A last chance to save thenorthern white rhino?

Kes Hillman-Smith, Mankoto ma Oyisenzoo and Fraser Smith

The northern subspecies of white rhinoCeratotherium simum cottoni is very close toextinction. Probably fewer than 50 remain inthe wild and only 13 are known in captivity.Garamba National Park in northern Zairecontains the only potentially viable group, of15-20 individuals, and here there is a possi-bility of action to save them.

The northern white rhino was first made known tothe scientific world in 1903, when one that hadbeen shot near Lado on the White Nile in Sudanwas exhibited (Sydney, 1965). The subspecieswas first described by Lydekker in 1908 from askull obtained by Powell-Cotton. Northern whiterhinos were subsequently discovered to be fairlynumerous, although their distribution was local,probably determined not only by human settle-ment, but also by suitable habitat of grassland,sparse savanna woodland, and available water.They occurred in southern Chad, the northernand eastern Central African Republic, south-western Sudan, northeastern Zaire and north-western Uganda (Sydney, 1965).

Within recorded history, there have been nowhite rhinos known between the southeasternlimits of the northern subspecies—the River Nile,northern Zaire and Uganda—and the northernlimits of the southern subspecies—the ZambesiRiver—a distance of some 2000 km. The mostrecent record is a cave painting in Tanzania datedat 34,000 years old. A possible previous con-tinuous range was probably separated by climaticand vegetation changes at the last glacial(Hooijer, 1969), and there was probably nogenetic exchange between the two extremes ofthat range, which now form the two subspecies,20

for much longer. George et a/. (1982), examininggenetic differences in the mitochondrial DNA,estimated that the present subspecies separatedtwo million years ago. Their sample was too smallto be able to generalize, but it does indicate aconsiderable difference and there are obviousmorphological differences. Groves (1972, 1975)described the taxonomic differences as (i) lessdorsal concavity in the skull of the northern, (ii)loss of body hair in adults, and (iii) a shortermaxillary tooth row. We also observed thesecranial differences in the skulls we have found(Hillman et a/., 1986a,b). The skull shape isdistinct in the field, and the head is held higherthan in southern whites. Body proportions arealso different, with the northern white rhino'stending to be shorter, and there are almost cer-tainly ecological and behavioural differencesbetween the two subspecies.

Status of northern white rhinoThe greatest difference, however, is in theirconservation status. The southern white rhinos,nearly extinct at the beginning of the century,now number over 3500 and are widely dis-tributed throughout their former range and incaptivity (Hillman, 1981). The northern whiterhinos face a strong possibility of extinction. Asurvey of African rhinos between 1979 and 1981(Hillman, 1981) indicated a serious situation forthe northern white rhinos, with low numbers andvery little effective protection of them or theirecosystems. Action to improve their conservationin Sudan and Zaire was rated of highest priorityby the then IUCN African Rhino Group. In 1979/80 maximum numbers were believed to be fewerthan 1000, and by 1981 fewer than 700. In 1983,

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a survey solely on the northern white rhinos(Hillman and Smith, 1983) revealed thatnumbers had dropped to probably fewer than 50in the wild. While earlier numbers may have beensomewhat overestimated, there has been a realloss of well over 80 per cent since 1979.

In Uganda, reports varied from maybe one sub-adult female left (P. Ssemwezi, pers. comm.),sightings in 1982 (I. Douglas-Hamilton, pers.comm.) to probable extinction (Edroma, 1982; F.Poppleton, pers. comm.). In 1984, the Director ofNational Parks requested money and expertise totranslocate the one known remaining female, inMurchison Falls National Park, to another groupfor breeding purposes. No white rhinos arebelieved to remain in Chad. In the Central AfricanRepublic, where white rhinos occurred in theZemonga region to the east in the 1960s, therehave been only two recent unverified sightingsreported (R. Monteyro, pers. comm.). In Sudan,

in 1979/80, 200-300 rhinos were believed toexist in the Shambe region (P. McClinton pers.comm.), and in November 1980 an aerial surveyestimated 168±71 in the Southern National Park(Boitani, 1981). Then, they existed in a few otherareas, but these have since been lost. They hadalready gone from Nimule National Park, whichhad once been famous for them. However, rhinopoaching increased considerably in Sudan in1980, and by the end of the 1981 dry season anaerial survey of the Shambe region estimated57±42 rhino skeletons and 714±243 unidenti-fied skeletons in 10,000 sq km, and saw no liverhinos (Hillman et al., 1981). Invasions of hugenumbers of well-armed poachers from the northfrom 1981 to 1983 probably accounted for mostof the rhinos in Southern National Park. Thenorthern white rhino ground survey in 1983(Hillman and Smith, 1983) indicated that only avery few individuals remained in the Shambe andSouthern National Park areas, possibly as many

111!* Approximate range last century

• Known locations 1983/4

A Probable locations 1983/4

O Possible locations 1983/4

National Parks 8 Reserves

CHAD

J S t Floris

SUDAN

North

South^

CENTRAL AFRICANREPUBLIC

MurchisonFalls NP

UGANDA

Past and present ranges of northern white rhinos.

Northern white rhino 21

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as 10-30 overall, but that the widespreadpoaching, together with civil and military unrest,now preclude conservation action.

In Zaire, the only white rhinos remaining were inGaramba National Park, a World Heritage Site,established in 1938 specifically for the protectionof the rhinos and the Congo giraffe Giraffacamelopardalis congoensis. At that time, therewere about 100 rhinos (Curry-Lindahl, 1972).Numbers increased subsequently, and between1960 and 1963 the park staff estimated 1100-1300 rhinos. However, they fell again rapidlybetween 1964 and 1968 when the Park wasoccupied by Simba rebel forces, then Sudaneseand mercenaries, who killed the rhinos toexchange the horns for money or arms. Curry-Lindahl (1972) estimated that 900-1100 rhinosdied, leaving fewer than 100. After control of thePark was regained, rhino numbers increasedagain. In 1970, 65 were reported from a pre-liminary foot survey by park staff, and reportednumbers varied in subsequent years (Hillman etal., 1983), probably due to different methods ofestimation. In 1976, an aerial sample countestimated 490+270 (Savidge et al, 1976).Poaching apparently began again in earnestbetween 1978 and 1980 with the ready avail-ability of arms from Uganda and Sudan and adisinterested Conservateur, and by the end of the1981 season only 35 rhinos were seen by parkstaff on a foot survey south of the Garamba River.

The rhinos of Garamba:a conservation priorityA joint meeting of the IUCN African Rhino Groupand the IUCN African Elephant Group in August1981 gave highest priority to conservation of therhinos in Garamba National Park, which, as anexisting park, appeared to have greater chancesof conservation success than Sudan. In 1982, anFAO project stimulated further alarm on thedeteriorating situation for the rhinos in Garamba.As a result, the newly amalgamated IUCN AfricanElephant and Rhino Group, with the World Wild-life Fund (WWF), sent a mission to the Park,which formulated an updated and larger projectwith the authorities for preliminary, immediateaction. The Zaire part of the 1983 survey of thestatus of northern white rhinos (Hillman and

22

Smith, 1983; Hillman eta/., 1983) consisted of aseries of aerial and ground surveys in GarambaNational Park, funded by WWF, the GlobalEnvironment Monitoring System of the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), andhelped by the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS).These comprised: an intensive 46 per centsystematic sample count over the southern thirdof the Park, where rhinos could most be expected(1609 sq km); a general 10 per cent systematicsample count over the whole Park (4900 sq km)and a major part of the surrounding huntingreserves (total 8998 sq km); a ground count bypark staff walking 2-km-spaced transects, and asimultaneous very high intensity ground andaerial count over 84 sq km of the main rhino area.Results from these, together with general recon-naissance flying and walking, and with theinformation on known individuals from guards,led to an estimate of 13-20 rhinos remaining inthe southern part of the Park and little likelihoodof any in the north.

A recommendation by some members of theAfrican Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group thatthe rhinos be translocated was unacceptable tothe Zaire authorities. However, because of it, thenew IUCN/WWF/FZS/UNESCO project torehabilitate Garamba National Park did notinitially incorporate any special measures for therhinos. The rehabilitation project was not able tostart until March 1984 and became effective onlyin August. Between the survey in March 1983and August 1984, four or five rhinos werereported to have been poached. With the start ofthe rehabilitation project, one of us (KH), withhelp from the Fauna and Flora PreservationSociety (FFPS), Kenya Rhino Action Group(KRAG) and WWF, has been, with MmO, tryingto ascertain rhino numbers and populationstructure through individual recognition, whilealso examining other possibilities for improvingtheir chances of survival. At the same time, we areestablishing a monitoring programme for thewildlife with emphasis on the rhinos. Eleven indi-viduals could be accounted for by June 1984when increasing grass length made ground workineffective. Since then, we have found anothertwo adults and a female and calf north of the river,and in March 1985 a new young calf wasobserved. We cannot be sure of numbers yet,

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since from the air one cannot always identifyindividuals, but ground work is underway again.However, we can so far account for between 13and 15, and it is very likely that more exist. Theseindividuals are listed in Table 1.

Poaching perhaps controllableWith the changing of Conservateurs from those inthe main poaching years, and the input of theresources and manpower of the rehabilitationproject, there is at last a chance that an anti-poaching drive can be made effective. The limitedaction possible over the past two years has cer-tainly improved matters; no fresh carcasses havebeen found and gunshots have not been heardsouth of the river. The rehabilitation project isnow including some emphasis on the rhinos in itsanti-poaching efforts, and it is felt that the pop-ulation should be closely monitored. However, itis also felt that further specific action for the rhinosis needed, both in the intermediate and long term.The line of action must, however, ultimately bedecided by the Zaire authorities.

In Garamba National Park, the level of poachingat present is not as severe as it has been, or as insome other African countries. It would seem to bepotentially controllable, at least in the south. Arecent rhino poacher obtained a very low price forhorn, indicating some lack of sophistication in the

Table 1. Northern white rhinos known in Garamba NationalPark (March 1985)

4 or 5 adult males5 adult females1 unsexed subadult1 male calf, more than 1 year old1 female calf, 1 year—18 months old1 unsexed calf, less than 1 year old1 unsexed calf, born about February 1985

system. We have evidence that horn from Zairehas been traded through Sudan. The main aim ofthe poaching is to make money by selling it on theillegal international market, but there are also afew local uses of rhino products in northern Zaire:small pieces of horn are sometimes fashioned intorings to protect the wearer against poisons orharm from another person.

Captive rhinosThere were 13 northern white rhinos known incaptivity at the beginning of 1984. It wouldappear that more have been caught from the wildin the past, but their current whereabouts are notknown. Those known are listed in Table 2.

The group at Dvur Kralove are breeding and arebeing managed to improve reproductive success(with hormone treatment) and to maximizegenetic variability (by changing the males givenaccess to the females). From the summer of 1984,

A view of the Garamba River (Kes Hillman-Smith).

Northern white rhino 23

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they were to have had a larger, semi-natural area(J. Safarik, pers. comm.). It is important for thesurvival of the subspecies that a strong captivepopulation is built up as a back-up to a wild one.When feasible, it would be advisable for a secondgroup to be established in a different location, butwith exchange of genetic material. It could bepossible to do this with one male and two femalesif a male southern white rhino were kept in anadjacent enclosure to provide the group stimulusnecessary for breeding success as recommendedby Lindemann (1981). The male at Khartoum isyoung enough to be able to make a valuablecontribution and should be loaned to join others ifpossible. Any advances in the field of repro-ductive management, such as artificial insemin-ation of white rhinos, in vitro fertilization and/ortransfer of northern white embryos to southernwhites, would be most valuable. Correspondencewith experts in this field indicates that it is notbeyond the bounds of possibility.

Future possibilitiesWhat are the chances of a future for northernwhite rhinos? They appear to be slim, but possiblewith enough long-term input In view of the lownumbers, it is necessary to make a two-prongedapproach, both by improving and consolidatingthe captives and also by protecting the last majorwild group and their habitat Management of thecaptive rhinos could include the following:

(i) Examination of the existing captive-breeding group to ascertain if there are ways inwhich their breeding or husbandry could befurther improved and whether international helpwould be needed.

(ii) Formalizing of agreements on exchangesof animals or genetic materials to maximizeheterozygosity. The zoos holding the rhinosagreed to this informally in 1982.

(iii) Loan of the male from Khartoum Zoo toa breeding group, and possibly the use of the SanDiego male, in a suitable situation.

(iv) Development of techniques, such asartificial insemination and embryo transplant,applicable to white rhinos. Southern whitefemales would appear to be a suitable recipientfor the latter.

(v) Establishment of another breedinggroup, as the IUCN Captive Breeding Grouprecommends for the management of endangeredspecies. It could be feasible to establish anothergroup somewhere using the male from Khar-toum, the female from Uganda, and loan fromDvur Kralove and, at a later stage, perhaps a fewfrom Sudan, if all parties were agreeable. Allanimals would need to be held on loan, andbreeding exchanges should be considered anintegral part of the operation.

As far as the wild rhino population in Garamba isconcerned, it would theoretically be possible fortheir numbers to build up again from the presentlow level. Recent tests on genetic variability in

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Table 2. Northern white rhinos in captivity

Studbook no.

161974

347 or 348372373374376377378476*630

Sex

fmmmmmfffffmf

Date and place ofbirth

1948 Sudan1950 Sudan1952 Sudan

? Sudan1973 Sudan1972 Sudan1974 Sudan1972 Sudan1972 Sudan1969 Uganda11.11.77 Dvur Kralove8.6.83

15.11.83

Location held

AntwerpLondonSan DiegoKhartoumDvur Kralove

Date of arrival

7.7.195025.7.19552.8.1972

4.1970 or 3.197313.10.1975

"

••

27.8.197711.11.19778.6.1980

15.11.1983

*May be of mixed C.s. simum and C.s. cottoni parentage.

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Adult male northern white rhino (KesHillman-Smith).

small populations indicate that there is less causefor alarm about loss of heterozygosity and geneticviability than was previously believed (D.S.Woodruff, pers. comm.), especially if the popu-lation does not remain small for many gener-ations. There are many examples of specieshaving rebuilt numbers from very low levels. Thesouthern white rhino is a classic example. Sixblack rhinos introduced into Akagera NationalPark, Rwanda, in 1958 bred to result in a popu-lation of 20-40 by 1979 (N. Monfort, pers.comm.). Eight Himalayan tahr were introducedinto New Zealand; now they are a national pest(M. Gwynne, pers. comm.). The total worldpopulation of Pere David's deer, of severalhundred animals, originated from three indi-viduals at the beginning of this century (D.S.Woodruff, pers. comm.).

If one were to assume a present population of 15rhinos in Garamba, even at a pessimistic rate ofNorthern white rhino

increase with a 10 per cent natural mortality eachyear, they could more than double in 10 years.Owen-Smith (1974) found a maximum 10 percent rate of increase in a population of southernwhite rhinos at a high density, and where onemight, perhaps, expect some degree of feedbackto depress breeding rate. Heller (1913) observedthat northern white rhinos then in Sudan beganbreeding at an earlier age than southern whites. A10 per cent rate of increase in the Garambapopulation would give more than 40 animals in10 years. If the ecosystem were sufficiently safein the future, captive animals could also bereintroduced.

However, all such theoretical possibilities aremeaningless unless the population can be pro-tected against poachers. It is, therefore, vital thatthere is rapid, sufficient and long-term input togive them adequate protection, and that there is anational, as well as international, commitment toit. Although general improvements in anti-poaching moves are now underway, rhinos arenot given priority.

There are two other opportunities for conser-vation action. Firstly, it has been suggested thatthe Garamba rhino population should be trans-located to another country. This is, unders-tandably, unacceptable to the Zairois. Even if itwere acceptable, there would be immensepractical difficulties and a need for massive funds,which might be better spent on protecting therhinos in situ. The translocation exercise wouldalso involve danger for the rhinos and wouldrender the subspecies effectively extinct in thewild, while the theoretical aim of later reintro-duction would not only be extremely far in thefuture, but fraught with even greater difficulties(Stanley-Price, 1985). Secondly, proposals havealso been made to hold the rhinos in captivity orin semi-captivity in the Park, or elsewhere inZaire. This option has considerable practicaldisadvantages in a place like Garamba, andwould also involve danger for the rhinos and agood deal of expense, but is not inconceivable.We favour the concentration of special efforts toprotect and maintain the rhinos in the Park, inconjunction with the rehabilitation project. It isfive years since northern white rhinos wereaccorded higher conservation priority than any

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other rhinos in Africa, yet very little concrete hasbeen achieved for them. We believe it is worthmaking an effort to save this last remaining wildpopulation.

Acknowledgments

We are very grateful to the organizations that have supportedthe past and present work on the northern white rhinos, inparticular: the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, FAO,Frankfurt Zoological Society, Global Environment MonitoringSystem of UNEP, International Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources, Kenya Rhino Action Group,United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organ-ization, and the World Wildlife Fund. We should also like tothank the Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature,Wildlife Department of the Ministry of Wildlife Conservationand Tourism, Southern Sudan, Uganda National Parks andthe staff of Garamba National Park, and Charles Mackie of theGaramba Rehabilitation Project.

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Edroma, E. 1982. White rhino extinct in Uganda. Oryx, 16,352-357.

George, M., Puentes, L.A. and Ryder, O.A. 1982. GenetischeUnterschiede zwischen den Unterarten des Breitmaulin-ashorns. International Studbook of African Rhinoceroses,2, 60-67 (Zoologiischer Garten Berlin).

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26

Adult malenorthernwhite rhinoin GarambaNational Park(Kes Hillman-Smith).

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Hillman, K., Borner, M., Mankoto ma Oyisenzoo, Rogers, P.and Smith, F. 1983. Aerial Census of the GarambaNational Park, Zaire, March 1983, With Emphasis on theNorthern White Rhinos and Elephants. Report to IUCN/WWF/GEMS/FZS.

Hillman, K. and Smith, F. 1983. Survey of the Status of theNorthern White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni,Lydekker) in 1983. Report to IUCN/WWF/GEMS.

Hillman, K., Smith, F., Safarik, J. and Svitalsky, M. 1986b.Notes on dentition and cranial measurements of thenorthern white rhinoceros (C.s. cottoni). J. Zool. (in press).

Hillman, K., Snyder, P.M., Tear, T. andSomerlatte, M. 1981.Report of an Aerial Census of the Shambe Region,Southern Sudan. Report to IUCN/WWF and Dept. ofWildlife and Tourism, Southern Sudan.

Hooijer, D.A. 1969. Pleistocene East African Rhinoceroses. InFossil Vertebrates of Africa (ed. Leake), Vol. 1, pp. 71 -98.Academic Press, London.

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Sydney, J. 1965. The past and present distribution of someAfrican ungulates. 2. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 30,1-399.

Dr Kes Hillman-Smith and Dr Fraser Smith, IUCN/ParcNational de la Garamba, c/o AIM/MAF(uiaBunia, Zaire), Box21285, Nairobi, Kenya.

Dr Mankoto ma Oyisenzoo, Institut Zairois pour la Conser-vation de la Nature, BP868, Kinshasa 1, Zaire.

PostscriptSince this article was submitted, two more rhino calves havebeen born at the Park.

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