions. This may result from the relative anonymity of being part of a

crowd.

Demand characteristics

These are features of a piece of research which allow the participants to work out its

aim and/or hypotheses. Participants may then change their behaviour and so

frustrate the aim of the research. This is more likely in repeated measure designs for

experiments. It is also a problem for repeating historical research projects as

participants may be familiar with the results of original research.

Diathesis-stress model

This model proposes that people develop psychological disorders when they possess

both an inherited or constitutional predispositions (diathesis) and are exposed to

stressful events. For example twins may both have inherited a susceptibility to

schizophrenia but only one experiences critical life events that trigger the

appearance of symptoms of schizophrenias.

Differential association theory

This is a learning theory of offending behaviour. The idea is that individuals learn the

values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behaviour through

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interactions or 'association' with intimate personal groups such as family and friends.

On balance criminal behaviour is likely to occur when the individual is exposed to

positive attitudes to criminal behaviour more than positive attitudes for law-abiding.

Endogenous pacemakers

Internal body 'clocks' that regulate biological rhythms such as regular times of sleep

linked to levels of light. Examples include the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the pineal

gland.

Enmeshment

It describes a family where parents are over-emotionally involved with their children

but may be dismissive of their emotional needs. This can make it difficult for the

child to develop an independent self-concept. The concept is used in family systems

explanation of disorders such as anorexia.

Ethological explanations

Ethology is the study of animal behaviour, often a particular type, such as aggression,

across different species. Ethologists are interested in the role that the behaviour has

in natural selection. Ethological explanations for human behaviour relate it to similar

animal behaviour and suggest the evolutionary advantage that it may have for

humans.

Exogenous zeitgebers

External stimuli, such as levels of light, temperature and social cues, which influence

biological rhythms.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

This is a possible explanation for prejudice or aggression. It suggests that when

people suffer frustration, for example, due to lack of employment, they may act

aggressively towards scapegoats, perhaps members of a minority who are employed.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A technique of brain-scanning which uses a magnetic field and radio signals to

monitor the blood flow in the brain. Areas of the brain that are involved in activities

done by the person during scanning have a greater blood oxygenation and flow, so

specific brain areas can be linked to specific abilities.

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Gating

This term refers to the process of limiting or filtering the personal information we

disclose during social interactions. In virtual relationships within social media, or

emails and blogs, individuals may be less selective about what to reveal than they

would in face-to-face interactions. In other words there may be an absence of

gating.

General Adaptation Syndrome

This was proposed by Sely to describe a three-stage sequence of physiological

changes which occur when people or animals are subjected to prolonged stress. The

stages are called the alarm reaction, the stage of resistance and the stage of

exhaustion.

Hemispheric lateralisation

This term refers to the fact that the left and right halves, or hemispheres, of the

brain have centres that are specifically associated with different brain activities, eg

speech centres on the left and the ability to make sense of 3D arrangements on the

right.

Hostile attribution bias

This a tendency to perceive hostile intent on the part of others, even when it is really

lacking. The term is used in the context of offending behaviour and aggression. It

offers a cognitive explanation of aggression. The idea is that people may interpret,

perhaps wrongly, the behaviour of others as being hostile towards them, and so

react aggressively believing they are responding to provocation.

Interactional Synchrony

A term used to describe, for example, contacts between a child and a care-giver

where they 'take turns' in smiling, 'cooing', making eye contact etc. Contacts like

these help in a child's social development and the formation of attachments with

important figures such as the mother.

Interactionist approach

Different approaches to psychology offer different explanations for a particular

behaviour. A more complete explanation is gained by considering several factors

which may, operating together, have an influence on it. The different approaches

may provide explanations at different levels.

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Interference

An explanation for forgetting when similar material, eg the vocabulary of two similar

languages such as Italian and Spanish, is confused in recall from the LTM. Retroactive

interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of

previously learned information. Proactive interference occurs when past memories

inhibit an individual’s full potential to retain new memories.

Internal working model

This is a cognitive framework we use to understand the world, self and others. The

internal working model developed as a result of the early attachments of an infant

provides mental representations memories and expectations that influence the

development of relationships throughout life.

Introspection

A technique pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt, the 'father of modern psychology' to gain

insight into how mental processes work. People were trained to report in detail on

their inner experiences when presented with a stimulus such as a problem to solve

or something to be memorised.

Levels of explanation

Different psychological approaches offer different explanations for a particular

behaviour. Some are more holistic, such as the humanistic approach, while others

are more reductionist, such as the biological approach. Levels of explanation refer to

the extent to which explanations are holistic/reductionist.

Locus of control

This refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events in

their lives. People with an 'internal' locus of control tend to take personal

responsibility for their actions and to feel that they control their own lives. People

with an external locus of control tend to feel that their lives and actions are strongly

influenced by luck, chance, other people and environmental factors. The term is

used in looking at responses to stress and research into social influence.

Mediational processes

These are cognitive processes such as attending, understanding and decision making

that occur between a stimulus and a resulting behaviour. A feature of social learning

theory.

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Meta-analysis

A process in which a large number of studies, which have involved the same research

question and methods of research, are reviewed together and the combined data is

tested by statistical techniques to assess the effect size. As the data comes from a

much larger group of participants the conclusions may be regarded with more

confidence.

Monotropic theory

A term used by John Bowlby to suggest that the infants have an inbuilt tendency to

make an initial attachment with one attachment figure, usually the mother. He

suggested that this tendency has an evolutionary origin.

Operationalisation of variables

Research ideas may begin with terms such as 'memory' or 'locus of control' as

variables to manipulate or measure. In operationalisation these variables are

expressed in a form that can be measured accurately. For example, 'locus of control'

could be measured as the score on a suitable questionnaire, while 'memory' could

be measured as 'the number of words recalled'.

Paradigms

This term refers to a set of assumptions, methods and terminology shared by

psychologists. Each different 'approach' could be considered to have its own

paradigm. The historical sciences are regarded as having a single paradigm often

involving observation, theory, hypothesis, empirical testing, support/challenge

leading to refined theory. A paradigm shift happens when the established paradigm

has been challenged to the point that a different one takes its place. The change

from a predominately behaviourist approach to psychology to a cognitive one in

the1960s could be an example.

Parasocial relationships

These are one-sided relationships, such as fans may feel they have with a celebrity,

through concerts, TV appearances, films, magazines etc, where the celebrity is

unaware of the fan's identity or even existence.

Quasi experiment

In an experiment, usually with a high degree of control of extraneous variables, a

researcher manipulates an independent variable to find out its effect on a

dependent one. In a quasi-experiment, the researcher is unable to freely manipulate

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the independent variable or randomly allocate the participants to the two

conditions. An example would be a study with gender or age as the independent

variable.

Recidivism

A persistent pattern of criminal offending and re-offending by an individual who may

be described as a recidivist.

Restorative justice programmes

These focus on the needs of the victim, offender and wider community. They involve

the offender being encouraged to meet the victim, take responsibility for the

offence, apologise and try to make amends. The offender will be helped to avoid

further offending behaviour.

Retrieval Failure

An explanation for forgetting when material is stored in the LTM but cannot be

consciously recalled as a result of a lack of retrieval cues to 'jog the memory'.

Self-actualisation

A term used by Abraham Maslow in the humanistic approach to psychology. It refers

to a state in which people achieve their full potential. He suggested that every

person has a motivation to achieve this.

Social readjustment ratings scale

This is a self-report measure of stress. The designers used a large group of

participants to identify a series of stressful life events, such as a marital separation or

loss of employment, and give them a 'value' based on the likely level of stress

experienced. The user of the scale selects the items that have occurred during, for

example, the past 24 months and the values are added up to give an overall 'stress

score'.

Stress inoculation therapy

This is a cognitive therapy used to teach people the skills needed to reduce their

stress. It involves conceptualisation, skill acquisition and rehearsal, and application

and follow-through.

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Synaptic transmission

The process by which nerve impulses are carried across the small gap, the synapse,

between one neuron and another. The nerve impulse is an electrical signal which is

carried by chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Systematic desensitisation

A behavioural therapy for treating anxiety disorders, eg a phobia of dogs, in which

the sufferer learns relaxation techniques and then faces a progressive hierarchy of

exposure to the objects and situations that cause anxiety.

Thematic Analysis

A method of qualitative research linked to content analysis, which involves analysing

text in a variety of media to identify the patterns within it. A coding system may be

needed sort the data and to help to identify patterns.

Vicarious reinforcement

This term refers to an aspect of social learning theory. A reinforcement, such as

reward, makes a behaviour more likely to happen again. When it is vicarious, the

person learns by observing the consequences of another person's behaviour, eg a

younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behaviour is

more likely to repeat that behaviour herself.

Violation of expectation research

Baillargeon pioneered this kind of research in studying the cognitive development of

young infants. The studies tested cognitive development in terms of what the infant

would expect to happen in familiar situations. For example, a hinged screen would

be expected to come to rest on a rigid cube behind it and not to squash it. Infants of

five months old looked longer when the screen appeared to flatten the cube because

it 'violated their expectation', showing that they had learned that objects typically

stop when they meet obstacles.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

This term is used in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development. It refers to cognitive

tasks that are just beyond what a child can do unaided but could be achieved with

the help of a more experienced person. Tasks in a child’s ZPD should be the focus of

learning.