77197303 cidtt the guide

Cambridge International

Diploma for

Teachers and Trainers

GUIDE

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© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007

Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers CONTENTS

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CONTENTS This is a bookmarked document. Use the bookmarked links below (and/or the bookmarks tab in Acrobat) to navigate easily around the Guide. Page

INTRODUCTION 4

Welcome 4

The spirit of the Diploma 5

Thinking about yourself as a teacher 6

What makes a good teacher? 7

Personality and professionalism 8

Introducing you to the Diploma syllabus 9

Approaching assignments 11

Your personal development diary 15

Resources 16

Performance observation 17

Being an observer yourself 24

Scanning guidelines 28

Images in Word documents 29

Examiners’ advice to candidates 32

MODULE 1 : DESIGN 40

1.1.1 Identifying learners’ needs 41

1.1.2 Specifying the learning objectives 47

1.1.3 Planning content, methods and resources 51

1.1.4 Completing the programme plan 59

1.2.1 Specifying the requirements for each learning session 63

1.2.2 Completing session plans 75

1.2.3 Preparing learning materials 82

1.2.4 Preparing equipment and learning facilities 88

1.2.5 Planning for evaluation 92

1.2.6 Preparing the learning environment 95

MODULE 2 : PRACTICE 99

2.1.1 Presenting information 100

2.1.2 Giving instruction and demonstration 105

2.1.3 Using visual aids 111

2.1.4 Supervising learning activities 116

2.1.5 Managing the flow of activities 121


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers CONTENTS

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2.1.6 Managing the learning environment 126

2.2.1 Motivating learners 136

2.2.2 Encouraging learners 144

2.2.3 Guiding learners 150

2.2.4 Supporting learners 154

MODULE 3 : ASSESSMENT 160

3.1.1 Preparing formative assessments 161

3.1.2 Using formative assessments 169

3.1.3 Analysing formative assessment data 177

3.1.4 Providing feedback about progress 183

3.1.5 Maintaining records of learners’ progress 190

3.2.1 Preparing summative assessments 195

3.2.2 Using summative assessments 206

3.2.3 Analysing summative assessment data 214

3.2.4 Providing feedback about achievement 220

3.2.5 Maintaining records of learners’ achievement 223

MODULE 4 : EVALUATION 226

4.1.1 Evaluating learning 227

4.1.2 Using evaluation to plan improvements 234

4.1.3 Making improvements and planning further evaluation 238

4.2.1 Evaluating own practice 243

4.2.2 Identifying goals for improvement 249

4.2.3 Completing a professional development plan 261

4.2.4 Specifying actions and evaluating outcomes 265


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION WELCOME On behalf of the University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE), we would like to welcome you to the Diploma for Teachers and Trainers and to this Guide. We hope you enjoy reading and using these materials. They are intended for everyone preparing for the Diploma – candidates and their trainers. The Guide contains guidance and suggestions for practice which can be used by individuals or used in group activities. It is organized into four sections, each corresponding to a module in the Diploma, following the sequence of the performance criteria, so you can easily find guidance and advice on particular aspects e.g. identifying learner’s needs. This is not a text book. It is a source of ideas, information and possibilities, all relating to the Diploma framework. You may like to use the materials in a different order from the way in which they are presented here. That’s fine. You may also like to modify and develop the ideas and exercises – and we would be happy if the materials are a springboard for such individual and group creativity. We have also provided a resource list of suggested readings and websites for the Diploma. We do encourage you to explore these, and yourself to look for and investigate others. For ease of writing and reading, we have used the terms ‘teacher’ and ‘learner’ as generic terms throughout. This is an opportunity to refresh your thinking and practice. We hope your Diploma experience is as fruitful and enjoyable an experience as possible. We wish you every success. Kind regards

Paul Beedle, CIE Manager Professional Development Certification

Bob Burkill, Principal Examiner Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers

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THE SPIRIT OF THE DIPLOMA In its intent, purpose and content, the Diploma is geared to the concept of active learning. Active learning is very different from the traditional ‘teacher down’ model of learning which is still found in some parts of the world. This old model saw the teacher standing at the front of the class presenting information which the learners dutifully wrote down, learned (often by rote) and were duly tested upon. It was inflexible and authoritarian. Here is what such a classroom used to look like

But in a classroom where active learning is at the heart of experience, teacher and learner interact much more effectively, as in this image from a classroom of today.

Active learning involves the learners in activities developed and guided by the teacher. Such activities may involve a range of teaching and learning approaches including group work, role play, learner presentations, fieldwork, experimentation, and using simulations. Although active learning is more diverse (and certainly more engaging) it needs careful planning and preparation to meet the needs of the learners, clear identification of learning objectives, accurate tailoring of assessment and a real awareness of flexibility. This can be challenging but the Diploma is all about trying something new in the process of teaching and learning and the contents of this Guide are designed to meet the needs of enterprising teachers.

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THINKING ABOUT YOURSELF AS A TEACHER Human personalities are extremely diverse. This means that teachers will bring to teaching and learning all the features and characteristics which make us who we are. The Diploma recognises the enormous contribution which teachers' personalities make to the teaching-learning process. We have all benefited from the care, warmth, humour and inspiration which many teachers have shared with us. They have made our learning fun. They have made our education enjoyable as well as worthwhile. All kinds of different personalities may help to make excellent teachers. Some may lead and amuse, some may be 'quiet persuaders' and others can create order from seeming chaos. There is no single especially successful set of human attributes for success as a teacher - we all have something to offer. What is certain is that the best teachers are those who can use their talents creatively in a professional context. In order for effective teaching and learning to take place in any learning environment it's useful for teachers to spend some time thinking about themselves as learners and teachers before starting to explore the needs of those who sit (or stand!) before them. So much of what happens in the learning environment is influenced by the personalities of the people within it. Therefore one of the keys to maximising the potential of the learning environment in which you work is to know yourself.

What you do with this knowledge can contribute greatly towards raising achievement and meeting the goals that you and your learners set.

So what kind of teacher are you? Not in terms of subject, level or faculty, but in terms of the way in which you perform your role.

Do you typically use one style of teaching, for example, lecture, board work or worksheets, rather than another? Are you the 'all singing all dancing' type or do you prefer to work to a calmer pace or rhythm in your classroom?

It doesn't matter how long you have been teaching, it's still useful and relevant to carry out an internal audit on how as well as who you are in the classroom. Remember that we are all multifaceted so you may well find that you feel more comfortable fitting yourself into a combination of styles of teaching or definitions, rather than one!

The Indiana State University website carries an overview of teaching styles based on the work of Anthony Grasha, Professor of Psychology at the University of Cincinnati, including an inventory/audit. This is well worth a visit:

http://web.indstate.edu/oit/cirt/pd/styles/tstyle.html

and here is another useful audit you can try

http://members.shaw.ca/mdde615/tchstylsquiz7.htm

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http://web.indstate.edu/oit/cirt/pd/styles/tstyle.html

http://members.shaw.ca/mdde615/tchstylsquiz7.htm


WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER?

There’s no quick and easy answer!

The following ideas may help you to formulate your answer: • think about the ideals you held when you started out as a teacher • think about a session that went particularly well – what characterised that

session? • think about the full scope of a teacher's job in the context in which you work • if appropriate, ask your learners what they think makes a good teacher.

How do you rate yourself against the conclusions that you have reached? You may find it useful to discuss this with a trusted colleague.

One initial response might be that teacher effectiveness has at its heart • subject knowledge • an understanding of how learning can take place • and an understanding of how to manage the transformative process of teaching

and learning. However the concept of teacher effectiveness carries different meanings and emphases across the world. In the Hay McBer study of teacher effectiveness

http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id=1487

which was undertaken for the UK Department for Education and Skills in 1999 and published in 2000, Year 8 pupils (i.e. age 12 and 13) gave the following descriptions of the characteristics of ‘a good teacher’: 'A good teacher ...

• is kind • is generous • listens to you • encourages you • has faith in you • keeps confidences • likes teaching children • likes teaching their subject • takes time to explain things • helps you when you're stuck • tells you how you are doing • allows you to have your say • doesn't give up on you • cares for your opinion • makes you feel clever • treats people equally • stands up for you • makes allowances • tells the truth • is forgiving.'

How would your learners describe ‘what makes a good teacher’?

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http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id=1487


PERSONALITY AND PROFESSIONALISM

You do come across sayings such as ‘teachers are born not made’ and mumbled remarks such as ‘no amount of instruction can turn a bad teacher into a good one.’ Such views seem to set personality against professionalism.

Experience surely indicates that no one personality type is ideally suited to the profession of teaching. All kinds of personality can flourish in teaching.

Some learners may find certain types of personality more attractive than others, but they rapidly complain when an ‘entertaining’ teacher in practice does not show them an organized and effective way forward in their learning.

The Diploma approach to this is very clear. Modern education programmes and techniques are diversifying rapidly. Education is taking place in an ever increasing variety of contexts and the idea of ‘lifelong education’ has been with us for almost a lifetime. Communication media such as television bring other forms of communication in information into people’s daily lives, quite beyond the reach of education. Thus the expectations of learners are much higher in terms of learning programme design, activities and teaching skills. Teachers must respond to these challenges.

In developing their own teaching skills and experience, teachers can become much more confident and effective. The vehicle for such development is their own imagination, persistence, determination, care and enterprise. Teaching, therefore, is very much a personal business. It could be argued that confidence in your own professional practice will have a most beneficial effect on how you see your job, your future and your life.

So it is ‘ying and yang.’ There is a natural, positive and dynamic inter-relationship between personality and professionalism.

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INTRODUCING YOU TO THE DIPLOMA SYLLABUS Let’s briefly go through the Diploma syllabus together. Our syllabus aims to be as complete as possible. It explains everything to do with the Diploma and everything which needs to be done. We are going to highlight the most important parts. Page 4 needs careful consideration because it sets out the 'Diploma Structure', that is, the framework for the whole qualification. The four modules are explained and the division into units is clearly shown. Section 2 on Page 6 then talks about how you will be assessed, the structure and templates for assignments, and specific requirements of particular assignments. There are some key phrases here which might prompt discussion and explanation with your colleagues on your programme - e.g. 'assignment', 'template', and 'evidence.' Sections 2.0 to 2.2 give a very good idea of the flavour of assessment activities. You can get a 'feel' for what is involved. Note the need for performance observation in Module 2. Section 2.0 also introduces the dimension of evaluation and the personal development diary. Evaluation is a most important process. In practice it tends to get squeezed or even squeezed out altogether in the often hectic 'business' of teaching. The Diploma helps you explore the evaluation process. It encourages reflection and deeper thought about what has been experienced so that you can make improvements and explore new avenues of possibilities. Records, too, are sometimes seen as a chore. In this Diploma they become a vital tool because they deal with results or outcomes. Sections 2.3 and 2.4 on Page 8 complete the picture by considering presentation, external assessment and results and certification. We can now look at the main body of the syllabus (Pages 10-45) as a whole. Pages 10 and 11 provide a double spread presentation of all the performance criteria in the Diploma, indicating the flow and sequence of teaching, and the balance between the modules. Section 4 sets out in detail the content of each of the Units in the four Modules and the assignment guidelines for each module. Each module's content is presented in the same way. Individual unit titles are given, the scope of each unit is explained and their performance criteria are set out. You can look at Unit 1.1 and see these facets for themselves - Performance criterion summary statement (in bold) Characteristics of performance (in italics) Skills, knowledge and understanding

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You can then 'thumb through' the rest of the syllabus - all the Units and Modules are set out in the same way. Pick out one or two which have particular relevance for you, and look at these in detail - this will help you connect with the way the syllabus works. Assessment Guidelines are included for each Module. You can see from the syllabus that Assignment 1, for example, covers the skills needed in Units 1.1 and 1.2 and everything you will need to do for the assignment is set out 'step by step' (see pages 18 to 21). Page 45 shows everyone how the Grading is organised around themes and how criteria are used to identify Pass and Distinction grades. Now you have had a look through the syllabus you’ll be looking forward to what lies ahead!

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APPROACHING ASSIGNMENTS We want you to feel clear and confident about preparing your own assignments. You need to complete your assignments in the light of your own professional practice. Your reference points and the content of your assignments lie within your own working experience. By all means you should be finding out (more) about theories and models of teaching and learning, but what matters is how you put what you learn into practice ‘in the classroom’, your reflections on this experience and how you can turn this experience and your reflections into future improvement. Thus you can refer to published or Internet articles where you feel they have a particular bearing on your work. But credit is given to how you have applied this knowledge and understanding in your practice, rather than simply citing names and references.

The Diploma examiners are interested to know about your real experience as presented in the evidence in your assignment. The assignment template provides a standard framework for all candidates to use, corresponding to the guidelines in the syllabus. Although all candidates everywhere are using the same, common format for reporting, the content of each assignment is fresh and unique. Template The template is already formatted – this makes life easier for you (and also for the examiners!). You’ll see that the information supplied by CIE (e.g. the prompts) is in Arial font, and the space provided for you to make your entries is in Verdana font. We've chosen these fonts because they are universally available. You should leave the page format as it is – there’s no reason to change it (you don’t get extra credit for spending time beautifying the document!). The template is a Word document. So you can easily check aspects such as word count and spelling by highlighting selected text and using the appropriate Word tools as normal. You can also quickly navigate around your assignment by activating the document map (select Document Map on View pull down menu, or click the Document Map button on the toolbar), then simply click on the section headings you wish to skip to. If you have difficulties using the template, please discuss with your centre, who will, if necessary, consult CIE for further advice. Cover page - your details are crucial You’ll see that on each assignment cover sheet you need to complete your candidate details. By completing this you are also confirming the statement in bold at the top of the cover sheet, namely:

By completing this form and submitting the assignment for assessment by CIE I confirm that the assignment is all my own work. I have appropriately referenced and acknowledged any work taken from another source.

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So as a first step, it's vital to complete the cover sheet properly and accurately.

Before you submit your completed assignment to your centre to send to CIE, make sure you have entered the following in the boxes given:

• the date of submission in dd/mm/yy format. • your candidate number (your centre will have given this to you) • your name (as you wish it to appear on your certificate).

Very simple!

But also very important. Remember that Diploma examiners have many assignments to look at each month. An assignment without proper information on the cover sheet is a real problem, so we'd certainly appreciate you being responsible about this. Many thanks! Context The next sheet in the assignment template allows you to tell the examiners briefly about your self and your context. You need briefly to describe:

• Your personal experience • Your role and responsibilities • Your institution • Your learners

Please be brief. This is not intended to be a curriculum vitae, for example. Imagine you had just met your examiner and had two or three minutes to explain to him/her the aspects of your context which really need to be taken into account. These are what you need to communicate – in writing. Many different teachers and trainers enter for the Diploma, teaching all ages and ability levels in all sorts of contexts. You may be a classroom teacher, a workplace trainer, an online tutor – or be working in another of the many ways in which teaching and training is practised in today’s world. The Diploma is equally accessible to all teachers and trainers – i.e. it provides a ‘level playing field’ for assessment of teaching practice and performance. Evidence – meeting the requirements

Please also make sure that you meet the assignment requirements for evidence. For example you are required to submit two session plans, so please submit two. If you submit only one, you are clearly not meeting the requirements, so will be asked to resubmit. This applies both to Part A and Part B of the assignments.

In Part B if you present several hundred words less than the word limit, you really will not be giving yourself sufficient room in which to express your ideas and reflections. So it is likely that you will asked to resubmit. There is no need to go way over the word limits at any point in the assignment, as you will not receive any extra credit for this. Do remember to respond to the three key themes in your Reflective Report in Part B of each assignment.

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There is also a sheet at the end of the template which you can use if necessary to provide brief additional evidence if you like. But you don’t have to use this. Remember that such additional evidence needs to be relevant and brief. ‘Brief’ is the right word! CIE is looking at the quality of your experience and ideas as a teacher not weighing the quantity of pages that you can present. The guidelines and template are designed to provide a comprehensive framework for gathering evidence. However there may be a particular piece of additional evidence which enables you to highlight a critical feature of your experience in design, practice, assessment or evaluation. On the other hand some candidates have felt they needed to submit a large volume of supplementary evidence e.g. the assessed scripts for the whole learner group or their detailed CV or a series of testimonials! This is unnecessary. Please rest assured that we have been very careful to decide on the manageable amount of evidence which we need to see, and there is no reason or benefit in sending more than we have asked for. Word limits Please do try to keep within the word limits. These word limits are based on sound experience of how many words on average a candidate needs to demonstrate each point. But they are approximate - i.e. you don't have worry about being exact! You’ll find it very difficult to present enough evidence if you only give very short statements – say only one or two sentences. On the other hand if you find yourself going significantly over the word limits then you really need to be thinking about editing – and being concise. So try to be more or less in the region of the number of words requested. Too little and there’s a risk that you’re missing important things out, too much and there’s a risk that not everything is going to be taken into account. Evidence is only evidence when it is looked at! Being careful, like this, about the impact and economy of your communication – often about complicated ideas or issues – is an important aspect of quality professional work. Inserts In Assignment 2 you have to insert Observation Records and Learner Feedbacks. You need to use the standard CIE forms for these. It’s up to you, your observer and your learners whether they complete these by hand or by wordprocessing. If by hand, you can scan the handwritten version and insert the scanned image. If you do this, be sure to convert the image from a TIFF to a JPEG format, using a low resolution – otherwise your assignment may become very large in terms of memory (see the notes at the end of this Introduction section for further advice). Alternatively, you can word process the information on the handwritten forms and include this (but remember that we might ask you for the original forms, so please keep these). In Assignment 3, you have to include an example of an assessment, mark scheme, and high/mid/low work by learners in the assessment. Of course, there is a very wide range of assessment etc you might choose. Be economical. So, for example, if your example is a written assessment, instead of giving us a complete question paper, mark scheme, and scripts, select a particular question, its mark scheme and the answers of the learners.

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It may be that you want to tell us about a very different kind of assessment, e.g. practical or online. This is fine. Just think carefully about how best to provide sufficient, appropriate and economical evidence e.g. digital images or screen shots. Your experience - your words - your voice Choose the style with which you feel most comfortable, as long as you’re able to talk about your real practice. Our examiners are really interested in hearing what you have to say, rather than being concerned about how fluently you say it. They are themselves expert teachers and teacher trainers, with a wealth of international experience. They are not going to penalise you for spelling, grammar, style, etc. So the more you use your normal voice and language the better as this will help your assignment to be a genuine reflection of you as a teacher. Many candidates for the Diploma are using English or another language which is not their first language. We do not assess use of language in this Diploma. So, for example, if you make spelling or grammar 'mistakes', these do not matter. Of course it is always good practice to be careful about presentation! So we encourage you to take pride in your assignment. But we want to reassure you and every candidate that as long as the examiners can understand the sense of what you are saying to us, then this is the essence for our assessment. We want you to write about your professional practice. Therefore it is perfectly appropriate and acceptable to write in the first person. Although you will use continuous prose, you can and should think of using point form (bullet points) especially in Part A.

Do not be afraid to use your imagination and say how you think your ideas and work practices have changed and developed during and because of the Diploma experience – this is very much in the spirit of the qualification, which is intended to help teachers to ‘grow’ professionally.

Look at the grading criteria on page 45 of the syllabus. You can see that the examiners are looking to see if and how candidates have gone beyond the competent performance to consider implications of use of ICT for the institution, their own professional development and that of their learners.

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YOUR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT DIARY

1. Why keep a diary?

Many teachers keep a personal development diary. Some call it a 'log book', others a 'journal.' Whatever you call it, this diary has several uses.

It acts as a record of what you intended, what actually happened and your own reflections on these. So you would include session and programme plans, and your own notes based on their outcomes. It is thus an invaluable source of evidence, evaluation and reflection - not just for the purposes of a professional qualification like the Diploma, but generally in your career as a teacher.

It contains raw evidence for

• developing your next designs for learning programmes and sessions • appraisal • contacts with parents • formative assessment e.g. conferencing

It can also help your colleagues when you are absent.

It can act as a source of enrichment. One of our Cambridge Diploma trainers has a well-worn journal in which she writes down excerpts from articles, quotations and notes and she uses her journal in her training sessions!

It is a 'good companion' - a source of personal and professional support and development.

2. What should the diary contain? This is very much up to you as an individual. You could include

• draft plans • calendar • self-evaluation of sessions • learner and others’ feedback on sessions • on-going ideas for improvement • suggestions based on conversations with other teachers • brief notes of conferences and visits • quotations • references (publications and websites) • excerpts from the press and other articles.

The actual format of the diary is really up to you also. A4 ring binders are better suited to storing data, plans and so on. You probably need something more distinctive and portable. Many teachers use a book the size of a desk diary. Some are ring-bound and very useful. You might prefer to use a personal organizer, a PDA (personal digital assistant), or a laptop.

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The most important thing is to find the format and content of diary which suits you – so that you keep it regularly up to date, not because someone else has told you to, but because it is genuinely useful to you.



RESOURCES There is a Diploma Resource List (downloadable from the CIE website at http://www.cie.org.uk/qualifications/teacher/level2/diptt/index_html)

This Guide is intended to complement the texts in the Resource List such as the CIE-endorsed Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers Textbook and Workbook, by Ian Barker.

We also highly recommend Geoff Petty’s book Teaching Today (and his website http://www.geoffpetty.com/) as resources which, like Ian Barker’s, you will find regularly of help to you during your Diploma programme.

You should take the opportunity to read those materials which are particularly relevant to you in your context and for your interests, but also look further afield. Be resourceful and inquiring. There isn't a fixed encyclopaedia of professional knowledge for you to learn. Instead there is an open world of developments in teaching and learning for you to explore.

Your own colleagues are a vital resource for you. Let them know what you're doing and how you're getting on. Ask their advice and make the most of opportunities for share ideas. You may be able to find a more experienced colleague who is happy to act as your mentor.

Don't forget your own learners. Their cooperation and feedback will be an important part of your Diploma experience, e.g. as you try new approaches to sessions.

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http://www.cie.org.uk/qualifications/teacher/level2/diptt/index_html

http://www.geoffpetty.com/


PERFORMANCE OBSERVATION Observation of teaching is a requirement in Module 2 of the Diploma. You need to understand the purpose of these observations when you are planning for Module 1, because the sessions which will be observed in Module 2 are the sessions you plan in detail in Module 1. Remember that these sessions should be contrasting. It's best if you interpret this as involving different teaching and learning styles and approaches - not simply different content. Very few teachers actually look forward to having their teaching observed. How do you feel about this? Why do you feel this way? Whatever your initial apprehensions, let's see if we can help you to approach this with confidence and enthusiasm. Observation is an opportunity to develop the quality of your work rather than a trial to be faced!

Here are a few design ideas for you to work on. The following table will help you to have some ideas, taking the example of a language programme Aspects of teaching that can vary Examples of contrasting sessions within a series of sessions

Teaching strategies 1. The teacher uses collaborative writing with the class to create a class newspaper

2. Use of role play to interpret the roles of personnel in a newspaper office

Resources

Teaching aids 1. The teacher uses a range of newspaper front pages

2. The teacher uses web sites to research ways in which different newspaper report current events

Learner learning styles 1. Involves individual research

2. Collaborative project work

Learning environment 1. Classroom-based

2. Trip to a newspaper office

Outcomes from the session A word processed class newspaper

Researched notes on topic of interest

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Questions for you to think about 1. Who should I ask to do the observations? The Diploma syllabus (page 6) refers to the observer as

a competent person (e.g. an experienced senior teacher/trainer acting as a mentor) who can confirm that performance observed meets the needs of the syllabus Remember the purpose behind the observations themselves:

YOU ARE NOT BEING GRADED, INSPECTED OR ASSESSED FOR APPRAISAL The observations are intended to offer you guidance and feedback to support your developing professional practice, and also to help you when you prepare assignments for the Diploma. It's important to select an observer who is: • competent

s/he should have experience of observation, be familiar with your own teaching area/subject and/or have experience of teaching a similar group of learners

• comfortable

s/he should be someone to whom you relate well and who will put you at your ease so that you can be observed performing well

• clear about the role of observer

s/he needs to recognise that this is a mentoring role, and not an examining one. • impartial

to be effective, s/he needs to approach observation objectively - to be able to give you useful feedback about your professional practice

You need to brief your observer about what to expect, for example by showing him/her the session plans. S/he needs to be familiar with your particular learning environment. S/he needs to use the CIE Observation Record sheet. It's a good idea to choose someone you will feel comfortable with but are not familiar with. Performance in front of close colleagues or friends is often much more difficult than with someone who is more 'detached'.

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2. What practical Issues do I need to think about?

• Talk to your observer before the session • Give your observer a copy of your session plan and any additional notes which

will help him/her with his/her observations (e.g. notes about learners with special educational needs in the group)

• Give your observer copies of texts/ worksheets which you will be using • Give him/her the observation record form and highlight which particular aspects

of your teaching you would like them to notice • Give them a place to sit. Ideally they will sit behind your learners to avoid

distraction. This means that you will be able to see them, but that should not be a problem if you are comfortable in his/her presence

• Prepare your group of learners to expect a visitor • Tell your learners what the observer is likely to do, e.g. that the observer might

have questions or want to have a quick informal look at their work • Introduce the observer to the group • Arrange for a time as soon as possible after the session to receive oral feedback

even if the written notes have not been completed • Make sure that your observer has signed and dated the written feedback • Accept feedback and advice professionally. Trust him/her.

3. How can I make the most of the observation sessions?

Make sure you set aside time for debriefing at the end of each observed session. Be sure to make notes on feedback from your observer. You can use this as evidence in your assignment work. Some of the teaching strategies, resources and activities you use will be new to you as a result of your new knowledge and understanding. The observer should recognise this and make allowances when things don’t always go according to plan. You TOO are a learner and you are allowed to take risks, make mistakes, try out new ideas. 'Mistakes' are positive experiences if you reflect on what you can learn from them. Indeed, reflective learners learn more from their errors and ‘practice runs’ than from occasions when everything goes well. We all feel a little nervous when we're being observed. But just because you feel a little nervous, don’t be tempted to teach a safe, ‘didactic’ session in which you simply lecture the learners. After all: TEACHING IS NOT TELLING You should be aiming to facilitate as much involvement, interaction and active learning as possible.

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Observation Record and Learner Feedback We provide standard forms for both the observer and your learners to use. These are very simple to complete. You can fill in the details at the top of each form before you give them to your observer and your learners. Ask them to complete the forms as soon as possible after the session, if possible at the end of the session. Do let your observer see the form well in advance of his/her visits. Observation needs preparation, too! Arrange a pre-observation meeting in which you can talk your observer through the pro-forma and suggest points in your plan which he/she might look out for. A sensible approach is to ask a few of your learners to provide group feedback on your teaching. You can seek feedback from members of your group who you know are representative of the group as a whole, will find the role of giving feedback constructive and can give impartial comments. 1. Preparing yourself for observed practice To encourage active learning, you must be comfortable with the subject area – the skills, knowledge and understanding being developed by the learners. But however comfortable you may be with your subject, when you are observed teaching you may feel uncomfortable - something of a paradox. So how can you feel as comfortable as possible in such a situation? Here are some steps which you can take to help yourself. It's a good idea to check your programme plan, looking carefully at the areas surrounding your two chosen observed sessions. If they are to be successful the sessions must link with the rest of the programme and contribute to the learning sequence set out in the programme plan. • How are you going to achieve these links and make them clear to your learners and

to your observed? Your aims and objectives will be part of your session plans. • How are you going to communicate these to your learners and your observer without

making such communication seem detached or artificial? Some of your work in the sessions will require you to take your own skills, knowledge and understanding for granted while you concentrate on meeting the needs of the learners. But we cannot have perfect knowledge even within our own subject area. • So supposing someone asks you a particularly detailed or taxing question during the

observed (or any other) session, what strategies have you devised to deal comfortably with such situations?

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It is good practice to be familiar with the physical learning environment in which sessions take place. It is also good practice to experiment with and develop your own methods of facilitating learning. • So if you are going to use a new room, room layout or equipment, what

preparations have you made to try these out in advance of observation? 2. Preparing your learners It's obviously up to you as teacher to decide how far to involve your learners in understanding your Diploma preparation and therefore the presence of an observer in two of their sessions. There are clearly issues of confidence and maturity here. You may feel that a more detached approach is appropriate to your situation or you might see real benefits in greater professional 'transparency.' Remember also that reactions may well vary from group to group and also between age groups. It may affect your choice of sessions to be observed. Be careful! It may be tempting to choose two sessions involving only able, docile learners and/or straightforward activities. But if you do this you may have less opportunities to devise and use differentiation strategies and to demonstrate your own versatility and skills. It's like in the sport of diving where one can choose the tariff of the dive. Going for the apparently 'safe', 'easy' option is like a low tariff dive. The sport of diving has a very ingenious and appropriate scoring system. Divers are marked according to two assessment themes.

Tariff

This is a measure of 'degree of difficulty'. So if the dive is a straightforward trajectory into the pool it is deemed low tariff, but if it includes a combination of tucks, twists and pikes it is seen as high tariff. Each combination carries a tariff score.

Skill

This is simply how well the dive was executed. A score is given for this. The skills marks score is then multiplied by the tariff mark.

It is up to the swimmer to choose whether to do a low tariff dive extremely well or a higher tariff dive perhaps a little less well. Obviously the higher the tariff the more the risk.

We are asking you to go for a 'higher tariff' in your teaching. This may come in the form, for example, of a different teaching/learning method, use of different audio-visual methods, a new style of formative assessment, or a study of fresh topic/theme material.

The idea here is to advance your thinking on the way you teach and your learners learn. In a sense this is a microcosm of the big changes in the world of education practice.

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You may feel uneasy about a high tariff dive - especially if it is being observed! There are four ways in which you can gain the professional learning benefits while minimising the risk involved.

1. Design and carry out a trial lesson as recommended in the ideas for Practice in 1.2.2.

2. Go and see someone else using the teaching method in another context

3. A good session plan usually divides its time span into varied activity units for the learners. Your high tariff dive could be just one of these if you wish. You might make the tariff higher still in the second session!

4. Picture a successful outcome as we recommend in ideas for Practice in 1.2.2. • So how much of the background about your Diploma preparation are you going to

share with your learners?

Obtaining feedback from learners about their sessions is a vital part of the assignment. You need to plan for this now.

• Are you going to opt for oral or written feedback or both?

Whichever method(s) you choose, how are they (and you) going to record such feedback initially, so that this can be provided as evidence in the assignment on the CIE Learner Feedback form. This needs thought and preparation. You could use, for example

• notes • questionnaires • structured questions • interview and notes.

3. Preparing your observer We've already suggested that you have a brief meeting with your observer before the observed sessions. It's a very good idea to plan what you are going to say and do at this meeting, so it would be a good idea for you now to

• make sure you have copies of your session plans and programme plan to give to your observer at the meeting

• take him/her along to the room(s) you will be using • note down in advance some important teaching and learning points/issues which

you think your observer might look out for during the observation • say clearly when the two of you can meet for a feedback session (as soon as

possible after the session).

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There is a practical, social side to this, also. If your observer is from outside your institution, show him/her where to park, the location of toilets and rest areas, and introduce him/her to the reception staff. Where necessary, provide a layout plan of your institution. 4. Preparing your colleagues Many of our Diploma candidates have found that integrating their Diploma preparation into their own professional working context has brought them into closer and more fruitful working relationships with many of their colleagues. You can involve your colleagues in what you are doing. Even if your observer is from within your own institution, make sure that others know what is happening and why. These include

• other members of your department • department heads and managers • principals and senior managers

These arrangements need to be properly handled. Remember - courtesy, organization, security and professional friendship.

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BEING AN OBSERVER YOURSELF People often say that the best interviewees are those who have had experience of being an interviewer. So maybe the observed teacher should have him/herself experience being an observer. Step one – who might you observe? Opportunities for observation are not easy to come by. Teachers are understandably nervous of such visits. So who might you approach? It could be a teacher

• in another institution • where you work

Note Do consider the first option. Although it may be a little more complicated to arrange it could easily prove more refreshing and stimulating as a learning experience for you The second option is far easier to arrange but you need to be careful to get out of your own ‘comfort zone’. Friends and immediate colleagues in the department might not be the best or most challenging opportunities for you. Try senior colleagues or department heads. Step two – how to make a successful approach The teacher you approach may not be sure if you simply ask ‘do you think I could sit in on one of your sessions?’ He or she is much more likely to welcome you if you can be more focused, e.g.

• which technique would you like to observe? • who might already be using this technique? (Think across the curriculum) • how could you arrange an informal chat/approach to set up such an observation?

Note You do not have to attend an entire session. Check your own timetable availability first. Step three – how do you use such observations? When you do observe:

• Design an observation record sheet for yourself. You can use the pro forma in Assignment 2 but it should be a basis only – your record will need to be more focused on teaching techniques.

• Remember, you are looking at the use of a technique rather than observing the

teacher’s performance.

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REFLECTING ON OBSERVED SESSIONS Reflecting on your observed sessions is a critical process in approaching the assignment. You'll need to consider four sources of evidence here. 1. Self-appraisal 2. Feedback from observer 3. Use of observer feedback 4. Feedback from learners. 1. Self-appraisal All teachers engage in self-appraisal. Often it is 'knee-jerk' immediate comment based on class experience. For example 'That was really awful!' 'They just do not understand what is needed here.' 'That went well. I'm going to try that again.' Colleagues, partners, husbands and wives across the world are well used to such reactions from teachers. We all feel the need from time to time for a bit of emotional 'letting off steam' - but it is only that! Useful, systematic self-appraisal is a fundamental professional development practice of great value. It involves recording and persistence. You need self-discipline and focus in order to achieve self-appraisal of genuine value. We have looked already at the benefits of keeping a personal development diary, and this really helps in self-appraisal. Try not to use 'knee-jerk' appraisals. Be structured. We can help you here. Look at page 10 of the Diploma syllabus and use the performance criteria in the syllabus module 2 : Practice as your self-appraisal headings of prompts. Convert them into questions. For example 'Present information' (2.1.1) could be converted into the question 'How successful was my presentation of information?' The whole series of questions you have created can act as a template for self-appraisal for your journal. Use it for the key sessions which you wish to highlight as evidence in your assignment.

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2. Feedback from your observer You will have this in two ways 1. the completed written observation reports to be included in the assignment 2. oral feedback from your observer after the sessions. The written evidence is durable and ready for inclusion in your assignment. But the informal oral feedback from your observer after the session may be completely lost and forgotten, unless you take the opportunity now to manage the discussion with your observer to gain maximum benefit from it. You and your observer might reflect upon any • critical moments or events in the session • adjustments made to the timing or nature of parts of the session plan • broader professional issues emanating from the session. Make sure you note these points down. Don't be afraid to say to your observer that you need to jot down a few ideas for your own reference. 3. Use of observer feedback As long as you have got the written observation records to include in your assignment and your notes from the discussion with the observer, you can go on reflecting in depth on the feedback, putting it to really good use. What are your thoughts on the following • Did any of your observer's comments come as a surprise to you? Which one(s)

and why? • Which points made by your observer have reassured you as a professional

practitioner and why? • Which comments have prompted you to further thought? • How might you modify the design of future sessions in the light of what your

observer has suggested? 4. Feedback from your learners This may well come as one of the pleasant surprises this programme has to offer you. Even if you felt that your session did not go as well as you would have liked, your learners may think differently! Sometimes learners truly appreciate what seemed to you a slow, methodical and unambitious session. But if you were never to ask for their feedback, how would you ever know? As with observer feedback, written learner feedback is durable and useful, as long as your learners have been given time to answer your written questions, circle the response numbers, tick answer boxes or give feedback to you in whatever format you have given them. Oral feedback is less easy to manage, but may well be more immediate, richer, and relevant. It needs structure and you will need to write down the outcomes.

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Learner feedback may be affected by all kinds of subjective influences, from loyalty (misplaced or otherwise) to personal feelings and simple misreading of questions. Unless you give your learners some practice in giving feedback (which is a good idea), this may be the first time any teacher has asked them to comment on his/her professional practice. For some it can be daunting. Be careful with yourself and see the responses they give in a broader perspective.

In analysing feedback from your learners, look for the following

• general trends in comments and responses

• any anomalous (unusual) responses which might be interesting and illuminating

• any indication of practical issues such as the ability to see and hear presentations and demonstrations

• responses to new (to your learners) teaching and learning techniques.

Careful analysis of your learners’ feedback puts you in the position of the learners reviewing what you had set up for them. It is for the benefit of the learner that education is provided. It has taken teachers a long time to incorporate such feedback into their normal practice. Some teachers may never do this – and thus will never benefit from it.

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SCANNING GUIDELINES In general: • The resolution should be set to 200 dpi, or a maximum 300 dpi. The higher the

resolution the slower the scanning will be and the resulting file size will be larger. • Using lower-resolution scans can save time as scanning speed is faster. If you

double the resolution of a scan, then the file size increases by a factor of four. Tripling the resolution of a scan makes the resultant file size nine times as large.

• Image type should be set to black and white drawing (not grey-scale or colour)

whenever possible. • Scanned image output or ‘save as format’ should be set to JPG:

JPG format

JPG format images are generally smaller than those in other formats but they use ‘lossy’ compression, which means that the image stored on disc is not necessarily exactly the same as the image you first scanned. The JPG quality setting is used to balance between file size and detail – 100% will result in minimum loss of quality but will result in larger images than, say 50%, which is much smaller but with a larger loss of detail. 75% is a good typical balance.

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IMAGES IN WORD DOCUMENTS Ways to reduce the size of a Word document Although Microsoft Word can produce very professional looking documents, it can also produce very large documents depending on the way images are incorporated in to the document. Larger files are undesirable as they cannot be emailed easily, take a long time to open and in some cases cannot be opened at all, and are time-consuming to edit. The following guidelines should ensure that the size of the Word document is kept to a minimum Insert images rather than pasting them Bitmap images are the least efficient of the image file formats to insert into a Word document. Bitmap images are very large in file size and are low in detail. If an image is copied from a location on the PC and pasted into a Word document, then it’s pasted as a Bitmap even though the original image that was copied was in a different file format. The result of this is that the size of the Word document may be larger than should be.

The following image file formats are recommended for insertion into Word documents:

• GIF (.gif) • PNG (.png) • JPEG (.jpg) Images should be saved to a location on the PC in one of the three formats above, and then inserted into the Word document rather than being pasted. This will keep the original format of the image file the same and will help to reduce the overall size of the document

How to insert an image into a Word document

1. Click on Insert Picture From File… 2. Find the image (.jpg, .gif or .png format) and double-click on it. 3. This will insert the image into your document.

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Compressing images

If an image has been cropped after being inserted into Word, then the cropped portion still remains in the image although it’s not visible. In some cases this may increase the file size unnecessarily. Also, the resolution of the image might be higher than necessary – i.e. the ‘Screen resolution’ uses less file space than ‘Print resolution does’. If the document if primarily going to be viewed and not printed, then all images can be compressed to ‘Screen resolution’.

Word has a feature that allows images to be ‘compressed’ in order to reduce unwanted image data as mentioned above.

How to compress images in Word

1. Right-click on the image and select ‘Format Picture…’ 2. Click on the ‘Compress…’ button at the bottom of the ‘Format Picture’ dialogue

box

3. Make the necessary selections in the dialogue box and click OK. The ‘Web/Screen’ resolution will give the smallest image file size. This resolution is suitable for on-screen viewing of a document. The ‘Print’ resolution is suitable for printing a document. (Please note that selecting the ‘Delete cropped areas of pictures’ will result in the cropped areas being deleted.)

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Saving a word document containing images When you save a Word document containing an EMF, PNG, GIF, or JPEG graphic as a different file format (for example, Word 6.0/95 (*.doc) or Rich Text Format (*.rtf)), the file size of the document may dramatically increase. For example, a Word document containing a JPEG graphic saved as a ‘Word document (*.doc)’ may have a file size of 113KB. However, when you save this file as ‘Rich Text Format (*.rtf)’, the file size will grow to 1.69MB. Therefore, it’s best to save the file as a ‘Word Document (.doc)’ document if possible.

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EXAMINERS’ ADVICE TO CANDIDATES Our examiners provide feedback on assignments to centres, and the following points drawn from this feedback are worth noting, before, during and when finalising your assignments! General • Make sure that you have completed the information on your assignment cover sheet fully and

correctly. For example, your Unique Candidate Identifier is essential in order that CIE can accept your entry, and keep track of your progress in the Diploma. Including your candidate name and submission date is not only important – it is courteous.

• Present your own views, ideas, observations and reflections – your assignment is based on

your practice and development. The examiners do not wish to read a general or theoretical ‘essay’.

• If you think some additional evidence is particularly relevant and will help the examiner to

understand more accurately your context and experience, then you need to make clear to the examiner WHY you have added this evidence. Unless you refer to them in the body of your assignment, the examiner will not read them. They need to be clearly labelled and annotated.

• Please note that ‘additional evidence’ should be sparingly used. It is not a requirement. Nor

is it an invitation to list all the resources which you may or may not have used on the Diploma course. In fact, good practice is that such a bibliography needs to link to actual references within the assignment itself. That is, if the candidate is going to mention an author on a particular point of teaching and learning, this should be backed up by a reference in the additional evidence – AND the point made should have practical application in the candidate’s experience, with some degree of critical engagement/reflection on whether it proved useful/meaningful.

• You must be careful about making best use of words within the word limits. If you

significantly fall short of the word limit, you are likely to have problems communicating enough range, depth and quality of evidence. If you significantly exceed the word limit, you are probably not going to be adding to the value of the evidence you have already provided, and the examiner is not necessarily going to read the extra information.

• If you are not sure about the meaning of specific terms in the syllabus e.g. milestones,

evaluation and improvement, make sure you clarify these with your programme leader, trainers, tutor or mentor. Some words may appear to be similar in everyday life but in the educational context are very specific in their meaning.

• Examiners do NOT mark the quality of your written language. You need to be fluent enough

to express your ideas in ways which can be understood. If necessary, you can ask a colleague or your trainer/mentor to check a particular sentence or phrase to make sure that the meaning is clear enough.

• Make sure you proof read the assignment before submission – e.g. checking for any

formatting problems.

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• For Distinction, CIE is looking for:

1. clear and concise evidence that the candidate is constantly in reflective mode and is discussing his/her own practice and its implications

2. candidates to respond to the three prompts for each Module as set 3. innovation; new approaches, new thinking, changes to the ways in which things have

been done previously 4. evidence of a keenness to continue the reflective cycle beyond this Course - to feed

enthusiasm into the next programme plan/design or teaching scheme, and to continue developing professionally so that the learners will clearly benefit

5. consistent probing of one’s own teaching and the way in which one’s learners were learning, applying a wide variety of methods and ideas to enrich the experience of the learners in one’s care.

• Simply use the templates – there is no need to reformat them. In fact, sometimes

reformatting can cause serious communication problems. For example centre justification of text may mean that at least 30% of your evidence is ‘lost’ and not seen. Do check that all is well with formatting before you submit your assignment. The same can be said for spelling. Of course we accept variations in use of language, and local idioms. But remember that in doing a professional job, a professional approach is reflected in communications with few, if any, spelling problems. Perhaps teachers, above all, need to be careful?

• Adopt a wide interpretation of ‘special needs’, i.e. wider than physical disabilities. • Think about how to differentiate within learning sessions, rather than using additional work

after the sessions for slower learners. • Sharing ideas with and learning from colleagues should be a feature in all four modules. • You should try to refer to things you have learned about, read and applied from your Diploma

programme. Make sure you reflect on the difference that the Diploma has made to the quality of your teaching and understanding. Demonstrate how you have engaged with your course materials and adapted or developed your own professional practice as a result.

• Wherever possible give specific examples from your own practice and observations to

illustrate your responses and support the issues you raise. When you discuss teaching strategies, apply these to your particular context and teaching with your learners – rather than recycling text book suggestions.

• Remember that many candidates are working within constraints of large class size or limited

resources or both. CIE is interested in how you work within your context. For example how have you managed to adapt, modify and be positive about the resources that you do have and can get?

• The context page is important – it helps the examiner to evaluate your professional

development and practice • The sample assignments provided by CIE, these are meant as guidance on content, quality

and length – NOT as a model which you should copy.

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• To make the most of the professional development opportunity provided by the Diploma, it is

best for you to have a reasonably-sized group of learners. Working with a very small group restricts the range of approaches you can use and can affect the quality of analysis and observations.

• Sometimes we receive assignments which are missing an important piece of evidence. For

example no performance observation report, or no learner feedback, or no session plan for lesson 2. Incomplete assignments are failed, and the candidate has to resubmit. Do save yourself from such a difficulty by checking that your assignment is complete, and conforms to the CIE requirements.

• Make sure you arrange for a suitable performance observer to observe your learning

sessions – you can’t just appraise yourself. • Try to use only part of the learners’ names – do not make it possible for anyone to identify

who the individual learners are. • Don’t be afraid of recognising and reflecting on points of improvement, responding to the

reactions and needs of your learners. Speak out about your own feelings and pressures and (instructively) how you have come to terms with them in tackling the assignments.

• Keep a diary (journal) as required and use the information to support your comments and

reflections. For example quote from your diary and from other background reading to demonstrate the change in your thinking and understanding. This will help the examiner to get a real sense of your progress in practice, and the impact of this on the quality of your learners’ learning and the impact on your institution.

• When you are quoting from a book, you should list the book at the end of your assignment.

You should record details of author, title, publisher and date. • Each step in each assignment has clear word lengths and also guideline questions which are

required to be answered within this word length. There IS scope for originality in content and even in presentation - as long as the examiner is able to access the information required in each answer.

• It is better to submit assignments one by one, so that Cambridge can provide feedback, and

you have time to take this into account when planning and carrying out your next assignment. This also helps you, if for any reason, there may be a point of improvement. For example if the 2 lessons planned in Module 1 were not sufficiently contrasting, then this would be noted before the lessons would be delivered and observed in detail. You need to plan with your centres how to approach the timing of assignment preparation and submission in relation to your working context.

• Many candidates need support to help them understand the concept and purpose of

differentiation. Many have a limited view of how to differentiate within their lessons. So do make sure that you have worked on this, discussed with your colleagues and trainer(s), studied relevant readings etc. Think carefully about what is meant by differentiation – and what you mean when you use the term.

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Part A • In Part A, please ensure that you provide an answer which responds to the particular

prompt/question. Your responses should be focused on actual teaching and learning events, on what you plan to happen (Module 1), or (Modules 2, 3 and 4) on what has taken place.

• Given the point just made, it is better for you to write your responses in the past tense, not the

present. Using the present tense for events which have already taken place is confusing for the Examiner.

• Your Part A evidence should so how you have engaged with learners’ learning as well as

your teaching e.g. their learning needs and the learning environment. For example have you thought about how you are motivating your learners, placing them at the centre of the learning experience.

• While several parts of Modules 1 and 2 ask repeated questions, we do not expect that your

answers should be the same. After all, you are describing two contrasting sessions. • Using bullet points in your responses in Part A helps to make your preparation of evidence

more straightforward and concise – and it makes it easier for the examiner to understand. It is fine for you to answer the prompts/questions directly – there is no need to introduce and/or qualify each response in great depth.

• On the other hand the word limits are guidelines for the amount of evidence (of thinking and

doing) which we require. So if you provide only a few words in response to a step which asks for a few hundred words, you are clearly going to be falling short of what is required.

Part B • Your Reflective Report should not be a demonstration of how you have understood your

Diploma programme notes. It should demonstrate your ability to reflect upon ways in which you have applied your new knowledge in your own teaching context.

• Unlike in Part A, we would prefer you do not use bullet point form too much. Some bullets

are fine, of course, for emphasis. But you need to write most of your Part B in continuous prose, using paragraphs. This is the format which we find best conveys observations, ideas, and reflective practice.

• In Part B a general (if complex) foray into educational theory is unnecessary and not required.

It is reflection on practice (the key points, the turning points, etc.) which is required. However, putting a small amount of theory into practice – and reflecting on how this went – is of course acceptable.

• Also, Part B should not be a general foray into the world of the teaching profession (e.g.

extended definitions of ‘good’ teachers/teaching). You need to avoid being anecdotal or summarising ‘good’ and/or ‘bad’ practice. Instead keep the specific focus required by the themes in Part B (these differ for each Module) and to respond and reflect on your own experiences, highlighting very specific examples. Analyse what has happened, will happen, and/or could happen in your teaching and learning context. Don’t just describe events.

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• By focusing on the three themes given and keeping a sustained focus, well-balanced across

the three themes, you will be able to:

1. reflect on what has actually happened in the learning environment 2. present ideas about how you might modify future teaching and learning 3. consider your learners and their learning more closely.

• Part B is not about ‘going through the motions’. In the Report you can recognise the value of

reflection for your own professional development. • Nor is Part B a chance to air their views and frustrations about education in general, because

you will lose your focus on the three given themes for discussion and reflection. • Structure your reflections around the themes - there is no need to include other

headings/topic areas. • Don’t repeat the information you have already given in Part A. Ideally the whole of Part B

should be reflective (not descriptive). It is an opportunity for you to convey your thoughts, ideas and observations, promoting your ideas and views, and about how your (and your learners’) experiences and how teaching and learning might be improved in the future, hopefully through some innovation.

• In the Reflective Report it is often useful to begin with a point, explain it (‘unpack it’) and then

use illustrations from relevant personal professional practice to reinforce the idea. • We are interested mainly in reflection on practice in Part B, and this can be considered from

the outset – there is no need for a formal introduction. Responding directly to the three prompts is the most effective way to write the Reports.

• We encourage you to use the first person (‘I’) as this will help you in Part B to express your

own reflections about the practice you have already described in Part A, and to consider how your teaching your learners’ learning might change as a result of your reflections and plans for the future.

• It is a good idea to remember the Grading Themes for the Diploma – remember these are

about Understanding Learning as well as Understanding Teaching. Module 1 : Design • Your programme plan should be around 15 to 20 hours of teaching learning, achieved

through an appropriate number of sessions. These sessions should take place over a sufficient period of time, for learners to be able to practice what they are learning, and for you to be able to reflect on practice and this reflection to make a difference to your practice. The number of aims and objectives for a session needs to be sensible and manageable and the learning requirements should relate to the session plan produced. It is preferable to limit the role(s) of the teacher/trainer. He or she can only do so much in a single session; many learners will actually be de-motivated by a session which sets out to cover too much.

• There are some contexts e.g. intensive short course training in which the programme is

contained within a short period, even a single day. We expect candidates then to ensure that within the programme featured in detail Modules 1 and 2, the two contrasting sessions are planned in detail.

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• In Part B of this assignment you are not simply recording classroom activity – you should be

evaluating the design and planning process in terms of the three areas identified in the Syllabus. Too often candidates describe learning difficulties of individual learners without relating these to the aspect of the planning that had been designed to overcome the problem. This approach leaves parts of the Reflective Report divorced from the planning.

• In planning the two sessions you need to explore a different teaching (and particularly

learning) approach in the each. It is might be better to avoid two consecutive sessions. The danger is that the two sessions can be rather similar – and the difference only being in the content. The two sessions need to contrast in more than just content. You need to experiment in these sessions, perhaps by trying new approaches, perhaps by placing your learners in a different/unusual environment, but essentially by including a lesson in which active learning is at the forefront. So, for example, the first session might be instructional, the second will be practical; the first might be theoretical, the second application, the first teacher-led, the second learner-centred. If the first lesson is led by the teacher, the second ought to be learner-centred, for example. If you can be sure of such contrasts, then consecutive sessions work fine. For example you can use your second session by setting up a learner-led activity to explore the objectives of your first session.

• Be realistic! In planning one can be tempted to be extremely meticulous so that in every

lesson every minute is earmarked. It is better to be sufficiently flexible, able to re-organise/adapt planned moments and activities as the need arises.

• So it is not necessary for each session to be all-encompassing. In fact there are occasions

where less content is better – you should not try to squeeze too much into your two sessions – otherwise, time-management usually becomes the main issue.

• Be careful not to confuse evaluation with assessment. Specifically in Step I, where the focus

is on how the Plan and the two sessions will go as a whole, and how you will use a range of evaluative methods. This is not a Step in which the assessment of learners’ learning should be considered. However, it is an area in which you might comment upon the evaluation of learners’ whole experience in the learning environment.

• You should be careful not to focus in Module 1 on the outcomes of the sessions and

Programme Plan. Module 1 is concerned with the design - the planning and preparation. Assignment 1 should therefore focus on reflection on the design and not the teaching of the Plan.

• Remember that a programme plan/scheme of work is not just a list of ‘linked sessions’. It is

an opportunity to plan creatively, to experiment (a little) and to incorporate several forms of evaluation. Realising this, adds more value to your Plan, and probably increases the effectiveness of the teaching and learning.

Module 2 : Practice • Try not to cram too much content into your sessions. This will often result in learner

discomfort. It is better to focus on fewer objectives and include fewer learning activities. Candidates often note that they have had insufficient time to teach the lessons that they had planned. As a result, compromise was often needed. So reduce the content of each of the two focus lessons – focus on fewer aims and/or objectives.

• Your points in Part A should reflect the quality of teaching and learning – not just improved

organization and management skills.

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• Pay attention to the concept of learning and how you know whether or not learning had taken

place during your learning sessions. • Show you have taken note of your observer’s comments and made appropriate

improvements. Module 3 : Assessment • The Part A Steps in Modules 3 and 4 are fewer and with more words available so that you

can look at your practice in more depth and breadth and debate some of the issues raised, not simply narrate events.

• Grasp the nature of formative assessment, which is often informal. It is an area in which you

can innovate –going beyond normal testing mechanisms. In their methods, including recording and reporting, formative assessments do not have to replicate summative assessments.

• So you might like to consider the suggestion that formative assessment is ongoing – i.e. it

need not be approached in terms of ‘frequency’ but rather as a response to learners’ needs. We would probably advise against setting a regular schedule for formative assessment.

• Please note also that we would prefer to receive assignments (including evidence) as a single

file. Module 3 does not require extensive examples of assessment; certainly not to the extent that additional files are required. Restricting submitted work to a single file will help you to focus on presenting a precise and concise record of work undertaken for the Module.

• There should be THREE samples of actual assessed work from your learners.

• Look at assessment as an integral part of the teaching and learning cycle rather than as a task undertaken in isolation. In Part B then concentrate on assessment for and of learning rather than the administration of assessment.

Module 4 : Evaluation • The Part A Steps in Modules 3 and 4 are fewer and with more words available so that you

can look at your practice in more depth and breadth and debate some of the issues raised, not simply narrate events.

• Try not to set yourself difficult or impractical targets such as learning another language or

making major changes to the length of the programme - areas which it would be impossible to control.

• Remember to include an example of your evaluation data, for example a typical response to a

questionnaire, in the Additional Evidence section. • If your professional development plan is to be successful, the success criteria must clearly

identify what is to be to be achieved and not just reflect the undertaking of an activity. You need to also to have clear and achievable time targets.

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• Remember that the goals you set yourself should relate not only to your own teaching skills –

look more closely at the needs of your learners. So make your targets for improvement realistic and manageable - and focussed on the learner. Ideas for learning new languages, developing public speaking skills and IT courses are all admirable, but for the purpose of this assignment, practical development based in the learning environment will provide improvement and positive feedback from the learners in a short time frame.

• Reflecting on how one can improve oneself is a positive behaviour – ‘self-criticism’ is not

inherently negative. If your colleagues have suggested way(s) in which you can improve your practice, this is not a ‘defect’. The question is – how can you make best use of their advice and feedback?

39


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 1 : DESIGN

Module 1

DESIGN

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1.1.1 IDENTIFYING LEARNERS' NEEDS LEARNER AND TEACHER Let's start with this photograph.

It shows a learner in discussion with a teacher during a practical science session. (From now on we’re going to use the term 'teacher' as shorthand for 'teacher', 'trainer', 'lecturer', ‘tutor’ etc). The interaction between learner and teacher is at the heart of the Diploma. In the past, education and training typically involved delivering standard programmes to groups of learners. Learners learnt what teachers taught. It was like a one-way street. Enormous changes in technology and society are leading to a very different educational landscape. The whole purpose of education, the techniques of teaching and learning and the needs and expectations of the learners themselves have changed. The one-way street has become two-way traffic! Learners may be of any age, and learning can take place in all sorts of places and all sorts of ways, e.g. face-to-face, at a distance, and on-line. Learning is lifelong and unique to each individual. In all sorts of ways, teachers facilitate successful learning for every learner. They have to have a wide range of professional, technical, personal and inter-personal skills, and to apply these resourcefully, thoughtfully and effectively. The teaching role is very complex and challenging - but also very exciting and rewarding. So the teacher – as in the photograph above – is now much more a ‘guide on the side’ rather than the ‘sage on the stage’. In this new educational landscape we begin by looking at the needs of the learners.

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KEY QUESTIONS We can think of learners' needs in terms of key questions:

1. How would they like to learn?

2. Which methods in their previous learning experience have they liked best?

3. Are learners' levels of physical, social and/or emotional development likely to affect their learning?

4. What learning progress have they already made?

5. What have they already achieved?

6. Which skills are they confident in?

7. What is their current level of knowledge and understanding?

8. Which skills and/or knowledge might need to be revisited and/or upgraded?

9. Do they have specialist needs in terms of health, disability, diet, language?

10. (For older learners) what are their aims for education, long term career

aspirations and life goals? The teacher in the photograph could be asking the learner one of our ten questions. We could easily add to this list of questions. If you read it through again, you can see that if we ask all these questions and more, we are asking learners to provide a lot of information. You need to decide what questions to ask your learners, and how and when to ask them.

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TAKE THREE TEACHERS Here are:

• Phil

• Maria

• Anna

This is Phil. He works as a trainer for an international finance corporation. His team of trainers deliver specialist courses for new recruits into the company. Each course involves 12 adult trainees in 5 days of study per week for 3 weeks. The recruits are all pleased to be starting a new job. What might be the best way for Phil to learn about their needs in detail?

This is Maria. She works as a teacher in the Mathematics department of a college. The department runs four different types of mathematics course for different types of skill level and content. Each summer 200 or more students will enrol at the college hoping to study mathematics. How can Maria ensure that the students select the course which best suits their needs before the first semester begins?

This is Anna. She has a class of 7 year old pupils. Many of the children have English as a second language. The medium of instruction is English. Some of the children are academically very able, but others are only just beginning to read. How can Anna plan a programme which will meet all these individual needs? What are some of the issues she needs to think about?

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WAYS TO FIND OUT Teachers can find out about learners’ needs in various ways. You can select one or more of these techniques. • observation of learners in first week of

programme • postal or email questionnaire

• diagnostic testing • 'live' questionnaire • talk to parents • informal chat to learners at induction event • interview with learner • role play exercise • review of previous school reports • examination of CV and reference material • teacher/learner discussion • scrutiny of previous work • review of previous achievements • discussion with learner's previous teachers ASKING YOUR LEARNERS Asking your learners about their needs is a vital step in ensuring the success of your learning programme and your learning sessions. AND this is probably going to be your first interaction with these particular learners! So how do you get to the situation in our photograph at the start of this section? What methods can you use to identify the needs of your learners? To make an accurate decision about learning needs, you need active participation from the learner concerned. The more an individual in involved in identifying his or her learning needs, the easier it is for the teacher to make a judgement about the best learning solution to meet that need. Effective interviewing and questioning techniques are therefore vital, as is the need to create a comfortable environment in which individuals will want to participate fully. The interview is a negotiation between two parties: the teacher, with a variety of learning opportunities to offer, and the individual with a range of existing skills and needs. You should therefore take a few minutes to create empathy with the individual through the following effective interviewing techniques:

• preparing the interview location and any paperwork needed. Some paperwork – applications for example - can be completed before the interview

• checking that the layout does not create any physical barriers (e.g. avoid having a desk between teacher and learner) and that there will be no interruptions (e.g. from people or telephones)

• being open and friendly and taking time to put individuals at ease

• addressing individuals by name and giving them full attention

44 • explaining to individuals the purpose of the interview and what will be covered



• arousing their interest and making sure they play an active part in the interview by

creating an environment in which they feel comfortable to ask any questions, or check they have understood something correctly

• making sure the interview is a sharing of information where individuals supply information and the teacher gives and receives all the information needed to make an accurate decision about what is best to suit the circumstances

• listening closely and avoiding excessive note-taking while individuals are speaking

• using open questions to elicit as much information as possible

• giving feedback to individuals on judgements made about the best learning programme to follow in the circumstances and allowing time for questions

Where teachers are only actively involved after initial recruitment, for example where learners have already enrolled for a programme, it is important to realise that within the needs of any group, individuals will have their own needs, aspirations and abilities. So the above techniques can also be used to make sure individuals have been correctly advised and will be motivated to take responsibility for their own learning within the group. Generally, the more information the teacher has about individual group members, the better s/he will be able to help each individual to progress and achieve.

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Practice 1. Imagine you are Phil. His course is very intensive and will quickly become quite

technical.

Think about (and jot down) a series of actions which will enable Phil to gain a detailed profile of his trainees' needs and current learning preferences.

2. Maria's situation is quite different to Phil's. She is faced with a mass of newly-

enrolled students. A questionnaire of some kind might be a good idea.

Draft a set of questions for her 16 year olds. Remember Maria has to review and process each one of these questionnaire responses!

Once you have done that, take a little time for reflection.

3. Supposing you were Maria, how might you tackle the practicalities of distributing,

administering, and collecting these 200 questionnaires? There are many possible ways but, given the circumstances and the purpose, what might be the best way?

4. In Anna's case, many of her young pupils will be unable to answer her questions.

Make a list of ways in which Anna can gather information to help her plan an appropriate programme.

5. Now that you are actively involved in the Cambridge Diploma you have the perfect

reason for a bit of fieldwork. How do teachers and trainers in your area go about identifying the needs of learners?

If you are a teacher, now is the time for calling your teacher friend to see what happens in his or her school. If you are a college tutor, ask company trainers about their approach, and if you are a company trainer ask to view the enrolment and induction process at a large college.

You can learn a lot from observing others and sharing practice. Of course, you can also learn a lot by stepping outside your own context. So, for example, if you are a school teacher, take the opportunity to find out how a college tutor or company trainer approach getting to know the needs of their learners.

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1.1.2 SPECIFYING THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

AIMS We can think of these as broad statements about the educational purposes of a learning programme. Aims: - give a 'flavour' of the course or programme - are often long-term - are usually general (and non-specific about methods). Let's look at some aims as they are set out in a typical educational syllabus. These aims come from the syllabus for the University of Cambridge International Examinations International Diploma in Management at Professional Level.

Extract from syllabus: The aim of the qualification is to acquire knowledge and develop management skills to a level which reflects a candidate’s current or future role in management. The Diploma enables candidates to: • Acquire an understanding of a range of management concepts • Apply learning through work-based and case study activity • Implement a personal study and development plan • Demonstrate learning acquisition through written assignments.

- If you are following a set curriculum, an examination syllabus or certification

programme then your aims should at least use their published aims as a basis or framework.

- If you're starting from scratch or feel you need to select or branch out from published

aims then the following examples might give you an idea of content and style.

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To develop road sense, driving skills and a mature and safe attitude to driving To impart the basic understanding of accounting for book-keepers in the public and private sector A beginner's guide to using the web. To gain an understanding of 2D and 3D shapes

OBJECTIVES Objectives bring educational purposes into much sharper focus They should be SMART i.e.:

SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ACHIEVABLE REALISTIC TIME-SCALED

Objectives are often geared to assessment. Here are some assessment objectives from the same Management syllabus

Extract from Management syllabus: Managing Finance – Core Module Assessment Objectives 1.0 Construct a balance sheet for a project or department 2.0 Interpret and construct a profit and loss statement for a project or department 3.0 Differentiate between fixed and variable costs 4.0 Construct a budget for a project or department 5.0 Describe the role of finance in the general management of a project or department.

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SUMMARY For AIMS think of long-term broad statements - think of these as your 'strategy'. But remember - if you can't define the aim clearly and precisely, you can't effectively plan to reach that aim. For OBJECTIVES think in more specific terms - think of these as 'tactics' or 'outcomes'. When you phrase objectives try to use active words - such as 'show', 'demonstrate' and 'recall' - which state exactly what needs to happen and what you can see happening. Then you'll be able to assess (measure) what has been achieved. VISION A final thought: Successful programme design should begin with the end product! That is - try to envision what the outcomes of a successful learning programme might look like. For example: - what learning activities will the learners have enjoyed? - what assessment have they succeeded in? - which new skills will they developed? - what records of all this have they taken away? Imagine the sequence of learning sessions which might lead up to this. Your ideas will be partly based on your previous teaching of the subject or age group. The legendary film director Alfred Hitchcock used just this technique for movies like 'Psycho' and 'Vertigo'. He knew exactly what kind of outcomes he wanted for his audience (shock, intrigue, even terror) and how he would achieve this scene by scene. He'd already imagined the movie and its impact. Actually directing the actors around on set was a secondary task!

49



Practice Think about your own learning programme. It may be part of a national or international curriculum. It could be a series of programmes related to a syllabus published and developed by an awarding body such as CIE. Maybe you've been asked to design and develop a learning programme from the beginning. For your programme think about the following questions. A few notes will help you.

• Are you clear about the purpose(s) of the learning programme? • Can you identify the skills involved? • What kind of knowledge and understanding needs to be developed? • How can the activities you have in mind meet the needs of the learners who will

undertake it? • Will you need to gather specific resources to support learners in their learning?

In programme planning we need to concentrate on aims rather than objectives. We will concentrate on objectives in designing learning sessions. So now you need to focus more sharply on the aims of the programme you are about to develop. Write out in simple form the aims of your learning programme.

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1.1.3 PLANNING CONTENT, METHODS AND RESOURCES WHAT DO YOU PUT IN YOUR PROGRAMME PLAN? To plan learning programmes successfully, you need to consider and include various inputs as set out in this diagram:

LEARNING PROGRAMME PLAN

2. Modes of learning

3. Available resources

4. Methods of assessment

9. Organisational considerations

8. Needs of the learners

7. Additional learner support

5. Evaluation opportunities 6. Equal opportunities and access

1. Teaching methods 10.

Let’s consider each of these inputs in turn: 1. TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS There's a wide range of possibilities including:

- lectures - presentations - instruction - demonstrations - simulation - use of ICT - projects and assignments - role play - one-to-one coaching - self-directed study - team/group work - case studies - experiments.

You need to be familiar with what each of these involves and consider the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

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2. MODES OF LEARNING Learning programmes may be one, or a blend of, modes including:

- full-time face-to-face - part-time face-to-face - distance - online - 'sandwich' - in-house.

3. AVAILABLE RESOURCES There is a very wide range of resources which might be available in theory - but what resources are available to YOU in practice? You need to consider space, furniture, audio-visual aids such as overhead projectors and flipcharts, and information and communications technology (ICT) facilities. If you think carefully about their availability, appropriateness and effectiveness at this stage, it will really pay dividends later. Video material, for example, can be most effective if you use short, well-directed excerpts rather than a whole 60 minute tape. However limited resources may seem to be, it's your approach to using the resources which will make the difference. 4. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Again a wide range of methods is available, including:

- written and oral tests - diagnostic tests - observation of performance - projects and assignments - practical skills tests - formal written examinations.

Each method has its particular demands in terms of time, materials and resources, and should match the teaching and learning method being used. So whichever method(s) you decide to use, you'll need to allocate appropriate time, materials and resources in your programme. In planning for assessment of progress and achievement it will help you to ask the following questions at this stage: • How will I know if learners have gained the knowledge, understanding and skills

required to go on to the next stage? (this needs initial consideration of formative and summative assessment methods)

52



• How will I provide for those who, for whatever reason, need more support than the

rest of the group? (consideration must be given to what learner support will be necessary for a variety of special needs, e.g. dyslexia, physical disabilities, those who are excelling and need support to continue to achieve)

• Does the structure of the programme (and the centre) allow me to involve external

agencies for support?

(e.g.: employers, careers advisors, counsellors) • What recording mechanisms can I use to monitor individual progress? 5. EVALUATION OPPORTUNITIES The Diploma encourages teachers to be reflective practitioners. Reflection about your own performance and practice involves evaluation and time, and you need to build opportunities for such evaluation into your plan. Evaluation is going to be ongoing aspect of your programme from Day 1, so it is much better for you to plan evaluation at this stage, so that your evaluation is continuous and systematic - it should not be something you only do finally as a bolt-on extra activity or an afterthought! You are not only looking ahead to the thorough programme evaluation at the end of the programme, but also will find that regular on-going evaluation during the course will help you in making adjustments and improvements to teaching and learning as you go along. NOTE Assignment 4 in the Diploma is based on evaluation as a continuous activity during design, practice and assessment. The assignment can't be an exercise based on hindsight alone. 6. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND ACCESS Activities and assessment should be equally available to all your learners. You need to plan to get proper and thorough information on potential difficulties at this early stage. For example if a learner has dyslexia you can prepare separate worksheets, or additional resources to support him or her. 7. ADDITIONAL LEARNER SUPPORT Individual learners have different learning needs, work at varying pace and can experience various difficulties of understanding or motivation. You can include time and space for additional support, learning opportunities, coaching, mentoring or just simple reassurance. But to what extent can additional support be budgeted for within your learning programme itself? If you can't give it very much time, when will it be carried out?

53



8. NEEDS OF THE LEARNERS Induction events, conferencing, previous records of achievement and other sources of information may indicate strengths and weaknesses in learning. Some skills and understanding may require reinforcement and further practice. You'll need to give some attention to progression. This is the rate at which learners make progress through the activities. It can affect the order in which activities are presented, or the ways in which the sessions are planned. 9. ORGANISATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Most learning programmes take place within institutions of some kind e.g. companies, colleges, schools, kindergartens. Each institution has its own life - culture, calendar of events and timetables. You need to make sure that your plan is appropriate e.g. allow for and when appropriate make educational use of such events. With younger learners you might also need to consider the length of sessions, the number of sessions for a given topic, access to resources. 10. 'BLANK BOX' When you look(ed) at the diagram, you'll have noticed that we've included a box (number 10) with nothing in it. There's an important reason behind this. Life doesn't always go according to plan. For example some learners may complete an activity quickly, topics may take longer to cover than you anticipated, a session may not take place, the learners may not be available, …a flood may have swept the room away! How far have you designed your programme to be flexible enough to cope with the unexpected? For example learners who complete the activity quickly could follow up a previous activity with some additional independent research.

54



HOW DO YOU PLAN YOUR PROGRAMME? Now we've touched upon the inputs involved in designing the learning programme we can move on to the design process itself. The table below gives you a format for the design of a learning programme. There are questions you should ask and information you should gather. Follow the stages to draft a learning programme design for your particular learning programme. Stage 1: Overview Draw a line on a piece of paper, indicating estimated start and completion points of the programme. The line must include the whole programme. On this line, plot in the titles of the modules (main sets of topics) to be covered in logical order until the whole programme has been outlined in the most sensible order. Stage 2: Time frame How much time have you allocated to the programme? For example, is it a series of 2-hour sessions lasting 10 weeks (i.e. 20 hours in total)? Or is it a two week topic for 10 year olds, in which case it might be 12 hours a week for 2 weeks (24 hours in total)? What is the mode of delivery (eg full-time, part-time, short programme)? For each section of the programme begin to allocate timeframes and numbers of sessions. Remember to allocate time for skills practice, assessment and feedback. Stage 3: Objectives and content For each session, define the content. Keep the definition broad - it doesn't have to be detailed in a programme plan like this. Make sure that each session follows logically from the previous ones. Stage 4: Teaching strategies, modes of learning and assessment How will each session best be delivered and assessed? Stage 5: Materials and resources (including use of other people) Working with the detail in stage 4; what resources and materials will be needed? Again you don't need lots of words and detail is not needed here - you'll include detail in your session plans.

55



A good way to start designing a programme plan is to use a timeline. Timelines are used in a variety of contexts, e.g. science, history, project planning. Look at these examples, of a history timeline and a programme timeline.

56



57

me timeline can begin at the start of a term or course, when the learners first session, and end with the final session. To start, you need to plot on

ilable

ts and public holidays

its,

est be organized to cover the topics/skills?

The programrrive for thea

the timeline

• sessions ava

• topics/skills to be covered

• institutional even

• any other significant events which might affect attendance at sessions e.g. visfieldwork and departmental meetings.

This gives you a framework within which you can start planning. How can your sessions b



Practice

58

Now you've completed the draft design, the chances are that it could be just a series of otes and symbols.

otes to produce a completed learning programme plan.

e pandtud

aes

n

e need to use these nW(Teachers often refer to such a plan as a 'scheme of work' and professional trainers usethe term 'course map'.) Here are the headings which you could use for constructing the plan. You'll need to

x and the plan horizontally to include text (especially for the 'Planned content' section) vertically to include study opportunities outside formal class tuition, such as self-y, tutorial/mentoring time, homework etc s

Le rning

sion Learning objectives

Planned content

Teaching method

Assessm'tmethod

Resources needed

Method of evaluation s

POINTS TO WATCH 1. Notice that in the framework above we have included a final column for 'Method

of Evaluation'. Not only is on-going evaluation good professional practice but tial

xtends to several sides of paper - plans can be quite . You can keep it in note or point form but make sure that

part in the programme. 4. Remember plans are often amended in the light of experience. Learners might

have already covered some of the work and could move more quickly through the programme. Alternatively they may not have acquired skills necessary to do the work you have planned

5. Should your learners get a copy of the plan? Probably not - this is a professional

working document for you the teacher. BUT an outline 'map' through the sequence of sessions, showing dates, times and headline content would be very useful for your learners, colleagues etc.

consideration and review of accumulated evaluation experiences is an essenprocess in Module 4 of the Diploma.

2. Don't worry if this plan e

extensive documentssomeone other than you is able to understand and follow your intentions.

3. Try to see the plan as an unfolding set of teaching-learning experiences. Try

also to see these experiences from your learners' point of view. They are taking



1.1.4 Completing th

59

e programme plan

REVIEWING YOUR PLAN

ason you were unable to teach the learning programme it

ut any consultation with you?

if your department or team were to be inspected or checked would the people

clude a realistic and manageable - scheme of assessment?

you can say yes to these questions then you've probably come up with a robust and . It can act as a working framework for putting your learning programme

to practice.

eviewing your plan like this will give you confidence. It's all part of thoughtful and

LANNING FOR EVALUATION

the

ow’s the time to take the programme plan you've just constructed and review it. Ask N

yourself a few key questions such as: • supposing for some re

yourself, do you think someone else would be able to take up the plan, understand and put it into action witho

•

reviewing your work be able to see the logical sequence in the planned programme? • does your plan in

- method of evaluation? Ifuseful documentin Rvaluable professional practice. P Experience has shown that teachers who systematically and continuously evaluate learning they provide, and then review strengths and areas for development, are the ones who consistently provide excellent learning opportunities for their learners.



60

aching is a complex and hugely skilled activity which, above all, requires classroom teachers to exercise judgement in deciding how to act. We see reflective teaching as a process through which the capacity to make such professional judgements can be developed and maintained…"

e are going to cover the process of evaluation in detail in Module 4. However the ffective teacher will already be making plans for continuous evaluation at the rogramme design stage.

ROCESS OF EVALUATION

valuation is a process which involves teachers and learners.

eachers carry out evaluation to:

make sure learners and other stakeholders are satisfied with all aspects of their programme identify problems so that they can be resolved promptly evaluate their own professional practice on a continuous basis identify potential or actual improvements that need to be made.

ou can use a variety of methods for continuous evaluation, including

questionnaires completed by learners after selected sessions more in-depth questionnaires designed to collect a variety of information about the

oral feedback from learners during or after sessions or in regular tutorial sessions, either group or individual

- feedback from employers, parents or others involved in the programme. Evaluation can be time-consuming. You should avoid letting assessment and evaluation dictate or dominate the programme. Use the right method of evaluation at the right time in the right context.

valuation is a valuable ool if you use it appropriately. It will help you in planning future

it helpful to think in terms of issues.

As Pollard and Tann say

"…te

Wep P E T -

- - - Y - -

learning programme -

E tprogrammes. KEY QUESTIONS

hink about: T • why do I need to evaluate the programme? • how and when should I carry out the evaluation? It’s tempting to rush into selecting a method or methods of obtaining feedback for evaluation purposes. But you should try to resist this temptation because you may address some issues better through different feedback procedures. You’ll find



61

issues to do with your learning programme (and also sessions). There is a big pool of these to think about as in the following

Ask yourself what are the relevant e learning th

diagram:

methods of assessment

effectiveness eaching

modes of of t learning materials pace and

timing of activities development

of learners' skills

individual learner

t

opportunities

articipation

KEEPING YOUR OWN RECORD

You'll really find it helpful to keep your own personal development diary. (This can be called a 'journal' 'log' 'logbook' 'daybook' etc). You can record in your diary the critical events, your own ideas and reflections, the good ideas and advice of your colleagues…i.e. whatever is important to you in your professional life. Try to jot down notes etc in this whenever you can but as soon as possible - while the event, idea or whatever is still fresh in your mind. Then you can refer back to this at a later stage. Develop a diary that works for you - that you find manageable and useful - keep the diary in whatever style and format suits you - but keep it going and up to date.

for learner p

use of resources

effectiveness of teaching methods

learning environment

learner motivation



Practice

62

‘Fishing’ in the pool of issues you can ‘catch’ a particular issue and use questions to examine the specific points of interest within it. For example, most programmes involve the development of learners' skills. Key questions here could be: • Are the skills being fully introduced and explained? • Which skills seem to be easy to pick up and which seem difficult? • Is enough time in class being allocated to practise skills? • Are learners gaining confidence from skill tuition or is further reinforcement

needed?

them out one-by-one and

. Remember:

number of methods available

Some teachers approach such feedback exercises with trepidation. There's no need to see it like that! It's a good idea to let learners know a little about the technical side of teaching and learning. This is a form of involvement which many learners respect and enjoy. It can often build confidence and relax the teaching-learning 'atmosphere'. How much time and effort you devote to this is up to you. What do you think is the difference between evaluation, assessment and reflection? Produce your own definitions - and then compare these with the definitions in the Glossary.

You can now select a few more issues from the pool. Fishframe questions about them as we've just tried to do for 'skills'. Once you've opened up two or three issues you can consider which might be the mosteffective way of gaining feedback on each issue - there are a- who is proving feedback - learners or others? If you're opting for a questionnaire method or an interview or a combination of these, thequestions you've developed for each issue can be refined into actual questions in the feedback/evaluation exercise.



1.2.1 Specifying the requirements for each learning session

POSSIBILITIES FOR SESSION PLAN DESIGN - BRAINSTORMING

Here wchniq mme plan.

ere is an idea of how to use the diagram. We have developed one of the ‘legs’ of the s.

e are looking at possibilities for trying something new in teaching and learning ues within our existing prograte

It is sound practice to identify as wide a range of possibilities as you can for new approaches.

To do this we can use a ‘spider diagram’ to open up our thinking.

Hdiagram. You can add more and more such ‘legs’ as you thinking of more possibilitie

63

Possibilities for new approaches

Use a different teaching/learning method

Pair work

Group work

Group chooses project title

Group brainstorming

Produce project as a group

Seminar



64

. There are various other tools you can se to help you generate ideas e.g. outlining and mind mapping.

hen you have looked at possible ways to innovate, you can go on to select one further development as an activity or session. Choose the one which most

S A

aim.

or example

aim for each learning session ithin your learning programme.

to identify a key learning objective.

uce learning objectives which are:

MEASURABLE ABLE

REALISTIC

Thi o

of this session, learners should be able to …

Tu

his is one possible way to think of innovations

There are software tools that can help you do this.

Wpossibility for appeals to you. AIM ND OBJECTIVES Each learning session needs only the statement of a simple learning F

to enable learners to understand the use of percentages and their relationship with fractions and decimals

It should be relatively straightforward to develop a learning w Learning objectives are much more our focus of attention in session planning. Often one session will cover more than one learning objective, and in this case, you might need Once again, we should prod

SPECIFIC

ACHIEV

TIME-SCALED

nk f these in terms of responses to the question:

By the end



Here is an example from a Numeracy module AIM: derstand the uses of percentages and their relationship To enable learners to un

with fractions and decimals OBJECTIVES: 1. where percentages are used To identify the various places 2. rcentages in decimal or fraction format To be able to write pe3. ntages of given amounts in realistic situations To calculate perce4. em as a percentage of another To express one it5. listic and practical situations To use percentages to solve rea Someti velop the session plan you might realise that it could be difficult to achi . If you write them in sequence, you should have no problem in achie nuing with others in the next session. You'll find it helpful to prioritis and think whether some of the secondary

self-study, homework etc.

tial programme, so each must ing each session

a ‘bigger picture’. e pro

RAFTING A

You're now ontent of the session.

mes when you deeve all the objectivesving some and contie our objectives very carefullyy

objectives could be achieved in Each session plan must been seen as a step in a sequentake into account what has gone before. There is a danger of consider(even each learning activity) as an entity in itself rather than part of Th gramme should have coherence and a flow, to which and the individual sessions contribute.

D SESSION PLAN

ready to develop the c REMINDER! A s on plan needs to contain:

session details

essi

- - date, time, place, group and teacher aim(s) and objectives content

--- learner and teacher activities - timings - resources and learning materials, including additional support available from

other people - methods of assessment.

It should give an 'at a glance' guide to the learning session.

65



66

. Which will be the most appropriate and effective learning activities for you to mploy in this ses

res and es- Discussions and debate- Video and audio - Simulation - Using ICT - Experiments a d - Group and team w- Demonstratio - Seminars - Role play - Case Studies - Projects and assignments

. How much time w y 3. What will you do t ole will be. 4. What will the lear r ir role(s) will be. And remember

the Chinese proverb

I hear and I fo geI see and I re emI do and I und rs

sment - how i ers' p gr

6. Resources and m e ?use and how?

NB Learners will learn if: - the teaching is varied - in that way a teacher can ensure that all learners in a group

are taught with their preferred learning style for part of a session - they are involved in the learning - putting learning into practice links skill, knowledge

and memory together to enable learning to take place.

Here are some key questions for you to think about: 1

e

sion?

Activities you could con- Lectu

sider include: pr entations

s

n practicals ork

ns

- Coaching. 2 ill ou allocate to each activity?

as eacher? Write down your r

ne s do? Write down what the

t rm ber

tand e 5. Asses w ll you measure the learn ro ess and achievements?

at rials - what will you use and how What will the learners



67

he following table describes advantages and disadvantages of each teaching and .

Activity v Disa

Tlearning activity.

Ad antages dvantages

1. Formal lecture

-

-

ccasions

f

-

-

ng unless enlivened by visual aids; use of humour,

asily

Often used with large groups - unlimited number of learners can attend

- Useful for group sessions to deliver required knowledge, theory and concepts Formal input by teacher can be prepared in advance and used on numerous o

- Can be enhanced through effective use of visual aids

- Knowledge retention can beenhanced through provision ohandouts covering input

No interaction with learnerstherefore no method of assessing understanding

- Knowledge often not retained especially if lecture is prolonged Relies on ability of learner to take notes Can be bori-

etc - Difficult for teacher to keep

control if learners do not pay attention - learners can ebecome distracted

2. Presentation

- y

- mpart

Innovative approaches and use

-

- See above

Not as formal as a lecture - mabe formal or informal Usually used in groups to iknowledge

- of humour can be used well topromote learners' interest

- If combined with activity, can beused effectively to deliver knowledge needed to complete activity Time for questions or clarification can be built in

3. Instruction

ith groups or

individuals vely

- Needs very careful planning to

ensure instructions are clear, full

tch

- Can be used w

- Can be combined very effectiwith demonstration then skills practice

and in the correct sequence - If prolonged, learners will 'swi

off'



68

on

-

- nity to ,

d of

can see and hear demonstration - If skill is complex, may need

several structured demonstrations so needs careful preparation

- Teacher is role model in demonstrating skill and learners will reflect both good and bad practice unless carefully prepared

4. Demonstrati

- Learners observe skill performed

to required standard - Very effective if based on

analysis of component parts of skill then delivered in a logical structured sequence which promotes good practice Health and safely information and practice can be incorporatedIf combined with opportupractice skills under supervisioncan be most effective metholearning a skill

- Needs careful preparation of

location to ensure all learners

. Simulation Can be used effectively with

- kills in

However carefully planned, is

- vide

5

-

groups or individuals - Especially useful if realistic

workplace conditions can be simulated Useful in gaining sprotected environment before attempting skills in real work environment (e.g. flight simulator)

- unlikely to fully cover pressures and constraints of real workplace May be expensive to profacilities and equipment

6. Assignment

- g

, where learners can

- to

ful

- Marking of assignments takes time

- If learners have worked in groups, need to draw out work completed by individual learners

- Can be used effectively with

groups or individuals Effective method of assessinunderstanding after knowledge provisionadapt what has been taught into different contexts Learners can work in groups foster teamwork and problemsolving skills

- Requires careful preparation

and criteria for successcompletion

7. Work based project

-

- ge

adapt taught input into a work context

- Can be used to provide a structure for learners to learn new tasks or enhance existing ones

- Requires careful preparation

and criteria for successful completion

- Marking of projects takes time

Can be used effectively with groups or individuals Effective method of assessing understanding after knowledprovision where learners can



69

- , rent

- with small groups

ngs and compare and contrast

8. Case study

- Can be used effectively with

groups or individuals If case studies are preparedbased on taught knowledgelearners can work with diffescenarios to adapt knowledge into these, so excellent for building problem solving skills Can be usedwith plenary session on completion to discuss findi

findings of different groups

- Needs careful preparation by

teacher to ensure usefulness

9. Role play

- groups -

vide

ck Excellent for building learners confidence in communication

- rs will not perform

due to

eful monitoring by teacher. Learners should not be forced to 'perform' if unwilling

Most effective if used with Teacher is able to observe learners practising skills in roleplay situations and proprompt feedba

-

and interpersonal skills in supportive atmosphere

Some learnewell in role play situations fear of mockery from peer group, so needs car

10. Business game

-

es

- ll

each of whom complete the activity, followed by a plenary sharing of

t -

nt wledge

-

the teacher to ensure usefulness

Learners are given a businessscenario and asked to exploreoptions for resolving issuMost effective if used with smagroups

- Can be used successfully when a larger group is broken down into smaller groups,

findings to compare and contrasIf business games are prepared based on taught knowledge, learners can work with differescenarios to adapt knointo these, so excellent for building problem solving skills

Needs careful preparation by



70

aching

mbers

to help

nd its use is very effective at this point

- Teacher can observe learner and rovide prompt feedback

er

ational skills as

- lly planned for sequence

and content, as learners can become confused if too great or too little

11. One-to-one co

- Most useful with individuals on

one-to-one basis, but can be used to provide additional support to group me

- Should only be used after training in skills as aim isto improve rather than gain new skills a

- Time consuming for teach- If carried out by others, need to

check that they have coaching skills and vocbad habits can be learned Less effective where input is not carefu

p 12. Self-directed study - Useful for gaining of planned

- Useful before tests or

- Learners need time

eans of tanding of

knowledge gained

amount of knowledge, can be used very effectively with groups or individuals as part of a

management skills and can easily become distracted if not supervised

programme to avoid too much information-giving in sessions

- Teacher needs massessing unders

examinations

13. Team work

- Used mainly with individuals,

and/or carry out coaching - Helps learners to develop team

- Takes time for integration into

nt and elopment

working as a member of an experienced team can be of great benefit as the learner gradually becomes more and

the team - Learners can feel left out unless

team members are patieallow time for skills dev

more involved as skills grow - More experienced team

members can act as mentors

work skills in addition to subject or vocational skills

communication skills

- Promotes understanding as learners interact with peers and can learn from them or help slower members

- Plenary discussion after teamwork can compare and contrast findings

- Teacher can observe progress and successful completion of tasks, intervene to give additional support and give prompt feedback

needed by one or more groups

- Groups need careful instruction to complete tasks to required standards

- Danger of quieter learners being left behind by more assertive group members unless closely supervised

14. Small learning or project groups

- Sometimes called small group work or syndicate exercises, this is most useful for groups

- Promotes interpersonal and

- Teachers may find it difficult toshare time between groups, especially if additional support



71

- Useful for groups or individuals,

learners pair up with a partner who may be at same level or above share tasks

- Again promotes understanding through team work plus interpersonal and communication skills

- Can become competitive - Pairs need careful selection to

avoid discord or unsuitability to work as pair

- If joint project or task completed, can be difficult to define who did what

15. Learner pairs

ntrasting sessions. Note at there is a follow up to this in Assignment 2. On page 27 it says that

It's worth thinking about the timing and content of these two sessions in terms of the bserver's visits. How will the observer notice a contrast between the two sessions? It

cou

aterial being used by the learners. The first session might be cond might look at 'application'

rning techniques being offered. The first session might use reat use of group

nt. The first session might be largely teacher-directed,

here are many ways in which such contrasts could be achieved. Have a look now at ns

and

TWO CONTRASTING SESSIONS In Module 1, the Diploma asks you to draw up plans for two coth

the two sessions reported on should be the same as those featured in Assignment 1

old be in terms of

• the nature of the mfocused around 'theory' while the se

• the teaching and leaindividual learner contributions and the second might make gwork

• learner involvemeinvolving teacher presentations and demonstrations. The second session might be centred around learner feedback and presentations.

Tyour course plan and draw up a list of possible choices for these contrasting sessio

then go for the two which appeal to you most.



Practice

72

UP FOR REVIEW

s g and learning issues:

1. Participation How far had you allowed time in your plan for learner participation? Did you accommodate: a) formal participation - actually allowing time for learners to have an active role in the

session, say as reporter, presenter, critic or respondent? b) informal participation - e.g. spontaneous questions, searches for clarification,

inspired ideas which spark off discussion, further instruction or reinforcement. 2. Differentiation How far had you planned to provide learners with different needs and abilities a chance to be involved and successful? Through differentiation one can enable learners to build on their success and protect them from a sense of failure. 3. Use of resources Very few teachers have all the staff, equipment and teaching aids they'd like. But given what was available to you, could you have used your resources more effectively?

Think back to a learning session you've very recently carried out. Refresh your memory by reading back through any plans, and notes or other material about the session you may have - for example, in your personal development diary?

o a short but searching review of that session by thinking about its success and/or itDshortcomings. Think in terms of three very different teachin

1. Participation

2. Differentiation

3. Use of resources



TEST DRIVE

73

keen to improve, try a 'test drive' with a new model!

ndertaking the Diploma invites YOU to do some learning for YOURSELF.

ction of a learning session taking into ccount what we've covered so far. It could be a 20 minute topic, different use of a

ll your learners you’re trying something new.

sion questions to swer t the information in a different format such as a

me line.

If by now you're feeling Include in your existing programme and session plan(s) something just a little different! U All you need to do is to plan and implement one seateaching method, a different approach to a problem - but do something you have not done before. Try out something different. Have a test drive in a new model! If possible, te Ask them to think about the effectiveness of the method and their reactions to it. For example, instead of giving individual learners a set of comprehenan , encourage them to presencharacter sketch, a poster or a ti



PICTURING A SUCCESSFUL OUTCOME

his activity may well be a new experience for you. To make the most of it, you will need es.

ir uccess because they can picture a successful outcome. It's certainly true for teachers.

Our ima or 'picturing abilit t gift. We all have it to a greater or lesser degree. It b re Try to run through your next sessions in your mind's eye. Picture the way you will begin - the learn settling down to their learning activities, how these activities will unfold and a calm, positive, even joyful ending for the session. Make this a warm, pleasant exper Repeat this picturing several times. There's no need to on each picturing session, but make sure you en you do it. There are two good opportunities for this during each day• just before you go to sleep • ly you a Very often you may be able to think of little changes to improve your session as you run it through i ur mind's eye. This process helps reinfo l ssurance to you y sess Some teachers are able to picture whole programmes and then picture individual sessions w re widely adopted by orchestral conductors, chief executive officers and performers of all kinds. Olympic athletes preparing themselves frequently describe 'pictur t t .' All you need to do it to picture a successful outcome and keep on doing it! Ask your learners themselves to pictinsigh ferenc

Tto repeat it several tim Many successful people in different careers and walks of life achieve much of thes

gination ( y') is a greaecomes mo effective with practice.

ers

ience.

spend a great deal of timeisturbed environment whare in a quiet, und

immediate wake

n yo

rce your session plan and wilion.

be a source of great rea ahead of an

ithin them. These skills a

ing getting the gold medal a he award ceremony

ure 'a really good sessioes.

n' - this will give you an t into their pre

74



1.2.2 Co

75

mpleting session plans

CONSIDER POINTS TO

lanning.

ASPECT Question Action

his diagram shows you the points to consider for successful session pT

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES What are we trying to do? Write out aims and objectives

E What will I do? Specify teacher activities NVISAGING

What will they do? Specify learner activities

METHODS What will be the most ng methods?

Select most effective learning methods effective learni

RESM

OURCES AND ATERIALS

What equipment and visual aids will I need?

List materials you will produce and equipment needed

A Select appropriate SSESSMENT How will I know what they have learnt? assessment techniques

EVALUATION How will I know how

been?

Select method(s) of effective the session has evaluation



76

ENEFITS

ession planning is always an imaginative and challenging activity. When handled

's

it's a method of marshalling ideas, materials and human effort into an effective blend of activities

- it helps you to foresee difficulties and maximise opportunities - properly evaluated, it acts as an invaluable resource for future programme and

session planning.

BUT …. 'nobody said it would be STRUCTURE You'll need to sio 1. Approximate timings for each

2. An introduction, a middle and or plenary)

• Introduction

Give your learners a brief o w activities contribute to the le e as a whole?

• Middle

Your main input for the session.

• Summary

Highlight the main achievem ma h your objectives). Give praise an elwe've been dealing with som done well.

Help your learners to reflec also rtunity for you to evaluate the succ e session.

Finally make sure that ever o for ,

bid farewell appropriately, e you next Friday in this room a d"

Always leave with a smile a pbeat manner.

B Sproperly, it has direct and identifiable benefits such as: - it's a great source of confidence and reassurance for both teachers and learners - it

good to know where they are going and what they'll be doing in a session -

easy'! So make sure you have a

build into your ses n plan

activity

a summary (

utline of the session objectives. Hoarning programm

do these

ents of the session (these should d encouragement. For example "W

e difficult ideas but we've

tcl done for that - "

t on their own learning. This may ess of th

be oppo

yone knows what they need to d.g. "See

next time. Then 10 am - and

have

nice weeken

nd conclude the session in an u



77

. Cognition, learning requirements and teaching methods

ou'll find this table useful and thought-provoking. Bloom's cognitive taxonomy links ' are very useful for

lanning and assessment. Ideally sessions or parts of sessions should begin with low suggested

xamples in the table are intended only to indicate possibilities.

DOMAIN ES OF

SUITABLE METHODS AND MEDIA

3 Yseveral considerations in session planning. The 'appropriate verbsplevel cognitive domains and push out towards the higher levels. Note that thee

COGNITIVE I NEED THE LEARNER TO: EXAMPL

OW LEVEL Knowledge

Recall information. Lectu

Appropriate verbs: memorise, name, re

Reading Lorder, recognise, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, state

Audio-visual

Comprehension

r own words.

te verbs:in, e ntify, e

Discussion Observation

dies

Interpret information in his or he

Appropria classify, describe, Case studiscuss, explaindicate, locat

xpress, ide

Ap

Use knowledge in a novel situation.

Appropriate verbs: analyse, appraise, calculate, categorise, compare, contrast, criticise

Role play Observation Case studies

plication

An

edge into parts and show inter-relationships.

Appropriate verbs: analyse, appraise, ri , .

On-the-job training Practice by doing Simulations of job settings

alysis

Break down knowl

calculate, categocontrast, criticise

se, compare

Sy

Bring together parts of knowledge to form a whole/solve problem.

s: arrange, assemllect, compose, construct, create,

design.

Real-life situations Games/role playing Simulation of job settings

nthesis Appropriate verbco

ble,

HIGH LEVEL Ev

ents of criteria.

Appropriate verbs: argue, assess, oose, compare, defend,

estimate, judge, predict, rate.

Trial and error Mentoring Coaching aluation

Make judgem on the basis

attach, ch



78

. The unexpected

nticipate and plan for the unexpected - as far as possible.

• Flexibility in planning means you can capitalise upon successful learning

• exits, toilets and first aid facilities are located.

A Her urse. (It's

m

Ob

4 A

Make sure you can adjust your session in case of interruption

•

The safety and security of you and your learners is paramount, so make sure you know where fire extinguishers, fire

EX MPLE

e’s a sample session plan for part of a two day professional development co actually been used by CIE trainers to introduce the Cambridge Diploma).

Ai : To introduce course members to the Cambridge Diploma

jective: To recognise the value of collaborative learning

Timing/Activity Content Method Resources Assessment 9.00 Welcome and

troduction

Introduce yourself and provide an

Trainer input OHP and handout

n/a

in overview of the programme. Deal with domestic arrangements

9.10 Invite Group wo Activity int

participants to roduce

themselves to

rk n/a

each other 9.15 ce-breake

Form participants into

Group work and feedback

Paper and felt-tip pens

n/a

I r groups of four to

s

devise team icon and report back result

9.30 Summary

Summarise findings of first sequence of activities

Summary/plenary

OHP n/a

9.40 Presentation

Outline main features of Cambridge Diploma

Trainer input Powerpoint n/a

10.30 Break

Comfort break



79

his excerpt from a session shows how: • e

of methods. The ‘icebreakers’ are light-hearted exercises in which everyone can find selecting and designing a group icon.

variety of learning activities. Notice only 10 minutes had elapsed before the learners were given an active role. The trainer avoided making a long

ntation.

lue of group learning activities. With this in mind, the first group session is introduced at 9.15am right ‘at the top of the

The task is at a low level in Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy (but an appropriate level for this stage in the programme) and uses humour to smooth the

a good deal and the trainer back to the participants. This sets a

arners for the activities to follow.

at an activity might be prolonged if uccessful - for example, discussion arising from a particularly useful learner question or

fo ction of. This acts like an 'exp and it will absorb minor

In fact this 'expansion joint' no ing. If the room is flooded and a whole session has to be abando planning should be flexible enough to make sure that continuprogramme objectives are not prejudiced.

The last column on a Session and you will have to decide which assessment processes e b th during and after the session. Methods of formative assessm d exercises, simulations etc

earners learn best in situations where they are able to participate and be actively lies to active

just as the pe

T

Th trainer informs and relaxes the learners. Information is distributed by a variety

a role and have some fun, such as • There is a

uninterrupted initial prese • One of the trainer’s objectives is to show the va

schedule’.

path of learning.

arners had already achieved• By 9.30 the trainer and lesummarises these with encouraging feedpositive atmosphere with an involved group of le

emember to leave space in your planning so thR

scontribution. This will allowsession

r expansion and contraansion joint' in a bridge

activities during the

disruptions.

tion needs to be carried forward into programme plannned your programmeity of learning and

5. Assessment

Plan concerns assessmentre most appropriate for usa o

ent can include question an answer, observation,

Linvolved. The same appassessment not

assessment, but as an participant in the rson 'being assessed'.



80

ask:

learners must gain? • how will I assess whether or not learners know and understand the information I

• how will I measure progress?

dividuals his or her own needs, learning styles and motivation

e the need for additional support

How will I know if learners are ready to go on?

Who else can I involve? hat recording methods are available?

example from vocational education:

l Pos ities to bpla rogramm

obab method

You need to

• what are the skills to be learned and the knowledge the

will provide?

Remember: • Learners are in• Each with• There might b And consider: •• How can I support those who need more help? •• W

Here is an Skills and/or knowlearned

edge to be sible activnned into p

e e

Pr le assessment

Practical skills in using equipment For groups or i

ndividual learners:

ruction - demonstration - skills practice

Observation of performance during practice

ring which quired standard

Inst

Skills test duperformance to reis observed

Telephone techniques For a group:

Presentation - discussion - simulation using real equipment For an individual:

discussion Simulation

Teamwork to provide opportunity to observe skilled personnel

Oral questioning during

Observation of performance

Coaching Work experience

w

oning or multiple-Ho businesses operate in a Presentation of information Oral questi

variety of markets Case studies Small learning groups to undertake project Self-study

choice test Observation of performance as learners work in groups Marking of final project



Practice

81

You can now move on to designing your own learning session

plan with initial information such as

title

o on to draw up a plan of activities, perhaps using headings such as:

Begin by heading the - teacher name - venue - date/time - session - aim(s) - objectives - name of learner group - size of learner group - name of course G

Aim:

Objective:

Timing/Activity Content Method Resources Assessment

When you’ve finished your plan:

ee you've got an ordered sequence or ‘flow’ of activities e plan an introduction and a conclusion - write these out

u'd evaluate such a session and who'd be doing the evaluation note down what preparation this session plan will require.

Your session plan is now written BUT it is not ‘set in stone’. During any session various things can happen which change the pace of the session or cause you to change the content as it progresses – anything from a fire-drill to learners not understanding and topics not developing along the route you expected. There is nothing wrong with this – it is part and parcel of teaching practice. The difficulty would be if you

- check to s- include into th- consider how yo-

found it difficult to adapt. To help you: • use your “notes” column on your Programme Plan continually to update the

programme’s progress • be ready to adapt – even re-write – future Session Plans • always have a 'fail-safe' outline backup plan and emergency activities - this will give

you reassurance when you are using complicated equipment, relying upon external speakers, or have other activities planned which could 'go wrong', due to reasons which you cannot control.



1.2.3 Preparing learning materials

OINTS TO CONSIDER P

heck these points and save yourself time and trouble. C

1. What are the functions of learning materials? Possible functions: - to provide information - graphic, photographic, text, statistical

, places, methods as and opinions

es

- to arouse interest - e.g. in ideas to stimulate the exchange of ide-

- to simulate real-life conditions. 2. What kinds of materials are available?

ossible materials: P audio-visual aids -

- handouts - virtual investigations exercis-

- case studies interactive software -

- educational websites - games apparatus -

- simulations.

82



83

d pay attention to aspects such :

language level - is it appropriate to learners at their current level?

format and layout - use space effectively - sentences and paragraphs should be kept

s do diagrams, pictures and flowcharts ease of understanding - should explain without having to supplement the information

a

for younger learners, diagrams and pictures will aid their understanding.

. Different groups may require amendments to learning materials

- hich contain learners with very different needs

-

- level of individuals.

external sources, especially published sources, may be the subject of copyright law. hotocopying or use without permission from the author/publisher may be prohibited and

you should check on your centre’s policy if you are in any doubt. DIFFERENT OPPORTUNITIES Much of the time, teachers facilitate learning. We can look at two examples of such a situation. 1. Site visits and fieldwork These provide excellent learning opportunities and can be used in many different subject/topic areas - not just in geography, geology or biology. You can also capitalise on the value of site visits if you are developing learning sessions in - mathematics (a maths trail around the school) - music (performance attendance) - art (workshops and gallery visits)

3. When you are constructing learning materials All materials should be legible and accurate. You shoulas - - terminology - should be simple, avoiding jargon and technical terms unless these are

explained. The purpose is to communicate not show off-

short. Use double space to create space between sections - bullet points create a good visual impact a- - ease of use - exercises and case studies should contain clear instructions as

source of reference - visual impact - use of space; pictures and illustrations; short sentences and

paragraphs - 4 Learning materials may have to be adapted to suit the needs of - individual learners

groups w- different learning sessions - learning requirements and objectives to be achieved

different sizes of groups - the learning environment

the literacy NB when you use or adapt learning materials, remember that material obtained from

P



84

ers/adults/visitors) drama (workshops, masterclasses and performance attendance)

sciences (visits to exhibitions, museums)

- business (company visits, exhibitions). You can use visits and fieldwork in most learning situations and programmes. They may range from a few hours to weeks including overseas work. NB if you are thinking of making use of such an opportunity, your first step should be to get in touch with your colleagues especially: - colleagues who already manage and operate such visits for practical advice - your own line manager of Head of Department to discuss feasibility and timing - Administrative and Faculty staff for advice on funding, legal responsibilities and

issues of health and safety. 2. Guest speakers

uest speakers can be refreshing and stimulating. They can bring new perspectives to

you’ve checked out their ability to communicate successfully with your kind of

f expenses etc your learners are well prepared for the visit. This may well include preparation of

lve learners in appropriate 'thank you' e.g. younger learners can write letters.

- language (interviews with learn- - literature (festivals, talks, visits to literary locations)-

Gthe material and skills you are trying to develop. Their visits work well if: -

learners - they are given SMART objectives well in advance - they are properly introduced and helped during their visit - including things like

hospitality, refund o-

questions - timings for the visit are agreed in advance and observed in practice - you can invo



85

? EXAMPLE: USING A PHOTOGRAPH Let's look at adapting and designing learning material

Here we are on the Algarve, the southern coast of Portugal. The photograph was taken close to the tourist resort and ancient port of Lagos. In the middle ground you can see an arch formation, embryonic sea stacks and vegetation typical of the area. In the foreground we've got a winding valley cut into the local sedimentary rocks. Its slopes are steep and they show signs of collapse and recent violent erosion. This photograph could be used in a learning session for physical geography. It would have many uses in a number of sessions on coastal features, hydrology and biogeography. It's an attractive and seemingly versatile learning focus. You could scan it and copy it, but what would the learners do with it? It’s actually quite difficult to refer to, difficult to label or even annotate. Learners will need some help in using it so we need to adapt this photograph. If you were to ask the learners to produce a sketch based on the photograph you would immediately produce unnecessary problems: • You'd be making a serious demand on drawing skills rather than geographical

interpretation • Learners who find drawing difficult may spend a great deal of time on producing a

(poor) product. This will jeopardise session timings • Learners may not be confident in drawing and so lose confidence in the learning

activity itself.



EXAMPLE: AD

86

APTING MATERIAL

can

ncy, and it can be used as material for assessment.

So in this case we need to adapt the material into a simple but clear drawing whichbe easily accessed by learners. It can also be easily replicated, for example as an

verhead transpareo

B Design, design, design In education we're part of the communication and information business - the biggest and fastest growing business on earth. Design makes such information attractive and easy to digest, understand and access. Our learners are aware of the value of design in other contexts - television, magazines, film, websites, consumer goods, packaging and automobiles. Our learning materials will be better received if it is clear that we have taken care about their neatness, standard of finish, labelling, even the way they are arranged on a slide, OHT or page. If you're in doubt about the essentials of design, pick up a magazine or textbook and see how it has been set out and how the information has been presented.

N



Practice

87

ow look at your own existing graphic material and see how you might adapt it for poses.

See if you can find ways to make improvement(s). Ask yourself: - does this diagram, chart, map, picture or other form of image actually do something

useful in the learning session? - does it illustrate a series of points? - provoke discussion or questioning? - bring a different dimension to study, for example by acting as a fresh stimulus or

case study? - can the image be readily replicated or adapted? - how can the learners adapt it, use it, learn from it? Published worksheets and worksheets from the Internet should be adapted to suit the

eeds of your learners.

riate for one of your learning activities and consider:

wly learned skill, to assess knowledge?

is the level of work appropriate to the needs of the group? ?

- riate?

Nlearning pur

n Find one that might be approp - what is the purpose of the worksheet - is it to teach a new skill, to practise a ne

- if the presentation of information clear? - - is progression through the sheet correctly paced- do the examples on the sheet really clarify or could they confuse?

are the examples on the sheet culturally approp- are there open-ended questions that assess learners' application and not just

acquisition of knowledge?



1.2.4 Preparing equipment and learning facilities

TYPES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

e're going to look briefly at the range of equipment available and how to use it.

. Slides for overhead projectors - slides on conventional projectors

be sparing with the amount of text - bullet points on slides work well and can be used points for teacher notes and handouts

make sure text can be seen by everyone - large size gives greater visual impact

. Flipchart/blackboard/whiteboard

can be used effectively if pre-prepared to show, for example, diagrams, flowcharts,

appeal to visual learners by highlighting key learning and discussion points be legible - avoid use of capital letters throughout and write clearly so that

everyone can read.

. Computer-based learning materials

make sure the materials are suitable for all learners and their current capabilities isual and kinaesthetic learners

capitalise on using learners to help each other.

W 1 - remember ‘ a picture paints a thousand words’ -

as main- - you can use humour as a way of reinforcing and helping learners to remember key

points. 2 -

bullet points - - should

3 - make sure all learners are able to operate ICT facilities - - appeal to both v-

88



89

. Video and audio : films: LCD

y learning points ir current capabilities

t you are making away

experience? rehand what you want them to look for.

was tion for teachers and

arners alike. Frustration and amusement quickly turns to exasperation and nt. At its worst such a breakdown can spoil the whole outcome of a

sion.

y such failures can be avoided by simply being prepared and taking ns.

a ften shared between departments and teachers. Ensure that machines for your use a) formally b) well in advance.

eliability

lex fore

that they are set up ready for action. In the case of overhead projectors, always have a spare bulb available. For flipcharts and whiteboards ensure that pens are fully operational (and available!) Back-up If equipment fails, have you located a potential reserve supply? If the equipment fails and there is no reserve can you move convincingly and effortlessly to alternative activities and an alternative session (plan)? BE SPONTANEOUS! Blackboards, whiteboards, overhead projectors and computing facilities can all be used for spontaneous illustration or notation. Teachers often have drawing or cartoon skills which can be used to great effect in classes.

4 - can be used effectively to reinforce ke- ensure suitability for learners and the- make sure the resources will help to illustrate the poin- only use small sequences/sections as attention can quickly drain- will allow only for visual and oral learning so how will you record this learning

- if appropriate, tell the learners befo NB we’ve all been to presentations where visual aid machinery malfunctioned ormisused. This kind of event causes embarrassment and frustraledisappointmelearning ses A great manprecautio BE PREPARED! Availability Le rning technology is oyou reserve the relevant R ICT equipment, television monitors and video cassette recorders are relatively compmachines. Check in advance that they are functioning properly and immediately beuse ensure



90

tise your ‘boardwork’ - and you should. Good advice here is:

ut of your efforts n read them

difficulty with spellings, check them out beforehand asier to read than upper case.

studios

libraries

features, opportunities and potential for use - appropriateness - levels of equipment - technical support - health and safety Whatever the specialist environment, it is always best practice to consult the person in charge of the facility right at the start of planning. They'll be able to offer practical advice which will usually address each one of the five points we've highlighted for research.

You can prac - practise the layo

ensure that everyone ca- - don't overcrowd your working space - take your time to produce an effective piece of work

if you have - - use lower case lettering as this is more helpful and e SPECIALIST TEACHING ENVIRONMENTS As learning needs become more complex, teachers find themselves working in increasingly specialist teaching environments. These include:

boratories laworkshops sports halls and gymnasia workplaces outdoor sports facilities

lay areas ptheatres ICT suites For each of these you need to research carefully: -



Practice

91

IME FOR AN AUDIT!

you think you're limited as far as equipment and facilities are concerned, don't be put

nt elsewhere in the institution which one can access nd use for teaching/learning. This goes even beyond mere equipment. For example,

ay

are vailable and may have a use.

you return from your research unimpressed or empty-handed, why not try other places laterally - but remember the points to

t

T

Ifoff. Now is the time for a bit of research and investigation. Many teachers work exclusively in one department, one section of the company, even one room. There is often equipmeadifferent rooms with built-in specialist facilities may be available at the very time of dyou are interested in! Make a checklist of the facilities you're likely to use and leave spaces for those whicha Iffor loan or hire of equipment? Be creative, think

a ch out for e.g. reliability. w



1.2.5 Planning for evaluation

WHY PLAN? In the Diploma we encourage teachers to become more reflective. All teachers almost instinare 'here today, g

ctively reflect upon their teaching - but often these reflections one tomorrow'.

t of ac r session plan designs.

ome important questions:

The choice is yours, but even (and especially) if you choose ‘Self' you'll need to plan carefully the format, time and timing of your reflections. 2. What are the points to be evaluated? The most immediate concern is usually ‘How did the session go?’ You need to break that question down into: - What did the learners actually learn during the session - learning outcomes? - How do I know that this learning took place? Assessment? - How successful were the teaching/learning techniques which I used? - Were the learning objectives achieved?

e want to strengthen reflection as an active, recorded and purposeful elemenW

pr tical teaching. So we begin by building evaluation into ou

o plan successfully for evaluation, we need to consider sT KEY QUESTIONS 1. Who will be carrying out the evaluation? Evaluation can be done by one or combination of: - Self - Learners - Observer.

92



93

will need to be covered. Briefly these are:

light of this experience? ?

ECORDING AND REPORTING

nd

n be oral or written or a combination of .

ack, what does

re colleagues, especially senior colleagues, can be an extremely

IME AND TIMING You need to build in time for evaluation into your session plan. It can happen: - during the session (by learners and/or observer) - after the session (by self, learners, and/or observer). Think carefully about ‘after the session’. How much time is available for all concerned after the session? Where will the feedback session take place? With longer-term evaluation you'll need time to analyse records and material and written observations on the analysis. Module/assignment 4 of the Diploma provides the framework for just such an evaluation. At this stage you can think through the issues and identify how you could gather and record information to help your reflections for Module 4.

Other issues - did all the learners benefit? - was the pace of presentation/learning appropriate?

what changes might I have to make to future sessions in the- - did my session plan work effectively? Was it too detailed or no detailed enough- were there any problems which arose and need to be solved soon? R

valuation can help to generate many of the fresh ideas to help improve teaching aElearning in the future. You need to take care about recording and storing evaluation information. It must become part of your regular professional practice. You also need to take care of reporting. Evaluation is based on feedback. In self-evaluation, the teacher is reporting to

im/herself. Learner and observer feedback cahboth. Feedback may be informal and/or formal, e.g. using questionnaires or pro-formas

ut there is a second stage to this reporting. Having received the feedbBthe teacher then do with it? He/she could ‘mull it over’. He/she could store it for future reference. He/she could talk it through with someone else, a fresh face, a second

pinion. This is wheovaluable learning resource for the teacher. T



Practice

94

At this stage, think through the issues and identify how you could gather and record information to help your reflections for Module/Assignment 4. It's often said that the best interviewees are those who have conducted interviews themselves. Likewise the best evaluation often comes from those who have evaluated others. So ask someone else if you can sit in on one of their learning sessions. This person may be a friend, colleague or even someone you do not know very well. You'll need to approach this in simple professional terms. You simply want to observe a

a view to designing a method of feedback for your learners. What could ey observe and comment upon - remember that they are NOT practising professionals.

nce you've observed a session you should be able to list the important issues which e learners should be able to comment on.

ou can then design an appropriate format for the comments e.g. a questionnaire or a

e just observed.

session withth This can be a delicate issue. Even professional friends may turn you down! Don't be put off - you might have done the same. Move on to someone else, perhaps outside your usual professional/social circle. Oth Ysimple report form.

Remember to ask advice from the teacher whose session you'v



1.2.6 Preparing

95

the learning environment

A LITTLE FENG SHUI

eng shui is a traditional Chinese philosophy. Feng shui is about understanding the Fforces of nature in order to design living and working spaces which are in balance with these forces. In Feng Shui - chi is sometimes described as the cosmic breath, or as the vital principle. It is the

force of change and transformation. - chi has three phases. They are called Sheng, Si and Sha. - sheng means moving upward or ‘waxing’ - si means dying or ‘waning’ - sha indicates harmful energy (from ‘Feng Shui Step by Step’ by T Raphael Simons 1996) We need to develop a lear ing environment which has sheng chi. n A place has sheng chi when it feels fresh and bright, the animals are healthy, the people are prosperous and happy, and when it overlooks a beautiful park, a garden, the woods, mo ins, a field, a river, a lake, orunta the ocean. You have sheng chi when you feel pos aspiration. itive Notice how the description of

hen we think of the learningsheng chi contains human as well as physical attributes. environment we must consider physical and social

ctors.

Wfa



96

PHYSICAL FACT

man needs in terms of a hierarchy or pyramid.

At the base of sical needs which keep us safe nd well.

- comfortable - in terms of ventilation, furnishings, toilet/wash facilities - undisturbed - free from interruptions such as telephones (especially mobiles) - noise levels - outside and inside the room/learning space. Noise level inside at the

teacher’s discretion - maximum visibility - learners can see the teacher and the visual aids - sheng chi - well why not? Let’s go for feelings of positive aspiration. SOCIAL FACTORS Our learners have needs which enable them to co-exist happily with other learners in the group. They'll work better together if they know each other and respect what each is trying to achieve. You should strive to develop an atmosphere of shared learning harmony in which individuals can happily ask questions and spark discussion. The key to this is in meeting self-fulfilment needs. Some learners may come to learning sessions with low self-esteem. This is a common (too common) human condition. It takes some time to build self-esteem but you can help it along by: - providing encouraging feedback to contributions however slight - framing remarks and presentations in a persistently positive fashion - setting up learning situations in which everyone can make a contribution - discreet use of humour - showing enthusiasm for an interest in the work being undertaken. HUMANISTIC ENVIRONMENT Carl Rogers has written about the advantages of developing what he calls a ‘humanistic learning environment’. This has four emphases: 1. the whole person

a holistic synthesis of mind, body and feelings 2. personal growth

individuals moving towards higher levels of health, creativity and self-fulfilment

3. the person’s awareness

ORS Abraham Maslow described hu

this pyramid of needs are the purely phya So we should aim to provide our learners with an environment which is:



97

their subjective views about themselves and the world

.

huma s e learners T

sponsibil

4. personal agency

the power of choice and responsibility A ni tic environment will depend largely on the teacher’s positive approach to th

. he environment for learning should encourage learners to feel that they have ity for and control over their learning.re



98

Practice Consider your own environment(s). 1. Are there any ways in wh

• affect the physica sing, effective and a home for ‘positive

• begin to change the social environment of your learning groups, perhaps

introducing new methods of delivery, reinforcement and motivation. 2. Are there any ways in which you could foster greater learner involvement in the

direction taken by their learning? You could begin by inviting them to bring along and make physical contributions to the room in which the sessions take place.

3. What do the learners bring to the beginning of the learning session? Where have

they been before they came to the class? They may have trudged for miles to the building. They may have been whirled along by a subterranean mass rapid transit system. They may have problems on their mind. How can you focus their attention and give everyone equal access to the learning session you have devised?

4. If the learning space is dull and boring, let's brighten it up! You could bring in some

flowers or plants, pictures or posters, appropriate artefacts … 5. Encourage your learners to take some responsibility for their own learning

environment. Through this, younger learners will develop their social skills and also their ability to become aesthetically aware.

ich you as teacher can

l environment to make it more plea aspiration’?


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 2 : PRACTICE

99

dule 2

P

Mo

RACTICE



2.1.1 Presenting info

100

rmation

A presentation can be defined as:

'A planned and structured input by a teacher, usually using audio-visual aids, designed to impart information'

o provide information to a group on a specific topic. when combined with an activity which checks that

tion to about 15 minutes, knowing a

s, eac g on previous ones.

ow then do you progress from the point of recognising the need to give information on pic to enabling learners to absorb that knowledge?

PRESENTATI A teacher needs to be able to communicate subject content and session structure with clarity, enthusiasm and interest. You should take into account the size of your group, the learning outcomes to be achieved and the level of experience of your learners. So let's look at the world of human communication, and ways of communicating information – such aspects as tone, manner and pace of communication and the involvement of learners in the presentation. By ‘presentation’ here we mean that part of the session in which the teacher gives direct input.

presentation is usually given tA

Presentations are most effectiveearners have understood. l An effective teacher will limit the length of a presentath t learners will only be able to concentrate for about this length of time. If further information is needed, a session may be broken up into several presentation

h buildin Ha particular to

ON AND COMMUNICATION



TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

101

e teacher will be concerned with conveying information to e learner. Not all of this will be verbal. Non-verbal communication may come in the

form ppeal to as many of the senses a • l impact of a message is about 7% verbal (words

r sounds) and 55% non-

• ven a face-to-face conversation is

lly • -verbal communication is body-language. This is a

use guess who your learners are going to be t, you!

If you wish to learn more about the f d 'Bo g book is well worth a re PLA

topic?

you can use visual, auditory, kinaesthetic styles d attention

you can use palm (hand held) cards to help you remember key points are highly visible, at-a-

☺

☺ Tell them INSTRUCTION

☺ Tell them what you have just told them REINFORCEMENT

For much of a presentation thth

of handouts, video clips, slides or photographs. Plan to as possible. Body language is an important consideration, too.

Albert Mehrabian found that the totaonly), 38% vocal (including tone of voice, inflection and otheverbal

Birtwhistell found that the verbal component of eless than 35% and over 65% is done non-verba

The most important aspect of nonvital consideration for teachers becalooking at most of the time? Yes, that's righ

ascinating topic of body language we recommendy Language' by Alan Pease. This amusing and thought-provokinad - especially for teachers!

NNING FOR PRESENTATIONS How will you present the •• visual aids can focus information an•• you can use your own teaching notes (but make sure they

glance) • make sure you know your subject. Remember:

Tell them what you are going to tell them INTRODUCTION



102

o and Powerpoint

Only you know content and sequence

Set parameters for questions before you start

Use humour where it is inclusive of learners and appropriate

Regularly scan the group to check involvement and motivation

Target questions at different learners - keep it varied. Really convincing presenters To be really convincing you should be: • flexible enough to adapt to the response of your learners • skilled at organising information into a logical and effective sequence • use language appropriate for your learners and context • operate in a positive and relaxed learning environment • make clear the purpose and structure of the presentation • spark interest through use of interesting case studies and/or examples • link the presentation clearly to the programme as a whole and to related learning

activities (which may have already been completed, may be currently underway or to follow)

• use examples which relate to the learners’ experiences.

GIVING THE PRESENTATION Your checklist of essentials:

Check equipment ... especially vide

Check slides, OHP, other audio-visual aids are clearly visible to all

Speak slowly, carefully, clearly

Avoid technical jargon unless terms are explained

Use tone of voice to stress key points

Avoid fidgetting - learners find it distracting

Eye contact with all learners - use positive and open body language

Use pauses to stress points



103

ND OBSERVE

a particular world of presentation skills. These can permanent tooth-spangled smiles to a

w treatment as , and postures are carefully refined and

a st coaching for their television appearances.

RESEARCH A Take time out to look at a few presentations by other professionals.

good source of information is television. A

elevision presentation has created Tinclude stylised facial expressions ranging from

e sreader’s bland expression. Body language, too, comes in for the full nshoulders are embraced, hands are shakene djusted. Politicians now receive specialir

Clearly we don’t need to go this far. Our presentations have a different purpose and are intended for a different ‘audience’. On the other hand we may be subconsciously compared with other professionals. After all our learners are seeing 'presentations' in

any different contexts in their daily life. m



Practice

104

Take a presentation from one of your session plans - one which you know you will have to give in the near future. It need only be a 10-15 minute slot. Ask yourself two questions:- • How would I usually present this material? • How else could I present this material? For the second question, write a few notes on content and method, find a quiet room and actually speak through your ‘lines’ (it can feel a little strange at first but actors and media

resenters do this all the time!). Have your visual aids on hand and remember to use r if this helps you.

resentations work best when the audience feels involved.

ow did your learners become involved? Did you ask a question, bring in an artefact for ey involved in what you did?

pbody language. Use a mirro Then try out your presentation for real - with your learners P Hthem to pass around? How were th



2.1.2 Giving instruction and demonstration

OWARDS ACTIVE LEARNING

On and act d interest.

ing and enjoyable experience.

instruction

• •

scie ts or whose main role is in the workplace.

ate a comfortable arning environment by:

• calling learners by name

• • ting an

environment in which they feel comfortable to ask any questions, or check they have understood something correctly.

The more the learners participate, the easier it is to check their understanding, particularly when the task is new to them, or when it is complex.

T

e of the most important ways of encouraging active learning is by planning tasks ivities which will further learners’ curiosity, creativity an

Imparting skills to learners is a fascinating, reward It involves several types of activity:

•• practical demonstration

skills practice one-to-one coaching.

Instruction and demonstration will be used in the main by teachers teaching practical or

ntific subjec INSTRUCTION Before starting to give the instruction, take a few minutes to crele

being open and friendly

•

telling the learners what you are going to cover in the session

arousing their interest and making sure they play an active part by crea

105



106

ers are relaxed and comfortable, start your instruction with an xplanation of what the overall task is. To make sure you communicate effectively, you

speak slower than you normally do

• technical terms wherever possible

rners’ existing knowledge

necessary

•

arts of the equipment you are using

•

• ’s face

will tell you that they do not understand something you have said, even if that person

• n after your

instruction.

• included any health and safety issues before the demonstration, then reinforce these in the commentary you give as the demonstration progresses. Make sure you comply with all health and safety requirements when using the equipment - after all, learners will copy what they see and you want to set a good example.

When you feel the learneshould:

•

use simple words and avoid • check lea • cover only the necessary information to avoid confusion • cover the information in a logical order, referring briefly to your flowcharts if

allow learners to look at parts of any equipment you are explaining and ask any questions, carefully positioning yourself so that they can see everything you do clearly and the p

• make sure they can see and hear you clearly

ask them to approach the equipment if necessary so that they can examine small parts or controls

be aware of the learners’ body language - often the expression on someone

is too shy to ask a question

allow a reasonable amount of time for any questions or further informatio

DEMONSTRATION Before starting to give a demonstration, make sure you have: • covered your explanation and instructions in a relatively short time, because the aim

of this participative style of training is to get the learners using the equipment as soon as possible



107

of:

demonstration - showing how it’s done and repeating the instruction as each step of

ake sure learners see the logical steps

or

to end, then repeat it

tions, or to clarify as

ers ust learn the basic ld

y p question - “that’s a very

ay, the learners will know that ou encourage questions.

Follow the principle • instruction - telling learners what they need to know about the task, including health

and safety •

the demonstration is given. You should: • Allow time - for any questions to check understanding. • Give further instruction and demonstration - of all or part of the process if necessary. • Give the demonstration step by step. When covering several tasks, first start with

the easiest task. Demonstrate the task slowly, explaining exactly what you are doingand why, then repeating it as necessary to min the process.

• Throughout the demonstration, try to avoid making comments about the simplicity

difficulty of the task. Not every learner might find it easy, or difficult. You do not want to influence learners in any way. Tell someone it’s easy and s/he may lose confidence if they don’t find it easy! Tell someone it’s difficult and you may make them nervous, especially if that person lacks confidence. You’ve probably carried out the task many times - but remember how you felt when you first tried it!

• Repeat the demonstration only once with relatively simple tasks. With a more

complex task, demonstrate the whole task once from beginningslowly, breaking it down into its component steps in a logical sequence.

uring the second demonstration, encourage learners to ask quesD

re ons for doing this in a particular way, or in a particular order. This is why it is necessary to take such care to create a comfortable learning environment. Learnm skills so that they can progress to more complex tasks which buion those basic skills. Enabling them to feel comfortable in asking questions is verim ortant. You could praise a learner for asking a particular good question, John, I’m glad you asked that.” In this wy



SKILLS PRACTICE

108

tearein s practise their skills, supporting them on an individual basis.

o che what to do and the order in

hich it should be done. You might ask each learner where s/he will start and why, and orrect, or the learner is not able to remember,

st the group’s understanding by asking the other learners to help him or her remember,

ible, guiding only when necessary. y d only stop the practice if

nt th

a have ee instructions if no-one can answer. This is better than simply

whether the learner has made the is ed to repeat all or part of her training.

opportunities as possible for the learners to practise their skills without ort them, or to

of the training may

ividual, with his or her own ways of learning. If further

out for him or herself

arner work with a more experienced member of staff temporarily

•

Learners now need to practise the new skill, so that you can judge whether or not your ching has been effective. Will they remember your teaching, or do you need to force it? Let the learner

Before each learner has his or her turn, ask brief questions in a friendly manner, just t

ck that the learner is confident that s/he remembers wwhat s/he will do next. If the answer is incterather than stepping in to give the answer. Let learners do the task with as little support as poss

r to avoid giving unnecessary information or instruction anTyou know the learner is making a mistake. Learners need support and encourageme

t is time, so try to be as patient as possible. a If learner makes a mistake, ask the other learners what the correct action would

n, only giving furtherbrepeating instructions, since you are assessing

take due to nervousness, or whether you nem

ive as manyGconstantly supervising them, but make sure you are available to supp

a key part correct their work if necessary. Sometimes a reminder ofbe necessary, or even a further period of instruction, demonstration or coaching beforethe skills transfer is complete, but only offer this where necessary. Accept that every learner is an indsupport is necessary, you may wish to offer alternatives, such as: • asking the learner to refer to written instructions to try it letting the le•

asking learners to help each other if they get stuck.



109

AND ACTIVITIES

ember that observation is an effective assessment method - watch all stages of activity and pay particular attention to learners’ body language to gauge progress

make sure there are no interruptions

adapt or intervene only when necessary (i.e. to ensure that outcomes will be met)

allow learners choices rather than giving advice

use activities as a vehicle for identifying further learning needs where necessary

someone to do this • use questioning to assess understanding. Think about: • the number of different techniques you use (from the above list) • the reaction of your learners - are they ‘catching on’? • how much attention do you pay to visibility; to issues of health and safety? AFTER EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES Once the instruction has been given and the learners have done their work, it is clearly good practice to get everyone together (summary/plenary) Remember to:

encourage learners to compare and contrast outcomes achieved to the benefit of the whole group

encourage learners to reflect on the learning which has taken place and skills

gained e.g. teamwork, communications, as well as completion of tasks

allow time for feedback and encourage learners to participate in discussion

congratulate learners wherever possible

check that learning outcomes have been met

take time to reflect on how the exercise or activity has worked and how it could have been improved if necessary.

DURING EXERCISES • rem

and participation levels • be prepared to clarify instructions or give further instructions where necessary to

ensure full understanding of what is to be achieved • • • • • if feedback from groups is required, encourage group members to nominate



Practice

110

o to

ttp://www.geoffpetty.com/

G

h and explore Geoff Petty’s excellent website for many useful resources for active teaching

AR (Present, Apply, Review).

html

and learning. Select one which you’re particularly interested in, and apply it in your teaching - as soon as possible. For example, P You can see Geoff in action by going to http://www.teacherstoolbox.co.uk/index. These two webs

reites and Geoff’s books ‘Teaching Today’ and ‘Evidence-based Teaching’ sources which you can turn to frequently for advice and guidance. are wonderful



2.1.3 Using

111

visual aids

TYPES OF VISUAL AID Whatev ou may use, you will use visual

ids and materials of some description. You ma

d projector slide • han /• c whi r

verhe

This versatile machi ed lights are usually enough

You can face and talk to the learners while showing the transparencies

You can prepare transp

Transparencies can be made up using spirit-based pens, adhesive letters or via a

computer, printing directly on to special transparencies or photocopying of a printed sheet onto photocopiable acetates.

Slide projector

There are various models, some using rotary magazines for the slides

It needs black out for use

It can show large-scal numbers of learners.

er context you teach in and style of teaching ya

y use: • overhea• projector

ICT facilities (including powerpoint) douts •

• TV video flip hart

te/blackboard •• wo ksheets.

ad projector O

ne does not need a blackout - dimm

arencies before the session and store them for future use

e photographic images to large



ICT facilities

112

video/scanner, powerpoint/projector, interactive whiteboard

presentations but it can just as easily be used with a small group

Powerpoint enables the teacher to design and prepare what amounts to an entire images of all kinds, including moving

images and animation. Sound is easily added.

V/Video

n available on television, especially public service broadcast channels

Video is widely used in teaching, coaching and training. Used wisely

lipcharts

Flipcharts can be used in the same way as whiteboards but can also be prepared

nce if necessary. This is helpful if you have a problem with spelling

ts can be displayed as an outcome

lso to whiteboards and blackboards.

Flipcharts and white/blackboards

Hardware and software can include facilities such as individual PCs, digital

Powerpoint has made a great impact upon the world of mass audience

presentation in advance. This can include

T

Educational and other useful programmes are ofte

(i.e. suitably edited or excerpted) it can be versatile and interesting.

F

in adva

They can be used for individual or group contributions in plenary sessions and individual shee

The following style conventions apply to flipcharts and a

minimum size 3mm

lower case

use UPPERCASE, colour or underlining for emphasis

avoid symbols, abbreviations and angled or v e r t i c a l

words

diagrams: excellent but avoid clutter and too much colour label directly; keys are confusing



113

blackboards

y demand written/diagrammatic skills – so practise your boardwork

hing and cleaning especially

hese are mainly information given to learners, to supplement a session or to form the

notes that relate to the content of the session - for example, a summary of the

main points, copies of OHTs

supporting handouts that give additional information. Worksheets These are handouts for the learner to use and write on either during or after the session as part of the activity When designing handouts or worksheets you need to consider:

is it really of use - will it help to make learning easier?

when will you use it? - as a general rule, information handouts should be distributed at the beginning, worksheets as and when necessary for learner activity

always make it clear how the handout is to be used:

‘use the worksheet to make additional notes’

‘you may need this for later work’

learners will work better and learn more from worksheets that they have to

complete rather than from pure information - learning will not be reinforced if the learners are given a copy of the presentation and are asked to do nothing but read it

will the worksheets be used as a piece of assessed work? (This may change the

nature of the questions).

Whiteboards and These are probably the most commonly used visual aids. They are cheap and reliable BUT:

the

they need a bit of maintenance - was

check your supplies of chalk/felt-tip pens. Handouts

Tbasis of learner activities. The latter include worksheets. Information handouts can be



114

OWN

igning and developing your own visual aids. Teachers with r clear hand-written or computer-generated

our s

Tak • at advertisements - these are also about conveying message and

information quickly and effectively. How do they use lettering, spacing and colour? • look at posters - some of these have become classics of artwork • computer software - such as websites - are often well-designed

DOING YOUR You can be confident in desmited graphic skills can always settle foli

handouts worksheets and transparencies. Used carefully these will always add to yse sions. If you're not so confident in design, try this:

e time out to see how other material is presented, for example:

take a look



Practice

115

ry using a new visual aid:

• If you do have graphic skills such as the ability to draw quickly, say, in cartoon fashion, by all means make use of it in your presentations

• If you have a personal computer, the start-up package may include an animated

presentation which uses humorous references from a cartoon character to offer online assistance and tuition. These are good sources of teaching/training skills and ideas.

T



2.1.4 Supervising learning activities

LEARNER NEEDS

xercises and activities should be based on accurate identificE

116

ation of learners’ differing y should be structured to maximise learning opportunities and to

participate fully.

e eaching context.

• ers to

•

• n cover the same content at the same level but at a different

rate • dialogue, where the teacher discusses the work with individual learners in order to

tailor the work to their needs.

needs and abilities. Thencourage learners to e

So we need to look closely at differentiation.

tradling and Saunders (1993) identified five different types of differentiation. ThesSmight help you to think about differentiation in your own t They describe differentiation by

task, where learners cover the same content but at different level

outcome, where the same general task is set, but it is flexible enough for learn•work at their own level

learning activity, where learners are required to address the same level, but in a different way

pace, where learners ca



117

addition, for younger learners, you can include

• Doncan vary quite considerably within groups e.g. within adult learning groups

leaown LEA

nother key to successful learning is to include in your session design structured arner involvement

discussions led by learners

role play

ause the teacher has designed it to his/her session plan. Informal involvement happens spontaneously, perhaps as a

r a question and answer session.

setting up and introducing practical work and xperiments. Activities such as investigations and debates also need an appropriate

tter if the learners don't 'have to hurry’.

Let learners do the task with as little support as possible, guiding only when

• mistake, ask the other learners what the correct action would

have been, only giving further instructions if no-one can answer. This is better than de

In

differentiation by level of support.

’t worry if in your learning sessions you ‘mix and match’ these techniques - needs

However the more thought you can give to differentiation, the more effective your

rning session will become since learners will be much more comfortable with their work.

RNER INVOLVEMENT

Aopportunities for le Opportunities include: •• presentations given by learners •• involvement in simulation exercises. We call this kind of involvement formal involvement becinfollow-up to a discussion o MONITORING ACTIVITY Good session planning will include time foreamount of time. Learning outcomes are be These points will help you monitor activity successfully:

•necessary. Try to avoid giving unnecessary information or instruction and only stop the practice if you know the learner is making a mistake – this is the time when learners need support and encouragement, so try to be as patient as possible

If a learner makes a

simply repeating instructions, since you are assessing whether the learner has maa mistake due to nervousness, or whether you need to repeat all or part of his/herinstruction



118

r to protect a learner’s self-esteem. Throughout our lives, our self-esteem helps us to

bilities. So when we try to support learners to find the correct e should avoid causing them to feel undermined or devalued in front of

ible for the learners to practise their skills without pervising them, but make sure you are available to support them, or

key point of the g or demonstration may be necessary. You may have to go over

r initial input to emphasise a difficult or contentious operation, but only offer this where necessary.

• When you are dealing with mistakes or misconceptions by learners, remembe

make the most of our aanswers, wothers

• Give as many opportunities as poss

constantly sucorrect their work as necessary. Sometimes a reminder of a instruction, coachina section of you

POINT TO WATCH Accept that every learner is an individual, with his or her own ways of learning. If further support is necessary, you may wish to offer alternatives, such as:

letting the learner work with a more experienced member of staff temporarily

• asking the learner to refer to written instructions to try it out for him or herself • • asking learners to help each other if they get stuck. SETTING UP GROUP WORK Group work is a very effective approach, in all phases and contexts of education and training. For example, most primary school classrooms use group work as an organisational and as a learning strategy.

efore you set up group work remember: B • You need to decide how the groups are chosen. Do you put the groups together or

do you let the learners choose? • In the former case you can put together learners with different or similar perspectives

or abilities, split groups who are troublesome or isolated and bring individual learners into groups where they normally work alone. But the disadvantages of this approach can include possibly causing some resentment or groups not working satisfactorily at least to begin with.

• In the latter case - learners forming their own groups - this may encourage group

working and harmonious teams. However a disadvantage can be that the same groups will form time after time (since they are based on friendship groups). Then learners will never experience and appreciate working with anyone other than their own group. Of course friends do not always work well together!

• The balance of groups will depend on what they are being asked to do and how well

you know them.



119

s of learning activities spring to mind as being ideal for group work:

These can be seen as ‘special situations’. But group work can be used as an everyday teaching/learning technique. For example having given instruction on a topic a teacher can form up groups to frame important questions about the topic, develop a viewpoint on the material or summarise effectively what they thought were the main issues arising from the topic. This group work can then be followed by a summary/plenary session which can pool ideas - a very useful follow-up, rich in learning outcomes. SUPERVISING GROUPS One of the most challenging situations to manage in a classroom is when learners are working in small groups. Once groups are working, you must move between them (it is good practice to circulate slowly among learners in any case). Spend time with each group equally as far as possible. There will, however, always be times when one group demands more time than another, e.g. because of lack of understanding. You will need to give this group additional time, but, meanwhile, watch the other groups for questions. One way is to set the less able group small tasks to do while you attend to other groups. This way the less able group will build their understanding more gradually to the same level as the others, but other groups will not be left waiting for attention.

everal typeS

- drama and simulation

games - - role play - team exercises - sporting and recreational activities

site visits - - fieldwork such as geography, biology, geology, archaeology - laboratory work - project work



Practice

120

Think about incorporating group work into your teaching and learning activities. This is a ood opportunity to try a little experiment of your own.

o check that the activity which you have set is an appropriate one for group work and undertaken by learners as individuals – putting

arners in groups can be a distraction for many.

in design and class management. The ly try!

g Ddiscussion. Many activities are better le Group work can set the teacher new challenges

n way to assess its worth and effectiveness is to give it ao



121

ging the flow of activities 2.1.5 Mana

THE FLOW OF ACTIVITIES You need to ensure that the session:

here are a number of important elements here:

. Time management

4.

STA

Thi

Yourun

is

There's no ‘right’ way to begin. Individual teachers have their own approaches. But whatever method you use it must be definite, clear and purposeful. This is a time when your learners will expect you to be in control. You can always 'relax' afterwards. But if you start in a loose and casual way, you'll find it difficult then to move to giving direction and instruction.

• as a whole is coherent and balanced • leads to positive and productive outcomes. T 1. Starts, transitions, conclusion 23. Maintaining learner interest

Adapting activities.

RTS

s is a time for formality.

'll need to call the learners to attention, checking presence or absence as necessary, ning through any domestic arrangements and setting out the programme for the

learning session. You need to be clear, calm and in control.

h is also your opportunity to identify the objectives for the session. T



TRANSITIONS

122

ition from one mode of learning to the next. ransitions can be identified on your session plan). You'll need to bear in mind

distributing learning materials

• finding text books, files etc

forming groups or pairs.

It can mean a break in concentration but see such breaks as an opportunity. veryone can ‘draw breath’ - relax a little. Then you can make a fresh invitation to start

new instructions.

here the learners will expect you as the teacher to be in control. You hould manage transitions with clarity and a sense of purpose, inviting your learners to

ONCLUSIONS

is often said that you can tell an accomplished and effective teacher by the way he or nd

r forget them altogether.

e learning session with a clear, measured and urposeful conclusion which can:

reinforce the main learning outcomes of the session e.g. ‘what important points have

.’

esearch or formal homework such as completing exercises or

z ur session from the learners' perspective.

You'll need to indicate and direct the trans(Tpossibly:

•• using different audio-visual aids

moving furniture •• issuing a fresh set of learning instructions •

Ethe new activity, and you can give Again, this is wsmake the most of the next, new, activity. C Itshe finishes a class. But, just as often, conclusions can be seen as unimportant ateachers sometimes rush o It's very good practice to finish thp •

we covered today?’ • celebrate success where possible e.g. ‘This was a difficult set of ideas to study but

we did well, especially with .• say how this learning session will link up with the next and invite further study e.g.

‘next time we will go on to ..’ • set out what the learners need to prepare for the next learning session. This may be

reading, revision, rattempting a learning task or assignment.

• provide an opportunity to make a quick assessment of learning e.g. with a group qui• provide an opportunity to evaluate yo



TEACHER TIME When you are timing your own activities: • Be aware of the actual time and the total time available to you for each activity in

your session plan

123

g

Be realistic - if an activity needs longer, can you adjust the other timings in your

Deal with small tasks quickly.

e aware of cues and signals of learner behaviour.

his is often a matter of body language. Teachers soon develop the skills to recognise uncertainty, disinterest, engagement, confidence, happiness or disaffection without so much as a word being spoken. It is good to make a considered response to such body language. This is the opportunity for reassurance, a gentle touch of encouragement, a new task to try, a different way of looking at a problem. There is a balance for you to strike here between letting a learner find his/her own way and intervening in the learning process. There is also a balance between attending to the needs of the individual and to the needs of the learning group as a whole.

• Prioritise - see that the main points of the session are covered and the main learnin

outcomes are achieved • Match time to tasks - yours as well as the learners

•session plan?

• LEARNER TIME Give realistic, clear and if necessary, reinforced instruction/guidance on how much time and effort learners are expected to devote to particular tasks or activities. Give an accurate idea of time required eg... ’20 minutes.’ If the task has, say, three equal components, encourage learners to spend equal amounts of time on each. MAINTAINING LEARNER INTEREST As you circulate around the class, b T



124

TIVITIES

vidual human beings and what went well with one group

about it is one of the outstanding skills in the art of or many it is one of the pleasures of teaching.

there are problems, say of r skill operation, for the learner

e that a topic has so aroused the interest of learners that lively id .

will have to prioritise an arrange or adjust timing within the session as you go along. Of course these are not the only circumstances which may mean you have to modify the sequence of learning activities. External factors may come into play. You can draw up

interruptions which you have experienced or might experience - from onditions to unwanted distractions and visitors. For example

A teacher trainer was once conducting a skills training session for teachers in a training venue located in a building in a zoological garden. The learners were quietly studying some material when an elephant calmly walked past the picture windows on one side of the room. Initial surprise turned to laughter. The elephant showed no interest in

ha y on its way. It took some time to restore

ADAPTING AC You may need to adjust the timing and emphasis of learning activities within the session

lan. Teachers everywhere know and recognise that this happens very often - if only pbecause our learners are indi

ight not work as well with another. m

ensing this and doing somethingSteaching. F • Sometimes we need to adapt our plan because

understanding o • Sometimes, it may b

discussion produces important new In each case you

eas

d re

your own list offreak weather c

‘numeracy skills’ whatever and carriedour focus on the learning session!

ppil



Practice

125

ry planning a worthwhile conclusion in at least one of your teaching/learning sessions.

ou can use this pro-forma

T

Y Planning an effective conclusion

Time for plenary/conclusion (minutes)

Session objectives

Purpose of the plenary

Main points we have gained from this learning session

1.

2.

3.

Well done! for 1.

2.

3.

What we will go on to study next time 1.

2.

3.

You will need to bring:

Preparation needed for next time 1.

2.

3.

See you next time! at

on



2.1.6 Managing the learning environment

We cannot always teach in a perfect environment but we can plan around and within the known setting to make the most of it. Is the room appropriate for the group size? Learners will not work well if they are in cramped conditions or expecting to work as a small group in a large room. In either circumstance teaching is difficult. Changing the layout of the room may be one possible solution to either situation. The 'traditional' classroom layout with separated desks and chairs in rows (theatre style with chairs only) is best suited to whole group presentation instruction and individual/private work by learners.

126



127

he teacher needs to be aware of learners who are sitting to the side and at the front ay seem not to include these learners. The arc of

uestioning and instruction is like the beam of a torch. The teacher needs to be remember that, other things being equal, those in the middle and to the front will be

ore attentive and interested. So he or she needs deliberately over time to direct

Tsince otherwise he or she mq

mattention to all in the group.



128

Alternative layouts include:

This is a layout more conducive to discussion and, while giving everyone a desk, is a more informal arrangement than, perhaps, a row of desks. The teacher is still “in control” and presentation styles are still feasible – the board, flipchart and overheads - can still be seen by all. A horseshoe layout without desks is appropriate for controllediscussions where learners will not need to take notes.

d



Cluster and Board layouts can be with or without a table, depending on the proposed learner activities. They have all the advantages of the horseshoe but put the teacher as “one of the team”. The disadvantage may be that overheads and whiteboard cannot be seen by all without moving some of the chairs. A second advantage is that with no tables or desks, there can be a sense of vulnerability and it is difficult if the group cannot balance all their books and papers. These layouts may best be used for practical work such as role play, debate, discussion.

129



Small group work is best conducted when the furniture is arranged in groups around a table ('cabaret' style). Furniture may need to be moved if it is only part of a session, asnot all will be able to see flipcharts, boards and overheads. There are, of course, programmes and activities which involve particular permanent layouts – in practical areas, laboratories or in the workplace for example – and these will have to be taken into account when sessions are planned.

130



131

the layout certain fundamentals should be considered

t – for example consider space, temperature, .

n distract, as can people walking in and out of the room or alongside windows. Interruptions

the learners and staff. Anyone coming into the room should be dealt with promptly BUT finish any instruction or presentation

ering their query.

– especially mobile phones – should not happen. Turn off or this is when the

e turned off).

. In some sessions – or in be decreased. In less

is for the

visibility for all is essential.

iso h

eay g and learning there is a time

acon

D LEARNERS

ss’ to their learners. Wragg d in class of experienced

fession. Experienced teachers were:

Whatever • Comfortable learning environmen

lighting, as well as comfortable chairs • Distractions and interruptions should be at a minimum – outside noise ca

will affect the “flow” of any session as well as

at a convenient point before answ • Telephone interruptions

unplug any handsets before the session starts. (One proviso ontelephone is an emergency connection and cannot b

• Noise levels within the room are at the teacher’s discretion

re normal and cannotthe workplace – certain work levels apractical situations, some learners can work with a low level of noise; it teacher to agree on an appropriate level.

Maximum •

It up to teachers to establish 'ground rules' on aspects such as noise level. There is

arm insisting that learners pay attention in silence especially where teachers are ngiving detailed instructions or explaining a difficult point. It is a waste of everyone's time if l arners distract each other in conversation when vital work is being covered. This

sound dictatorial. It is in fact good practice. In teachinmand a place for everything. There will be time for conversation and discussion and the te cher will be able to point that out to the learners. If a learner persists in disruptive

versation, have a quiet word with them after the session.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AN We need to be able successfully to manage the learning environment so that co-

perative, active and effective learning can take place. o This is two-way traffic and not just a one-way street! All teachers are concerned about the ‘way they came acro

and behaviour an Wood (1989) compared the approachteachers with that of new recruits to the pro • more confident, warm and friendly • more business-like • more stimulating • more mobile • clearer about their classroom rules.



and they:

132

had greater presence and authority.

ine! But what about expectations at the other end of the ‘two-way street’?

other words, how do your learners ‘see’ you?

organised and effective? u ‘know your stuff’

roachable?

as individual learners? e about what you are doing? prehensive, nervous or relaxed and confident?

s such as your tone of voice, body language and mobility are in framing the social environment

l command

o culture and institution to institution, but teachers who are neat and tidy an and their work but for th

HE REL

rking climate by consistently applying a few 'ground rules'

rs with a skill rather than watching them flounder making a positive contribution to a shared atmosphere of achievement.

eking and they will misbehave even ore.

• made greater use of eye contact • F In • are you • do yo ? • are you app• can they ask you questions freely - without fear of a put down? • are you interested in them - • do you car are you ap•• how do you ‘come across’ to them? If you put yourself in your learners’ shoes for a while you will soon see that details do matter - so: • your interpersonal skill

very important • if you invite and encourage learners to study, this is more likely to gain their approva

than issuing an authoritarian instruction or • the learners have to look at you for considerable spells of time. Dress codes vary

from culture td well turned out show not only respect for their learners

emselves, too.

T ATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNERS Learners will thrive in an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable with each other.

ou can develop a happy woYsuch as: • keeping quiet when others are trying to make a point • cutting out backchat and casual quips listening to an alternative point of view •• helping othe• If a learner or small group of learners deliberately ignore or break these rules then it is time for you to have a quiet word with them. You should not do this in ‘open class’ as you may then give them the attention they are sem



133

hysical factors such as:

cation heating and ventilation room layout

an all help or hinder learning.

ma vailable make the best of the physical environment

is of materials, resources and equipment, personnel arners themselves.

case study file? I’m sure I brought it in.." "..that OHT on the Andes shows the point well - if I can only find it.."

earners feel that the teacher is disorganised and is being unprofessional. They are duction, distribution and collection

you ll g

o mark y Wednesday make sure that it is ready for return on Wednesday.

is can be a rewarding experience - you certainly arn how to think on your feet! Most such trainers will agree that the earlier they can

visit the training room(s) and venue the better.

Remember: 'Praise publicly, but reprimand privately' PHYSICAL P logroup size lighting furniture and fittings visibility acoustics available resources staffing levels programme funding c You need to: • ximise the use of what IS a •• make constructive suggestions to line managers as to what could be reasonably

available. ORGANIZATIONAL Th is to do with organizing the useand, on occasions, the le There is nothing more infuriating for learners than working with a teacher who frequently says things like:

"..where is that

"..I’m sure there were enough handouts to go round.." Lright. We need to pay attention to the availability, proof resources and materials. Particularly important here is the management of work. You should treat the worko ect from your learners with great care, making assessments properly and returninc

them promptly. It is a question of trust and authenticity. If you say you are going tthe work b HINTS AND TIPS We can learn a lot from professional trainers who travel (often worldwide) from one set of earners and venues to many others. Thlle



134

through a (mental or actual) checklist of physical and organisational get to the venue well in advance of the learners - at least 30 they can check and adjust heating, ventilation, lighting,

arrange furniture as necessary, check the operation of machines especially OHP, ey will also check health and safety aspects such

s fire exits, toilets, first aid and telephone points.

O DISCRIMINATION

ework for the hole school community which applies especially to learning sessions.

They will go atures. They will alsofe

minutes before - so thatreprojectors, videos and Powerpoint. Tha N In his book ‘Effective Teaching in Schools’, Chris Kyriacou includes ‘one school’s multicultural policy.’ We include it here because it lays down a policy framw We aim to develop an understanding of different cultures and lifestyles, in order to prepare pupils for life in our multicultural society. This policy affects every aspect of school life and all staff are committed to opposing any form of racist behaviour. 1. The multicultural curriculum The school aims to encourage respect between individuals by increasing their understanding of cultural diversity. It is important that pupils recognise the equality, warmth and dignity of people from all cultures. Pupils will have opportunities to learn about their own and other cultures throughout the school curriculum. We aim to foster a sensitive, informed attitude amongst its pup rish. ils, creating a caring atmosphere in which diversity can flou 2. Equality of opportunity The school will endeavour to meet the needs of all pupils and staff regardless of racial origin, colour, religion or sex. Every member of the school is held to be of equal value. Every pupil has rights to the best possible education, and equality of opportunity must be afforded to all. 3. Racial prejudice Racist behaviour is unacceptable at school. Actions by pupils which are clearly hurtful to others include: a) racist jokes, graffiti, name-calling, insults and threats b) language deliberately offensive to others’ beliefs c) behaviour such as wearing racist badges or bringing racist literature into school d) racist comment in the course of discussion in sessions e) physical assault against a person or group because of colour or cultural background The school will act to deal with racial prejudice in an appropriate manner and support the sufferers. 4. Multicultural harmony It is the responsibility of all governors and staff (teaching, support, library, administration, catering and cleaning staff) to implement this policy.



Practice

ood news - you're on a cruise ship!

s of r material, made a careful

ully carpeted, air-conditioned and lavishly equipped has been

r and,

3. how would you ensure that the organisational side of your enterprise ran smoothly? 4. how would you identify potential disruptions and interruptions? - remember the

engers are on holiday? 5. d tion in your activities? 6. any issues o about?

G You're in charge of education courses on board! You need to conduct a 45 minute session introducing passengers to the main pointinterest in their next port of call. You've assembled yousession plan and can expect an interested and varied group of learners. A very fine lecture hall, fset aside for your exclusive use. 1. what checks would you like to make immediately before your session? 2. how would you create a positive and effective rapport between you as a teache

say, 200 people you have never met before?

vessel is at sea and the pass

an how would you avoid discrimina

f health and safety you need to think

BON VOYAGE!

135



136

rners 2.2.1 Motivating lea

Mo reasons, that we have for beh i hat come together to ma

Eve th its heart.

If your teaching and their as eng e

Mot e you use to com u

• the flow and pace of the instruction you give.

r has the potential to motivate or de-motivate.

There's always the possibility of inadvertently de-motivating learners. So it’s clear to see why you need a solid, working understanding of motivation and how it works. As a teacher you’ll be drawing on all sorts of techniques to help you bring out the best in those you are instructing, and motivational techniques will be among your most valuable tools.

tivation is goal-directed behaviour. It is the reason, orav ng in a certain way. Motivation embodies the factors t

intain our interest in, and move us towards, a goal.

ry ing that you do as a teacher can usefully have the motivation of your learners at

learning is to be as efficient as possible, they will need to be ag d as possible throughout your interactions with them.

ivation is facilitated and encouraged not only through the languagm nicate to your learners, but also through

• the resources you use

• your body language

• your facial expressions

• the nature of the tasks you set

In fact everything you do as a teache



137

N

the ChangingMinds website

tp xplanations/theories/a_motivation.htm

THEORIES OF MOTIVATIO

Theories of motivation are usually based in psychology. Many consider Abraham Maslow, an American thinker on motivation, to be a leader in this field but there are alsomany other theories on motivation. The following list of motivation theories has been

dapted froma

ht ://changingminds.org/e

• Consistency seeking the comfort of internal alignment

• Self-discrepancy needing beliefs to be consistent

nce finding non-alignment uncomfortable

• Reactance feeling discomfort when freedom is threatened

• Attribution needing to attribute cause, that supports our ego

internal value-based rewards

• Goal-Setting we are motivated differently by different types of goals

k power, achievement or affiliation

rowth

chieve

h of the above to find a

• Cognitive Dissona

• Attitude-Behaviour Consistency aligning attitude and behavior

• Extrinsic Motivation external tangible rewards

• Intrinsic Motivation

• Cognitive Evaluation we select tasks based on how do-able we feel they are

• Investment Model our commitment depends on what we have invested

• Acquired Needs we see

• ERG seeking to fulfil needs of existence, relatedness and g

• Expectancy being motivated by desirable things we expect we can a

• Control seeking to control the world around us

On the ChangingMinds website, you can follow the links for eacore detailed description of each theory. m



TYPES OF MOTIVATION

138

r

Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation

ere learners engage in a set of learning activities which fulfils a goal or a need and is a

Expectation for success This is the extent to which learners feel they re likely to succeed in a course or learning programme. DEVELOPING MOTIVATION This involves encouraging and making the most of learners’ intrinsic, extrinsic motivation and expectation of success. This is a complex issue. It is clear, though, that learners will be motivated to learn

arry out tasks in the way they would like and cooperate with each other.

ed which enable all learners to have opportunities for success.

e to this as professionals?

this comes from Phil Green, whose company ‘Optimum d hundreds of trainers. Phil says this of trainers ...

duals

d demand more of them • give more opportunity for output (question and answer).’

Perhaps we can encourage ourselves towards these positive expectations by reviewing four aspects of our own practice

Much research and many learned books and articles have thus been produced on the subject of motivation. From this one can point to three important influences on learnemotivation. • This is where learners engage in a learning activity to satisfy their curiosity and interest in the topic area to be covered or develop skills in this topic area for their own sake. • Hmeans to an end, for example a training or academic qualification. •

a

when they: • want to learn • know what is to be learned • find the subject interesting]understand why they have to learn • have the chance to contribute see opportunities to learn and c are given opportunities to work ••• have sessions plann OK, fine ... what is our respons A helpful perspective onLearning’ has traine

‘Trainers with positive expectations of trainees:

• create a warm, emotional climate for those indivi• give feedback to that group on their performance • give more input (information), set higher expectations an



139

E SCENE FOR LEARNING

xpectations of our learners. For example ‘what is the purpose velop skills, to further understanding, to highlight

ome kind of assessment (you can see that in this hort list we have already covered all three types of motivation.)

is a good idea to provide learners with a route way through the learning sequence.

arning, timescales involved and expected outcomes to be achieved. If you have got session plan, then share this and the learning objectives with your learners.

K

rofessionals) can find this a difficult set of skills to evelop. Here is one way of sequencing questions to support learning:

↓ Listen carefully to answer

↓ Respond to answer giving feedback

↓ Build on response positively

↓

OINT TO WATCH

SETTING TH We need to tune into the eof the learning activities?’ Is it to dedifferent points of view of prepare for ss ItThis could be in the form of a visual aid or handout. It can confirm their activities, roles in lea AS ING QUESTIONS Experienced teachers (and other pd

Ask question

Perhaps by using a follow up question P When you ask questions keep them clear, short and unambiguous. There is a difference

closed questions

losed questions

These expect a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer or at least a limited response

imply a method of information retrieval.

between a question and a speech! There are three types of question: •• open questions • multiple-choice questions. c •• They are not designed to gather views or opinions • Their value in learning environments is very limited • They are NOT usually employed to assess knowledge or understanding • They are probably s



Examples

140

on do you press next? ow many wishes did the fairy grant?

iven question, but enable the learner :

say as much or as little as she/he feels she/he wishes

she/he sees fit express his/her own opinions.

pen questions usually start with one of the following:

hat?

ow?

se to such questions cannot be predicted, you need to frame open uestions carefully to elicit the information or opinions needed.

ook at the following examples, where a teacher is asking a learner to self-assess:

he customer and what would you do ifferently in the light of that experience?

otice the tone and usefulness of each of the above. The first question implies criticism; tic

and ent.

hese are usually used as methods of formative or summative assessments. Learners

ord although they can also be used in an oral

rmat in a class quiz.

Did you enjoy the lunch? Which buttH open questions These are designed to gain a fuller response to a gto •• use his or her own words and ideas expressed in his or her own way • interpret the question as widely or as narrowly as • O who? when? wwhich? why? h Since the responq L What do you think you did wrong when dealing with that customer? How do you feel you handled that situation with td Nit concentrates only on what went wrong. The second is much wider, more empathe

is designed to begin the self-assessm multiple choice questions

Tare asked to select the correct answer from a range of options (usually listed in random

er). They are always written questions, fo



For example

141

ld

hit it

ter and restart after 10 seconds look at the manual and follow the steps given

POINT TO WATCH

If a computer you were using suddenly ‘crashed’, which of the following actions wouyou take:

call your supervisor for help switch off the compu

In the learning session don’t be put off if there are NO questions from learners, but do make sure that everyone is happy and understands. USING KNOWLEDGE Learners will be confident in your skills as a teacher if you can consistently demonstrate your own subject knowledge BUT a teacher who only does this will quickly (and rightly) be seen as a show-off and a bore. In demonstrating your subject knowledge you need to express real interest in and enthusiasm for the topic. This will help you ‘customise’ learning situations to learner needs and their preferred learning styles. CONTROLLING GROUPS An experienced teacher will always modify his/her style of delivery and method of class involvement to the size and composition of the learning group concerned. For example, there is a world of difference between a college seminar group of 10 or 12 and the 200 ‘learners’ we had on the cruise ship! There are some key issues here: • it is sound practice to adopt positive discipline, encouraging the learners to take

responsibility for their own behaviour • if you can develop cheerful rapport with your learners early on, this will help later if

difficulties arise • knowing your learners and taking an interest in their aspirations (without being too

involved) helps to build mutual respect • indiscipline is best dealt with in stages. Confrontations are always best avoided and

sanctions against learners will be most effective if used sparingly. Your institution will have codes of discipline and you should consult these for further information.



142

TCH POINT TO WA Not all learners ask questions and throw themselves into active discussion. Some learners are quiet and cautious by nature. Some are shy. Just because they are not

iving overt signals of appreciation does not mean that they are not actively engaged!

arch, reading and

ecognising and rewarding these kinds of involvement will help the learners enormously.

g They may shine in more passive learning activities such as rese

dividual written work. in R



Practice

143

Many teachers find it difficult to frame questions as they go along in teaching/learning ituations.

ne of the benefits of undertaking the Diploma is that it is focused on your own actual

. Think of some open questions which you could use in this context

. Write these questions down

s Oprofessional practice. So let's go back to basics for a moment. 1. Think of a concept or topic or piece of instruction with which you're familiar. 2 3

. Think of likely responses to these questions 4 5. What use would you make of these responses?



2.2.2 Encouraging learners

SPONTANEITY Formal components of learning sessions - such as imaginative presentations, interestingdemonstrations and absorbing practical work - can often stimulate extra-ordinary spells of learning. These spontaneous learning opportunities are ‘unplanned’ and so we ca

em ‘informal’ activities.

ll

wo examples of this happening.

a In a

rri ad. The teacher used the opportunity to ask the

xa learning session

th

ere are tH Ex mple 1: taken from a primary class

primary classroom a planned story session on folk tales was interrupted by the val of a school visitor from abroa

visitor to tell the children a folk tale from her own culture.

mple 2: taken from a secondaryE

144



145

ch made during a geography fieldwork study week Tunisia.

ation of the Mediterranean Sea

•

a little sleepy as the teacher told the story of e geological sequence which brought about the sea we now call the Mediterranean.

coo

In t ion beach the plan was to measure profiles. One of the arners, perhaps a little bored by the story of the Mediterranean, idly unearthed one of

beach.

soo

As rs took photographs and as they went further up the beach the group had a lively discussion

ano and measure the

and exciting learning session for both

e tly an everyday occurrence in the lives of teachers d es can and do happen more frequently. The skill is

recognise them when they happen, make the most of them and build upon them. MAKING THE MOST OF OPPORTUNITIES Such learning activities are like plants. They need a rich soil and invigorating climate to grow in. The teacher can set up that soil and climate as we have seen but it needs some additional skills with which to encourage learners. You can: • enable your learners to feel comfortable with themselves (self-esteem), their fellow

learners, you the teacher and the learning environment. You want them to feel confident enough to say what they have found, what their theory might be - without worrying about being 'wrong'

• listen carefully, attentively and sincerely to what your learners are saying and show

appreciation of their contribution • take up a learner’s idea and develop it with enthusiasm

This drawing is based on a field sketin The learning session took place on the beach and had two objectives:

• to tell the story of the form

to look at beach profiles in the locality. The first part of the learning session was thThe learners basked on the sand and made notes and the teacher stood in the sea to

l off.

he second part of the sesslethe small plants which braved salt, sun and sand in the The learner’s excavation revealed an enormous tap root over one metre long! Pretty

n everyone was digging for taproots!

the teacher tried to explain the reasons for the length of the roots, the learne

about other topics such as plant density. The beach profile exercise had to wait until ther time (it was partly absorbed into profile drawings to plot

location and proliferation of species with distance from the sea). This spontaneous study produced a memorablethe teacher and the learners. Cl arly this sort of event is not exacan learners! But small-scale examplto



146

encourage other learners to develop their own interest in the topic

ills or understanding, every arner thrives on encouragement. The teacher who can see the value of

our learners - can grow!

I

ood first impression

nd how you can promote the image you want

- (and some teaching situations are less formal than others), make

• • include a summary of the value and impact of such contributions in your conclusion

to the learning session This kind of experience is part of the magic of teaching and learning. The key is encouragement. Whatever their ability, skleencouragement is preparing the soil in which our 'plants' - TH NGS TO DO TO COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY WITH LEARNERS

☺ Be aware of your appearance - remember that you never get a second chance to make a g- learners form their first opinions of you in under 10 seconds - think about the

impression you give a- adopt an upright posture

whatever you wear sure that you and your clothes are clean and tidy.

☺ Be enthusiastic about the subject

- do not expect learners to be interested if your body language and tone do not reflectyour interest

- good eye contact with learners is essential as this is a natural expression of your interest in your learners.

make sure your gestures are natural and spontaneous and avoid nervous habits -

use all the space available to you - a teacher who delivers information in a wooden UT

continually pacing across the room can be a distraction vary

your voice to keep learners' attention practise breathing deeply as this helps to project your voice

☺ Use your voice and body language effectively -

use gestures to emphasise your points -

voice standing absolutely still in one place is boring and uninteresting B

- remember that your voice adds energy and interest to your learning sessions soyour tone and project

- - speak louder and more slowly than normal - make sure the words you use communicate what you want to say - use learners' names wherever possible - use humour wherever possible - remember a smile costs nothing.



☺ Active listening skills

147

n is one of the most appreciated qualities ny teacher can have. Learners will be motivated to ask questions, express feelings and

ons are handled effectively by the teacher. he first time a learner asks a question or expresses his or her feelings will set the scene

r listening actively to your learners:

y your thoughts and feelings from previous events if possible and give full attention to the speaker

th the speaker, but avoid staring maintain silence while the speaker is asking a question and avoid fidgeting never be judgmental

d or understood correctly, asking your own questions to clarify if necessary

remember that we are all liable to 'switch off' if we are bored or disagree and keep

as been said at the end to allow the speaker to clarify what s/he said if necessary.

Non-verbal communications are also important in establishing rapport. You need to be aware of: ☺ Body Language – yours and your learners’. What are you portraying by the way you stand, sit and place your hands? You cannot hide body language - you can be aware of it and control it. The same applies to your learners. A small experiment which convinces people of the impact of and on body language is unexpectedly to change your approaches to a group of learners. Say something controversial and watch the defensive postures; be more relaxed and “laid back” than usual and see the learners “open up”. This is only recommended for those who are willing to accept the responses and what it tells them about their normal style. You can see, by the body language, how well a session is being received. Are the learners showing boredom, lack of understanding, or total enthusiasm? If so, you may have to change your teaching strategies to create a more positive atmosphere. You may need to show more enthusiasm than you feel!

The ability to listen actively to another persoarespond to questions only if such conversatiTfor future communication. If a question or opinion from a learner is badly handled, the learner, plus other group members if learning is taking place in a group, will be discouraged from repeating the negative experience. Here are some tips fo - clear awa

- be aware of your own and the speaker's body language and tone of voice - give encouraging verbal and non-verbal signals (smiles, nods, etc) - keep good eye contact wi- - - check that you have hear

- listen for the main ideas and paraphrase these if necessary to make sure you have understood them

- your full attention on the speaker

- re-state what you think you have heard if you are not sure about it, or the point is a little complicated

- summarise what h



148

at

vous. Some

ing a teacher is both enjoyable and rewarding and the adrenalin will

How you stand, sit and move communicates to others. Someone who stands and paces is unsettling. Leaning forward shows interest, but folded arms indicate defence - possibly expecting criticism. ☺ Show your confidence You also need to take into account that dress, facial signs - smile, frown etc – and eye contact are excellent communicators. Also remember that proximity - respecting other people’s space – and touch can hint at many things. Most centres will have guidelines which deal with this. It can express itself as an equal opportunities or harassment issue. Proximity and touch must be deal with in a very sensitive way.

It has often been said th teaching is “not a million miles from acting” and it often feels that you are “performing”.

o not be afraid of 'being on stage', but do not worry if you are a little nerDworld-famous actors are almost impossibly nervous before appearing on stage and some excellent teachers with over twenty years' experience may yet be a little 'on edge'

efore a session. Bebrun a little - let it run! ☺ Posture



Practice

149

Make a few notes - in your personal development diary - about a couple of occasions in our experience when a formal learning activity led to exciting informal and unexpected

arners. Think of occasions when your sessions took an nexpected turn which resulted in purposeful learning.

sonality and approach which encouraged learners to make ese contributions.

Do

d ff

ylearning contributions from the leu Reflect on aspects of your perth

you think you and they made the most of the opportunity? If and when this happens again, would you approach the moment in the same way or

i erently, and why?



2.2.3 Guiding learners

I NITIAL INFORMATION GATHERING

s can form part of an induction event, period or phase at the start of a learninggramme an

Thi o

an interview with the learner in which the main purpose is to help him or her to or her needs and level of skill

es skills specifically related to identified tasks - these are ith

which identify skill strengths and aptitudes of an individual - these are particularly useful where the potential learner has not yet specified the particular area they want to study (in these cases the questionnaire will need, after analysis of the responses, to be followed by an interview)

• a discussion with a teacher colleague, an employer or other stakeholder, about the

specific requirements for an individual. This discussion should always, at some point, include the learner

• a discussion with previous teacher • scrutiny of learners' previous work.

pr d can include: •

identify a programme or learning activity to suit his • a diagnostic test that assess

best as single answer or multiple-choice questions which are simple to assess wquick results (computer-based tests are ideal for this purpose)

questionnaires •

150



151

ON ABOUT THE LEARNER Ice n/quiz activities, impromptu chats, and classroom obs v insights into:

irations the learner’s current levels of skills and knowledge • • • any special needs which a learner may have

elopment.

GOING INFORMATION

breaker sessions, quick fuer ations can often provide valuable

• learner interests, goals, long and short term asp•

learner expectations from the learning programme his or her personal and inter-personal skills his or her preferred learning styles and learning environments

•• level of social or physical dev POINT TO WATCH individual teacher-learner interaction is not just used or useful in cases of difficulty

there can be many reasons for switching your voting your teaching time to the needs of an

learner.

•• able learners often encounter problems and may need added stimulation and

support to develop their interests and aptitudes towards heightened learning outcomes

recognition, reward and reassurance are needs shared by all learners. • METHODS OF ADDRESSING INDIVIDUAL LEARNER NEEDS 1. Within learning sessions As you can see from the spidergram

ttention from group activities and deaindividual

As all teachers are aware, switching attention like this can cause problems e.g. the remainder of the learning group may:

- lose concentration and attention



152

have d from your attention

h a fruitful and ordered learning atmosphere e specific learning

of activities like remedial teaching and coaching sessions will vary e kind of subject and activity being undertaken.

dea to enter into an open-ended commitment.

outside formal classes should pay n to professional (and legal) regulations laid down by their employer - ate or other institution. It is wise to conduct such sessions in otect the teacher’s (and the learner’s) integrity.

ou

assignments g assessed work

after/outside class ress in formal reports.

be

ne-to-one n

also conduct such sessions with groups who are working as a team towards some identified set of learning objectives

- misbe- feel alienate- be underemployed - feel neglected or demotivated.

o you need to be confident that instead they can: S

- be getting on successfully with their own individual or group work - continue wit- respect the fact that individuals (including themselves) hav

needs. 2. Beyond learning sessions Clearly the duration

normously with the Such sessions need clear aims, objectives and schedules and should work to agreed learning outcomes. A clear start and finish time should be set in advance. It is not a

ood ig

eachers conducting one-to-one learning activitiesTvery careful attentio

ducational, corporeconditions which pr FEEDBACK TO INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS Y can: • write written comments/annotations on the learner's written exercises or• add individual remarks/comments to contributions when handin

back to the learner • give feedback comments on in class conversations and discussions • hold conferencing (audit) sessions in class or provide comments on achievement and prog•

When you give motivational feedback: positive, emphasising what has been done well •• highlight but do not condemn negative issues • end with future action which can be taken - set targets agree this action with the learner •• relate feedback to the objectives set for the work One method of giving learners such feedback is by reviewing their work on a obasis. This is sometimes referred to as an audit or conferencing session. You ca



Practice

153

ry audit review/ conferencing with your own learners

evel 1 - a sample session

You could give this a limited (sample) trial either within or beyond the learning

e for a small number of learners.

arners? Tell them you're trying a new technique! They'll soon give you motivational feedback on how you are doing!

PO

T

L •

session. • You could use this techniqu • Why not be honest with the le

INTS TO WATCH

How be poor

ractice to sit down with the learner and his/her work and make (furtive) notes all the

Wh

reassure the remainder of the group who have not been selected for review?

•

emember to make sure that the review happens as soon after the session as possible.

Lev

r

(ii) .

ou should now try to list some of the advantages and disadvantages of conferencing as

• ure? does it suit your style as a teacher and your learners’ style(s) as learners?

are you going to record what you say and what you find? It is reckoned toptime.

at should be the outcome(s) of this review for: • the learner? • the teacher? If this review is being held during the learning session how do you:

•

ensure that they have something useful to be getting on with?

R

el 2 - ‘carry out review with all your learners (i) make sure you plan the time and activities in an around this review into you

learning programme/session plan(s) allocate enough time per individual. Don't just spend time with ‘problem cases’

Ya review/feedback technique, eg • did it take appropriate time given the kinds of benefits it produced?

is it better as a formal (planned) exercise or as an informal proced•



2.2.4 Supporting

154

learners

AD IO Ind u achieve the learning objectives. This kind of action is a step beyond the kinds of learning activities cov e

If a learner’s ability is only just sufficient to cope with the demands of the learning

• It may be that access to learning materials and resources is a problem for an individual learner. This may simply be a matter of location. The learner may live many miles from reading sources, libraries or a computer terminal.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Environment issues may be important pressures upon the learner, too. For example: • key family members may not have the levels of literacy or numeracy they need to

offer guidance to their children/relatives • the learner’s family may be unsupportive, even hostile to the whole concept of

education in general and the time and money being spent on the learner’s programme of study in particular

• the learner’s neighbourhood may present problems for him/her. The dominant

lifestyle may be dismissive of or antagonistic towards education

DIT NAL SUPPORT

ivid al learners sometimes require additional support to help them

er d in 'Guiding Learners'. It is important to recognise that:

•programme then some kind of individual learning support may be needed. The learner will be all too aware of his/her difficulties and may lose self-esteem. He or she may experience a downward spiral in morale if nothing is done to help



155

social and peer problems e.g. actual pressure not to learn from friends, peers,

k of attendance • personal issues may lead to learning difficulties. These may include shyness, lack of

confidence, lack of self-esteem, feelings of isolation or alienation • physical problems and disability may include poor vision, deafness, motor and

mobility difficulties, and migraine. Many may produce concurrent psychosomatic problems.

THE TEACHER’S ROLE Experience has shown that each individual case is different. Cultures and institutions vary in their methods of approaching such individual difficulties but the following advice

k for

lties in a one-to-one chat,

s

- accept your offer of help - be relieved that you have taken some notice of their difficulty - reject any form of help - try to make light of the issue

• If you get any form of encouraging response then you can agree ways forward with

the learner • If you feel that the learner wishes to disengage from offers of help then you need to

raise awareness of this problem with others including colleagues and specialists. This will involve referral as a process.

•

playground cliques etc. They may exist within as well as beyond the immediate learning environment and extreme cases of pressure may manifest themselves in bullying

• physical considerations such as illness, poverty, lac

can help you: • Be aware of your learners’ general behaviour - especially body language. Loo

signs of disengagement, lack of participation, sad or ‘vacant’ expression Identify carefully and accurately the nature of the difficu•

away from the main group of learners. Reassure the learner • In the case of younger learners, ask others classroom helpers, assistant teachers etc

to add to your observations • Make a record of your findings from this discussion, so that you can refer to this a

and when necessary • See what the effect of this interaction with the learner is. They may:

- be embarrassed and wish to say nothing



156


PASTORAL CAR Pastoral care focuses o of each le may be more a significant concern for t han those with adult or professional Pastoral care deals with ning

E

lea

n the individeachers working with children and young people trners - but e

four main aspects of lear

ual well-bein

ven with the latter there

g arner. This

are issues.

Individual needs

Indibeha

viduaviour and attitudes

l and social

Learning progress

Personal and social development

• As the diagr • Many schools, colleges and universities have in- ral care systems • Some teachers may become pastoral care spe All teachers are aware that they are responsibletheir teaching e.g. keeping an eye on apparently s presence and absence, and supervisin s a whole individual. Successful tea are of e learner’s educational developmen The following form gives some of the major factors which may indicate that support and guidance are n ed.

am shows these aspects are inter-linked

ching

house pasto

cialists

cher

for some element of pastoral care in 'simple' issues such a

the tea

g health and

sedt.

safety. They need to get to know each learner a

on the c is ba in encouraging th

eed


Factors affecting progress and achievement

eExamples of how to recognise these R commended action

1. Learner's capability to progress and

achieve (i.e. ability level)

nd

• ogress and start to fall behind

• Disruptive behaviour may result from both groups

• Slow learners may hesitate to ask for help and problem may only be identified during

k

•

• ial time to slow learners or

action if this is the case Advise slow learners on self-study or self-

• Fast learners exhibit signs of boredom amay start to miss sessions Slow learners struggle to make pr

assessment of wor

Include more challenging tasks for fast learners or adjust programme to one which will meet their needs more closely Allocate tutordiscuss possibility of wrong level of programme selected take appropriate

•directed study or allocate peer mentor in group to work with learner

2. Access to materials

• terials

n

l

•

Discuss possibility of purchasing necessary materials and, if necessary, including in cost of learning

• Prepare list of recommended reading materials and pass on to library facilities in time for next programme

Learners do not have access to maand this reason is given for non-completioof work

• Learners are not able to afford necessary materials and work suffers

• Sharing of materials due to financiaconstraints is causing problems when completing tasks

• Check that necessary/recommended learning materials are available through library facilities Check if these can be ordered from public library

•

157



158


3. Environment

• Learner n ssi d o

travel d• s s co ai

from learn• Chosen m e ng n it

preferred l yl f i idlearners an s f

c er s ev e ra m d y ld ti d ih of a p n those s its to w a e action v ce s t cuss r c ectly a if in own e pet

s do not atteifficulties

Location for training iers ethods of learning std progres

d se

cau

arnies o is a

ons

e of

do ndiv

fected

ue t

mpl

ot suual

nts

• Distra

• Ananwitout

• Proalte

• Dislev

uss altel with clyse cotake acin limitside limide acnativesuss dirl of com

native sitentre or leaplaints to ion to reme

uthority those

ss to coun

with leence

or mner entify or

and ho cellor

rner

thod

probmproass on tako dis

with

s of

ems ve

4. Social or group relationships

• Bullying is• Learners s s ni e ns • Learners w r us

progress h r hirequired st

• Disruptive i us pr ms and interru ni

• Personalit n u s cate groups

• Break up o r sbetween gprogress a e t osconcerned

fe ecial c c ellor if s co c eis r de d g rial s

p arne clashes n to o d discus oblems h f wid d, han very e d av allo e

evident tart to misho have pave probleandard behaviourpting lear

y clashes i

f romanticroup memnd achiev

learevio

ms in

s cang gro

elati

men

ng sly meac

ing

ps or

onshipbers has effect on

of th

ssioade gong

oble

yndi

e

od

• Re

out• Ra

ses• Se• Bri

witcar

r to spide owne matteions

arate leg out in group ifully an

ist advimpetenlicately

rs with pen anespreaoiding

e or e levurin

person

ounsl tuto

ality s pr

dling cation of blam


159

Practice Think of three learners you are currently or have recently been teaching/training. They can be three cont A. A learner who has b ning programme, is

enthusiastic about p appy and well-adjusted

B. A learner who has achieved more of less what was expected of him/her, is very quiet

in learning sessions but shows signs neither of enthusiasm nor of disinterest. C. A learner who has clearly underachieved, has been on occasions disruptive in

sessions and has shown little interest in the activities. Some questions for you to think about: • which one of the above might occupy most of your time and attention and why? • which one of the above might occupy least of your time and attention and why? • how did you deal with the problems you identified for any one of the above? Next time you're with a learning group, think about the individuals who get the least time and attention from you. Why is this? How many fall into this category? How can you make more of their needs and stimulate more involvement from them (and you as teacher)?

rasting case studies:

een or is a high achiever throughout the learrogramme and session content and seems h


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 3 : ASSESSMENT

160

A

Module 3

SSESSMENT



3.1.1 Preparing formative a

161

ssessments

Forpoi er,

g sment for learning.

lea ss

‘Hoo

g the most commonly asked questions in everyday education. They

Lea

For good ay

rk’ . Assessment becomes ritualised –

‘Wednesday is test day,’ ‘the weekly essay.’ No-one would argue against

2. In order to ‘target’ assessment you must be clear about what you want to assess your ‘what’ and ‘why’ questions become your

methods of assessment.

mative assessment tests the current level of understanding and progress at any nt in a learning programme and provides feedback information to teacher and learnuide the next phase of learning. It is assesto

Summative assessment is used at the end of the programme formally to assess a

rner’s skill, knowledge and understanding gained as a result of that programme. It isessment of learning. a

‘How am I doing?’

w is my son/daughter getting on?’ w are my learners progressing with their learning?’ ‘H

These are amonillustrate the important point that assessment is a vital teaching-learning process.

rners see the need for it as much as teachers and, of course, parents.

mative assessment, that is the means for assessing learners’ progress, is a of embedding assessment into learning sessions and programmes. w

Before you start consider these essential points

1. Ritualised versus Targeted Assessment. It's easy to fall into the habit of ‘assessment for assessment’s sake.’ This is where you collect in work and ‘mait with no special purpose on mind

frequent formative assessment but it must be properly targeted.

and why. The answers to assessment objectives. These need careful consideration and precise identification as we shall see later in this task.

3. Once you have identified your assessment objectives you can choose your



162

The Qu

rhaps the most commonly used method and is almost instinctive for achers. It gives instant feedback, can be used to develop motivation but is largely

Sho T

These are either from textbooks or devised by the teacher. These are informal, can

every day teaching and learning.

omework Exercises

ial for a class discussion, seeing how a piece of writing ends, developing a skill, are all appealing tasks.

Skills Assessment using Formal Assessment Criteria

These may be the foundation for many skills-based courses. This method requires experience in ‘on the hoof’ assessment and systematic recording.

Observation of Performance

This is often used in the arts such as music and skill assessment such as team and leadership exercises. It needs expert and experienced assessors.

Assignments

This term spans a vast range of tasks but an example might be individual research assignments say for a group project. A very useful and increasingly used method, especially in conjunction with homework. May involve library and internet investigations, visits and interviews. Difficult to manage and assess.

Projects

Increasingly used in modern education as it is felt that developing your own learning

tiple-choice Answers Very widely used. Easy to design, mark and assess.

s! Can teach a number of skills useful directions to possible

TYPES OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

re is a large range of formative assessment methods available. This includes

estion and Answer in the Session This is peteephemeral – that is to say that it is momentary and difficult to record.

rt ests and Quizzes

be fun and marks can be simply recorded. Used with care they can become part of

H

These vary in purpose, design and complexity. ‘Purpose’ is the key word here. Learners will make good use of homework if they feel it is useful, for example, preparation of mater

material/methods gives you an ‘ownership’ of your own learning experience. The assessment methods of the various project components need careful design and clear communication to the learners.

Written Questions / Exercises with Short, Extended or Mul

Simulations, Business Games

Almost guaranteed to produce lively learning sessionimaginatively and effectively. The better ones containmethods of assessment. May well be time-consuming.



163

ten work/homework/progress in general. A very useful and beneficial process for

nd learners. Can be used to introduce care, involvement and motivation acher-learner relationship. Three points to watch when operating it as a

method.

1. It can be time consuming as you have to give all learners a review session. (If hose who are omitted will feel rejected!)

2. If you do it in class you must ensure that those not involved have something

t.

ng as a cyclical process. A learner can start at ny point in the cycle but to be really useful the stages should be followed in the order

diagram.

Conferencing / Reviews / Audit This involves sitting down with learners and reviewing their writ

teachers ainto the te

you do not – t

useful to be getting on with. 3. Make notes on learner performance immediately after the review, not during i

REFLECTION David Kolb described experiential learniashown on the

’s just rest aLe t Stage 2 for a moment and reflect on the kind of formative assessments you have already used. You could have used oral questioning, or

tal tests, written tests of

sk yourself why you chose these methods. Was it because: • you had used them successfully before? • it was department/programme policy to use them? • you felt comfortable handling them as a technique? • you felt they did the job you were asking them to do?

skills, knowledge and understanding and many other methods. A



164

n we re selecting a method of assessment we do need to think about

conceptualisation’ stage.

learning g sessions.

discover from the learners. Then consider the possible able and select the most effective method of assessment for

ink also about the position of assessment in

ents tend to be relatively brief so tests and quizzes need int (hence the need for careful targeting and design)

as the teacher talks to the learner about his/her work but may be very time consuming when the ten minutes per learner is multiplied by the thirty

sk yourself these questions:

of your learners? can it be deployed quickly, say during a learning session, or will it require a good

how will you record the findings of the assessment exercise?

sing this method?

There is nothing wrong at all with any or all of these reasons for selection but whea 1. reasons 2. criteria

the Kolb cycle, the ‘abstract We can now go on to stage 3 of

hods Selecting met The methods of assessment you choose will be those best suited to the

terial present in your learning programme and learninobjectives and maConsider what you need toassessment methods availyour teaching and learning environment. Ththe programme and sessions planned. Remember:

• most formative assessmto be brief and to the po

• some formative assessment techniques such as conferencing (‘Audit’) are brief in so far

learners in the class. Criteria for selecting formative assessment methods A • is the method appropriate to the nature and abilities•

deal of preparation and planning? • how much time will it take in terms of operation, marking and feedback to the

learners? •• how formal or informal will it be? • will learners be able to develop their motivation as a result of u



165

range of methods available. These include:

skill assessment using formal assessment criteria

ded, or multiple choice answers

on• ob• pr The UAsses http://

As explained above there is a large • question and answer in the learning session • short tests devised by the teacher • homework exercises •• observation of performance • standardised tests designed by an external agency • projects assignments •• written questions with short, exten simulations •• line assessments

servations esentations to whole group/institution.

K Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) have a useful set of principles for sment for Learning. You can find these at:

www.qca.org.uk/907.html

ow far do you agree with these statements as principles? How practicable to do you

a partner to learning in the education process. It sho Inte a t feels like a natural part of l n become more com r You can also vary the formality of assessment. Frame the assessment task and format to t n Fre e of questio structive. On the other hand if you are casual about form tiguiprepara Clearly to review and to prioritise your learning objectives in terms of skills, knowledge and understanding. Then you can match the appropriate assessment method etc to each.

Hthink they are? Variety, formality and frequency Keep teaching and learning fresh and engaging. You can assess the same learning objectives in a variety of ways and your learners will thank you for it. You should think of assessment as

uld not be a dictator, dominating all that happens.

gr te assessment into session activities so that assessmenear ing. Your learners can then get used to assessment and fo table with assessment.

he ature of the material and the learning objectives involved.

qu ncy of assessment also needs some thought. Pestering learners with a streamns and tests is not con

a ve assessment, learners may feel they are not receiving sufficient review and dance about their progress. They may also come to feel that they have had little

tion for the formalities of important internal or external summative assessments.

you need to strike a balance - the best thing to do is



166

ability and fairness

es

ility implies no

he

pics ... (available for assessment) ... the breadth and depth of learning must be correctly weighed in the marking…Validity is

ns are difficult for the candidates to understand, or are achers to confuse poor learning with a

erstanding ... questions.’

ideally be based on the objectives that you have set at wledge that

ic, carefully defined and elegant these are ents.

sment of learners' learning will have assessment criteria at its core. lp to make meaning out of the whole assessment process and

g points: nt should ultimately be standards-based

elp to facilitate further learning

adopted should be consistent

what it sets out to achieve

• it should embrace, as holistically as possible, the full experience of learning in that subject or topic

• the justifications for the assessment should be as transparent as possible; in other words, the criteria help to convey exactly why the assessment is taking place at that particular time and in that particular format (note that this is often implicit, rather than explicit, in assessment criteria).

Validity, reli Fairness is most important. For example in criterion-referenced assessment schemmuch depends on the opportunity for the candidate to ‘perform’. Each person being assessed in this way must have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their skills.

eliability is difficult to achieve in any assessment scheme. Total reliabRvariation whatever in the application of marks or grades from candidate to candidate, assessor to assessor. Reliability can be improved, for example by strict use of assessment criteria or mark schemes. About validity, Geoffrey Petty says:

‘..the validity of an assessment depends on whether it actually measures tknowledge or skills it is designed to assess. For example an objective test cannot measure a candidate’s practical skill, or his or her ability to develop a coherent argument. To be valid, an assessment must also sample across a large proportion of the tosampled by the assessment also compromised if questio

mmon for teculturally biased. It is cor’s difficulty in undlearne

Any assessment you do should

e start of a course of learning. You will have identified the skills and knothlearners need to acquire and the more specif

e easier it will be designing valuable and useful assessmth

ny accurate assesAThese criteria are what he

llowinshould reflect the fo• any assessme

• it should support and h

• any assessment methods

• it should achieve

• it should be appropriate to the subject of the assessment



Practice

167

to introduce learners to the techniques involved, develop al skills and lead to a diploma in essential stage skills.

nt by the teacher best support learning and also prepare learners for the

sh tling ..) go ahead.

What might these be in such a programme? Perhaps: • suppleness/fitness • use of balance • use of breathing • sense of rhythm • ability to express emotion • mastery of steps/movements • creativity • working with others. These might be the kind of things the teacher is trying to assess

A teacher of dance, mime and drama is running a course for adults. There are ten learners in the group which meets twice weekly in two hour sessions for ten weeks per term. The course aimsindividu Summative assessment at the end of the course will comprise a series of practical and written tests provided by an external awarding body. Clearly the teacher will be responsible for preparing the learners for these assessments. But how can formative assessmesummative tests? Imagine yourself in this teacher’s position and think of answers to the following questions. Don’t worry about your lack of knowledge of the course content! If you wito substitute a similar skills-based programme (sailing, art, wres Think about - the assessment objectives - formative assessment - issues The assessment objectives



Formative assessment

168

hat kinds of assessment techniques might be appropriate to these assessment What advantages and disadvantages might they have in terms of reliability,

idity and fairness?

g a course like this on a u as a teacher deal with matters

two or three learners quickly emerge as talented learners inder seem rather

out

re t ement in each learning session? In skills-based courses

easily speak to the group about progress but how does

Wobjectives? val Issues

here may be some important issues to deal with in assessinTsession-by-session basis. For example how might youch as: s

ifferentiation - supposingD

with considerable ability and high levels of aspiration while the remaslower to progress? How can you deploy appropriate formative assessment withcausing resentment, jealousy or other forms of dissatisfaction? Individual versus group assessment - how do you ensure that individuals are awa

heir progress and achiof evsuch as this the teacher canhe/she get round to assessing and re-assessing and motivating individuals? Recording observations - 'on the spot' observation will be a key method of gaining information. How can the teacher keep records of observations?



3.1.2 Using fo

169

rmative assessments

Formativenderstan

assessment is fundamentally diagnostic, testing the current level of ding and progress at any point in the programme.

widely used an emphasis must be on improvements that can be made rather than a mark or

es nt to

dopted, adequate time should be built into arning sessions for assessment to take place. With methods such as observation,

on recorded depends heavily on both:

mplest way possible

king place - no one can write and observe at the same time.

u There are three principles which should be followed:

hort term and informal S • this will take place either during or immediately after a session • Question and Answer is the most obvious method, although short tests and

“homework” are also relevant and •

grade to be awarded • it is a motivational tool. Methods of assessment of activities in learning sessions will depend heavily on the typof activities undertaken. It is often useful to consider the best methods of assessmebe used before considering the activities to be undertaken to promote learning. No matter which assessment strategy is aleskills tests and simulations, quality of informati • your ability to design assessment records which will capture a variety of information

in the si• your ability to record what has been observed quickly and without interfering with

observation ta



170

e

of written work

one helpful technique is to ask learners to describe what they have done - in this way ed and feedback and support can be immediate

lowing a short test or work done, in which case it will within a short time.

feedback needs to be positive, emphasising what has been done well

o apply these principles means that you should plan the use of the techniques into your

EVIEWS

ssessment of progress on learning programmes must take into consideration the fact

slowly.

torial essions and more informal reviews.

is good practice to sit down with learners during a class and look through what they ther work is complete and if it is

work well done e their efforts to a new level. New ideas

hey can try them out. A brief look them feel valued

mall problems which may become bigger ones .

create opportunities for learners to discuss and review their progress in an informal setting

• give constructive feedback to learners on what has been achieved and what is yet to be achieved

• discuss alternatives where expected progress has not been made or where learners have progressed more quickly than expected

• identify any problems or areas of concern which are preventing expected progress

Rapid feedback

• to be most effective, feedback must be immediate or as rapid as possible in the cas

• this is most effective with question and answer, but can be through comments in the classroom or in tutorials

•understanding can be gaug

• rapid may mean comments folnot be immediate but

Motivational feedback •• negative issues should be highlighted, not condemned • feedback should end with future action that can be taken. TLearning Session Plan. R Athat all learners are individual and will progress and achieve at different rates, some more quickly than you expect and some more For this reason, structured opportunities for reviewing progress should be made available and information on the availability and purpose of these disseminated to all learners. These reviews could be formal or informal and include individual tus Ithave been doing. It is almost always easy to check whenot identify what is missing. Praise and encouragement can be given forand learners who went that 'extra mile' to takcan be fed back to the group as a whole so that t

n encouraging chat with learners can make around work and files and aand cared for. It can also short-circuit sy the time a more formal review is dueb

The purpose of these opportunities will be to: •



171

e organisation or from external agencies

ogress and achievement and agree appropriate action with learners.

It is essential that results of these reviews are recorded fully and accurately and used to inform future sessions. Records would contain information such as: • the purpose of the review • where and when it took place • what was discussed • any issues or concerns • any problems identified as a result of the review • future actions agreed to ensure progress and achievement. Note that it is NOT a good idea to make copious notes during the review. A few brief notes of important points are all that is required. Then immediately after the review, the teacher can make a fuller record of what went on. Individual review sessions are time intensive but are extremely useful. The quality of the time given is more important than the amount. A CASE STUDY We're going to look at a case study to see how teachers can manage assessment to ensure fairness and to facilitate performance. Rose is teaching a programme for a group of new recruits to a large international corporation. This programme aims to introduce and develop a series of skills which will be vital for the learners to apply in their various roles within the corporation.

lly and effectively to group discussions

her

• discuss additional support, perhaps from others within th

• plan future pr

The programme has a number of learning objectives such as • the ability to work constructively as a team member the ability to contribute usefu•• development of time-management skills • development of problem-solving techniques making a presentation •• constructing a short written report. It is a formative assessment because it will provide Rose with information to helprepare the next stage of the course to meet particular needs. p



Rose is using a criterion-referenced assessment scheme It works like this

NB: Rose produced this assessment scheme herself. Usually the boxes for scorcontain descriptors which are quite specifically worded

es and go well beyond simple

tatements like ‘little evidence’.

uch assessment schemes are widely used for skills-based exercises and activities.

learly such ‘scoresheets’ minimise the amount of preparation you need - they can be nly

It's always good practice to outline in advance the purpose, conditions, method of operation and kinds of outcomes to learners before the assessment takes place. Rose prepares her learners by reassuring them about the nature of her assessment, the criteria being used and what she would be looking out for in the discussion.

s SNote that the scoring system is augmented by a brief supporting comment. Creproduced quickly in advance. They involve rapid recording (circling numbers) and oa brief comment so they are easy to use in an observation assessment context. GOOD PRACTICE

172



173

ractice in skills assessment for learners to have more than one opportunity to m kills.

lways write a time and a date on the assessment sheet (as Rose has done top right on

ou should always take care storing such assessment records. They will provide useful

compilation of summative and other reports g moderators

reporting to parents, carers, employers, other teachers.

‘LEVEL PLAYING FIELD’

Rose’s case it might be good practice to try to assess each learner within the same r

as enough time been allowed for this kind of assessment? Probably not.

ose probably needs to see the group in action again to give everyone a fair chance.

een allowed, the discussion may be disrupted - a visit om an ‘outside’ individual or even a simple sneezing fit.

EEDBACK AFTER ASSESSMENT

ven the most confident of learners can become concerned about an aspect of

his means that your feedback should be immediate where at all possible. Learners nfident about what they have done and can do and know

ow they can improve their performance, rather than be worried or not knowing about

If time is available you can conduct a ‘dry run’ of the assessment. It is very goodpde onstrate their competence at this particular set of s AJames Cheng’s sheet) Yevidence for: • conferencing with learners about performance and progress •• discussions with internal/external visitin• A Indiscussion context (i.e. the same learning session). But is 20 minutes enough time fothat? Some learners may offer three contributions; some only one. H R Does the composition of the group affect the performance of individuals? Does this matter? Even when enough time has bfr Note that if other groups are in the room at the same time they must be usefully occupied and in no way intrude upon the assessment. F Eperformance in a learning session. Tshould leave the session cohhow they have done.



174

are important questions here. You should allow time for

done as well as they could.

ore detailed feedback until you can use ‘purpose-built’ feedback uch as conferencing sessions and written progress reports.

f the

hil Green reckons that the features and characteristics of a good test are:

hen they are used to test transfer of knowledge and understanding, the questions

r always receives some feedback

their

nswers and letting them review questions they have selected. • Tests should be unambiguous Tests should make clear how the learner should tackle the problem and under what conditions • Tests should be valid Tests should be confined to the content within the learning session. With these points in mind it’s worth taking time out to think about the way you use your own formative assessments.

Clearly time and need • a few well-chosen and positive general comments • reassurance for those who are aware that they have not You can then keep ms We have looked at only one method of formative assessment in action. But many opoints above can be applied to more complex schemes relating to role play and simulations or the implementation of simple question and answer sessions. A final word on ‘what makes a good test?’ P • Questions are based on objectives Wmust relate to an identified objective. Do not include questions just because they are good. • The learne You must always give learners feedback to their responses. If there are particular reasons why they should not know whether their answers were right or wrong, give thema ‘thank you’ message • The learner is in control Because tests are important to learners, you must take whatever steps are necessary to reduce learners’ anxieties. One source of anxiety is the level of control they have overthe questioning. You can overcome this by giving learners the chance to change a



175

IDENCE

in

ica d young clown. Spontaneously, one of the learners began to .

e rly ee

Thein in his own views, ability to support his

his was certainly an opportunity to record

s

er lace for this record should be in the file, diary or log which the teacher

oes

ateachers ke e for each child. Unexpected happenings and evidence of learning can be recorded as they happen. Such a notebook can help the teacher to ensure that, over the course of time, all children have been observed.

INFORMAL EV The most informal of formative assessments can happen naturally as part of the teaching-learning process and may be totally spontaneous. Here’s an example. A General Studies teacher was conducting a learning session on developments in artthe twentieth century. She asked the learners to consider a slide which showed a

sso painting of a saPspeak about his own views on the colours and construction of the figure in the paintingTh teacher invited the learner to take his time to explain to the group what were clea

ply held personal views about Picasso’s work. A lively discussion followed. It was a dmemorable learning session for all present.

learner in question had made a big contribution and had stimulated other learners’ king. He had shown understanding, courage th

arguments and presentational skills.

wasn't a prepared assessment task. But it Tevidence of the learner's progress, for feedback and further development. There shoulde ome record of his contribution – he should have credit for its content and style and b

effectiveness.

haps the pPmaintains as a record of his/her teaching activities? An event like this would certainly als figure in the teacher’s regular reflections and ongoing evaluation of his/her learning

sions. s In primary classroom, the teacher is always undertaking informal assessment. Many

ep notebooks with a pag



Practice

176

sing a scheme such as Rose’s criterion-referenced assessment grid raises a number of assessment issues for you to think about.

five group members in the discussion exercise:

. What about conditions in the specific learning environment in which the discussion

. The issue of ‘transparency’ - should the learners see a copy of the assessment grid

ent?

. How might the teacher arrange individual feedback from the assessment to individual

ss an rog mm e might surface as a result of using assessmen he ?

ed

U

Supposing there are 1. How many learners can Rose usefully and accurately assess during a 20 minute

discussion? 2. Supposing a learner makes very little or no contribution, can/should Rose look at

another discussion session to see if the learner takes part then? 3

exercise takes place? Have you any recommendations for the physical conditions for action and assessment?

4

before the discussion? 5. How can the teacher best prepare learners for such an exercise and assessm 6

learners? 7. What issues of se

such an iont sc

d pme

ra e d sign

8. Is there scope to record any other aspects of learning which Rose had not plann

for or anticipated?



3.1.3 Analysing formative assessments

Quantitative Data

exercises held during the ourse of the module, term or part of the learning programme.

e part of the patt of ma e a ss nt or m th a e rt ocabulary tests used by language teachers, tests of arithmetic, spelling and short tests

se and some good use of this valuable store of

formation. Here are ideas to help you analyse numerical data. Supposing a large group of learners take the same short test, it is usual to get a frequency distribution of the marks. It might look like this distribution:

Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Teachers normally accumulate sequences of scores based on c They ar ern for tiv sse me s. F exa ple ere re th shovof skills. These tests may well have raw marks or percentages as an outcome. Numerical data will fascinate some teachers but may (unnecessarily) scare others! Weneed to be able to make some senin

Number of learners (Total 113) 1 1 2 6 15 21 30 20 10 5 2

We can use these raw marks (each out of ten) to construct a frequency distribution histogram:

177



Test 1

5

10

25

30

35

15

20Le

arne

rs

00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mark

er test and its level of difficulty is this distribution

p cores skewed towards higher or lower marks?

monly. So in our original table of marks e histogram.

. For our original scores the mean was 653 .78.

your

he teacher needs then to evaluate the distribution. Given the stage of learnT

development, the purpose of the x ected? Or are the learners’ se

Three other measures can be useful in analysing performance data:

• mode • mean • median

The mode is the mark which occurs most com

mode was 6. It occurs at the peak of our th The mean is the arithmetic mean. It is calculated by adding all the marks together and ividing by the total number of learnersd

divided by 113 = 5 The median is the mark of the middle learner. So if you had eleven learners ingroup and their test scores (out of 20 marks) were as follows:

Marks 2 5 6 8 10 12 13 14 15 17 19

The median mark here would be 12. Notice here we have arranged the marks in order and there are as many scores below the median as there are above it. Means can be ery sensitive to extremes in data sets butv medians will be less affected by one of two

very large (or very small) scores.

178



179

ners by scores can also be a useful exercise. For example:

5 6 8 10 12 13 14 15 17 19

Ranking lear

Marks 2

Rank 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

All these measures are useful. Mean, median and modal values will give you a picture

.

tatements, descriptive paragraphs or notes, e.g. in s of

performance tend to be converted into a quantifiable form (for example the criterion

enting on the following:

Did e e of ass s an in others? Did the lear ntion and con aachieve

s or has occurred occasionally.

of ‘average’ performance. Histograms show the spread of scores among the candidatesRanking also shows spreads and the order of performances. QUALITATIVE DATA If you have a sequence of qualitative spoint form, you cannot apply quick arithmetic measures. So most measure

referenced scheme used by Rose in the previous section). However you can analyse qualitative data by comm • Variations in performance

th learner perform well (gain positive remarks) right across the ranges ments or did he or she perform much better in some exercises th

ner produce performances which require special praise, attegr tulation? These may be exceptional or typical in the learner’s list of

ments. • Performance below the level required Where this happens you can say whether it is typical of the assessed performancewhether it POINT TO WATCH Comments and reports based on analysis of assessment data (quantitative or qua It d sach e

vidence is used together. For example: “Her performance has been consistently impressive: on no occasion did her marks in tests fall below 70% (mean marks 46%) and her rank order in tests was never less than 5th (out of 26 in the group).”

litative) should be objective, truthful and evidenced.

oe n't help the learner, the teacher or any other stakeholder in the learner’s record of iev ment to ignore unsatisfactory performances.

One of the most useful e

styles of analysis comes about when quantitative and qualitative



Practice Expected vs Observed

180

cealed.

think he/she ought to have achieved (the most likely outcome) - think clearly but on’t spend too long pondering.

xe ise f se as m

n no eal two mn f actual (obs ed) ieve nts

h lea now mp he ecte arks (which you have in two columns on iece o er) the serv (act ma whic ou h on exis g

cord diff ces . +5 , 0, tc.

xt ste whe hing t re inte ting your ffere s’ columns are ny:

• ‘Wild atio bi gati nd/ ig p ive d renc

– o d nce Per anc s pre ted?

• Small perhaps trivial or inconsequential differences which can be explained in

rst column of differences repeated to any extent in the econd?

e ac oo t v nd era e re re er for t iff es? se y e pass variations in three a ts of ur

Educational ilit sp to t s of wled skil nd rstanding

Mana ial – lity e assessm ins ions, manage time ritise ffort

Personal – health, motivation, mood atur n as ts o rfo ce.

Take a piece of paper and align it vertically so that the list of learner names is revealed but their marks for the last couple of exercises/tests are con

Briefly refresh your memory as to the nature of the last couple of assessments.

For the first assessment quickly write down beside each name the mark or percentage that you d

Leeave the next column on your paper blank, then draw in a third column and repeat the

rc or the cond sess ent.

You ca w rev the colu s o erv ach me .

For eac rner co are t exp d myour p f pap with ob ed ual) rks h y ave your tinlists. Re the eren e.g , +1 -2 e

The nethere a

p is re t s ge ally res . In ‘di nce

vari ns’ – g ne ve a or b osit iffe es?

• ‘Spot ones’ zer iffere s? form e a dic

part by minor variations in performance (and the crudity of the method). How would you take this information further?

Were the variations in the fis

Are w tually l king aer

‘achie ers’ a ‘und chiev rs’ he or we there any thoreasons he d enc The ma ncom spec yolearners’ make up.

• – ab y to re ond ask kno ge, ls a unde

• ger abi to us ent truct , prio e

• , m atio pec f pe rman



Food for thought Marks and quantitative assessment can be fun. Really, they can!

181

Hav a lo e win is by n L in o in kills’ as caus any onference.

ry beg with clas twel learners who took their 'in-h se' e ina s e mar ere ated. otals ere ca ulate nd a nk ord r wa odu as

ws.

uestion o w should the overall prize for best ac evem t be n?

Maths Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Che Phys TO RA

e ok at th follo g. It used Joh ewis his bo k ‘The Teach g of S

and h ed much amusement at m a c The sto ins a s of ve ou xam tionand th ks w coll T w lc d a ra e s pr cedfollo The q is t hom hi en give

m TAL NK Alan 100 30 7 7 4 441 47 2 40 5 30 7 1Belinda 90 38 43 7 434 6 20 65 48 0 2Charles 3 40 6 8 420 61 6 45 41 55 2 0 3Diana 51 30 47 35 418 63 32 90 70 4Edward 56 55 41 82 45 40 49 41 409 5

iona 80 45 49 64F 65 45 38 20 406 6George 23 47 45 55 60 80 32 60 402 7Helen 40 35 52 70 56 20 60 65 398 8Ian 85 40 60 40 28 51 55 30 389 9Jill 72 54 50 10 25 35 66 75 387 10Kenneth 50 56 55 34 70 60 36 10 371 11Lucy 10 60 59 20 35 30 70 58 342 12 Well, it looks as though the overall form prize should go to Alan. But is this fair? The top mark for mathematics was 100 whereas the best mark for English and French was 60. Perhaps it might be fairer to scale the marks so that the top mark for each subject was 100 and the bottom mark in each subject was 0? If this strategy was put into operation, the results would look this:

Maths Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Chem Phys TOTAL RANK Lucy 0 100 95 13 30 17 100 69 424 1Kenneth 44 87 75 30 100 67 15 0 418 2Jill 69 80 50 0 10 25 90 93 417 3Ian 83 33 100 38 16 52 63 29 414 4Helen 33 17 60 75 72 0 75 79 411 5George 14 57 25 56 80 100 5 71 408 6Fiona 78 50 45 68 90 42 20 14 407 7Edward 51 83 5 90 50 33 48 44 404 8Diana 59 7 55 100 20 83 43 36 403 9Charles 57 20 0 44 42 58 80 100 401 10Belinda 89 27 15 63 0 75 45 86 400 11Alan 100 0 35 78 40 92 0 53 398 12



182

h subject is given 1, the er being given 12. The figures

an then be totalled and the learner with the lowest mark gets the prize.

Maths Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Chem Phys TOTAL RANK

You can go on with this. Supposing the top learner in eacecond learner is given 2 and so on, with the bottom learns

c

Fiona 4 6 7 5 2 8 9 11 52 1=Kenneth 9 2 3 10 1 5 10 12 52 1=Charles 7 9 12 8 6 6 3 1 52 1=Helen 10 10 4 4 4 12 4 4 52 1=Ian 3 7 1 9 10 7 5 10 52 1=Edward 8 3 11 2 5 9 6 8 52 1=Dia a 6 11 5 1n 9 3 8 9 52 1=George 11 5 9 7 3 1 11 5 52 1=Be nda 2 8 10 6 12li 3 52 1=4 7Alan 1 12 8 3 7 2 12 7 52 1=Jill 5 4 6 12 11 10 2 2 52 1=Lu 12 1 2 11 8 11 1cy 6 52 1= This final table makes everyone equal! So we can see that different presentations can produce very different results. Food for thought?



3.1.4 Providin

183

g feedback about progress

ITTEN COMMENTS WR

ling.

ns

pointing out where ideas/material are missing

ou need to be careful with the wording of these comments. Obviously you must avoid

attitude and behaviour, but not at the same time as responding to e work being assessed.

These need careful hand You can use them for: • indicating good work and giving praise • highlighting unsatisfactory work and making connectio• showing where further explanation is needed •• setting targets • commenting on whether objectives have been achieved. Yany threatening, abrasive and excessively negative language. You can get your point across to the learner without having to make destructive annotations! Instead, you should try to be informative, objective and constructive. Always comment on the work and not on the learner himself/herself. You can also addressth



ORAL FOLLOW-UP

184

in es are

tions, g

uch follow-up sessions can have functions beyond assessment such as:

d reinforcement of themes and topics which learners have found difficult sessions which lie ahead in the learning programme

advice on assessment handling technique urther technical practice, private reading etc

at this point the teacher might outline techniques for self-assessment by learners.

EEDBACK TO PARENTS

ents of younger learners may be communicated in a number of ways, eg

ostally

and learners together, etc.

ne and use of language. As with nnotation of assessed work it is good practice to be professional, objective and

evidence. It is a good idea to have sional standards you can always

i at their son’s/daughter’s work on a regular basis. Try to give some erspective on your comments, however. If you see signs of potential - say so. If there

Many teachers follow up the return of written work with individual and/or group oral remarks. This is a good idea but you need to take care not to embarrass individuals any way. You can always see learners individually if you know that difficult issugoing to be involved. Some formal assessments are based on complex learning activities such as simulagames, extended project work, fieldwork and team exercises. These are often rewardinand exacting experiences for teachers and learners - but their assessment regimes can be equally complex involving several sources and times of assessment. So you need to allocate time for careful interpretation of assessment outcomes. S • review an• links with •• motivational advice linked to f•

These are particularly useful for revision programmes. F Feedback to par • written reports delivered by hand or p• telephone calls (usually as part of pastoral systems) • oral feedback at meetings with parents, parents In each of these you need to be careful with toaconstructive. You need to be able to support what you say withyour files with you. If you mark work to high profesinv te parents to lookpare problems, outline a few possible ways forward from them. Answer questions honestly and openly.



FEEDBACK TO OTHER STAKEHOLDERS Your learners may well be employees of a company, perhaps even the company which also employs you. Line managers, such as departmental heads, may need regular formal updates on learners’ progress in which case the same approach as that suggested above for parents is applicable.

185

call from a stakeholder demanding instant edback. This requires deft handling by the teacher. ‘Knee jerk reactions’ ‘top of the

ead comments’ and other forms of reply are not advisable. They may not present a full

research reflect

ERS

hey will need guidance from you for this to happen and you will need to help them with

when and if to consult ‘outside’ agencies.

tro • Exppro teacher can el self-assessment, done thoroughly, can be a very fruitful exercise hi nd

oth

It may be that you receive a telephonefehpicture of the learner’s range of performances. They will give little evidence and may beanecdotal and inaccurate. If you politely reply ‘I will call you back’ you will have the opportunity to: ••• report. SELF ASSESSMENT BY LEARN Learners, like teachers, will improve their performance if they are encouraged to reflect on their own progress and performance. Tprocesses like: • identifying their own learning needs • reviewing the rate and effectiveness of their learning progress • updating and developing their own aspirations • looking at learning outcomes still to be achieved• In ducing such processes is well and good but it is very frustrating for the learner if it is:

introduced as an idea but never followed up •• outside the regular feedback/reporting system

not acted upon.

erienced and mature learners can often articulate their own feelings about their gress and would appreciate a framework on which to develop them. Thep directly. Suchh

w ch can also help the teacher plan further learning activities. Its use in coaching aer one-to-one learning activities is widely recognised.



186

he value of self-assessment by the learner as an integral part of providing support and

nd

perception of learners about their progress nd achievement is different from the perception of the teacher.

Tguidance cannot be underestimated. Often in tutorials or review sessions, the teacher receives from, and provides valuable information to, learners on areas of progress aachievement and areas where further development is necessary to achieve learning outcomes. Problems can arise where thea Self-assessment may be defined as: The process in which the teacher asks the learner for information on his or her current ability to perform a task, or after a period of learning. The teacher does not offer any opinion which may bias this information in any way until after the self-assessment, but is seeking information from the learner on which to base constructive feedback. By finding out the learner's perception of 'where s/he is now' before venturing an opyou can pitch feedback on performance or progress at exactly the right

inion, level using a

chnique called 'framing'.

picture inting, it can detract from the

verall effect.

bout progress and achievement and has formed a view about the feedback s/he will

who to encourage the learner to take responsibility

fee

"Jane, I can see you think you are not doing well on the programme. Let me point

puter skills despite missing several sessions. I know you want to make your career in this area. Let me tell you about where I believe you have progressed well then we will go on to discuss the areas you need to concentrate on if you want to be a good programmer.."

"Ahmed, I know from what you say that you don't believe it is important to study independently. Let me explain the advantages of this and how it could improve your work."

te Think of a painting you like. It is always enhanced by having the best possibleframe around it. If the frame is not exactly right for the pao In the learning process, framing is where the teacher has already examined the facts aprovide and the action the learner needs to take to ensure progress (if any). Since the

le purpose of constructive feedback is for his or her own progress willingly, the teacher puts a 'frame' round the content of the

dback based on the learner's self-assessment.

Here are some examples of 'framing' in different contexts (the 'frame' is in italics)

out all the areas where I believe you have made excellent progress.."

"Manuel, you have told me you think you are progressing well in com



187

ut knowing these opinions, the teacher's edback may not be pitched at the right level or be based on what the learner perceives be the case about his or her progress.

onstructive feedback by the teacher

This type of feedback gives learners specific information about those aspects of their arning which have been done well and those where further development is necessary.

Con

Feedback provided in this way is far more effective and motivating because it is based on the opinions held by the learner. Withofeto

C

le

structive feedback can be defined as: The process in which the teacher communicates his or her decision on the competence of a learner in performing tasks or in progress and achievement on a programme, usually after the learner's self-assessment of how s/he has performed. Constructive feedback involves praise for those aspects of learning or performance which have been done well, plus information on ways in which the learning or performance can be improved, rather than any criticism. Constructive feedback should be given at different points of the learning programme:

immediately after a learning activity - to congratulate or provide information on where

• mme - so that each learner is fully aware of

is needed f the programme where problems have arisen and must be

•

further progress or learning is needed at structured points of the learning prograprogress and achievement to date, and any areas where further progress or learning

• at specific points oresolved promptly.

When teaching a new skill, constructive feedback should concentrate on the one or two main aspects of learning which needs improving. Any more than this might be demotivating in a situation where people are learning new skills.



188

ve, constructive feedback should be done quickly and well, keeping rief and to the point. Feedback is very important, especially when learning a

To be effectiomments bc

new skill so remember the key principles:

The Principles of Feedback • Give feedback as soon as possible and keep comments brief - don’t let a feedback

session become an inquisition • Base the feedback on the person’s self- assessment (where available) before

commenting - how well does s/he think progress is being made? • Give comments which are constructive and help to perfect skills • Concentrate on one or two key areas - rather than measuring against perfection • Be positive and give encouragement to motivate • Refer only to progress made not the person - people can change their behaviour or

rate of progress, but not themselves • Offer alternatives - better ways of doing things - rather than criticism • Stress the learning achieved and what will happen next • Agree actions necessary to make or maintain progress and keep a record of this in

readiness for the next feedback session Obtaining feedback

rners is an opportunity to gain valuable

u gramme itself and

your own professional practice.

Remember that each review session with leainformation about the aspects of the programme which are helping learners to progress and those where improvements can be made. If you can encourage learners to reflect on the value of the learning programme in meeting their aims and learning needs, yocan receive essential information about the effectiveness of the pro



Practice

189

any teachers may not have considered building learner self-assessment into their grammes.

Such self-assessment is not only related to making assessment as 'transparent' as possible, but also may well add a different dimension to your professional practice. This is an opportunity for you to experiment with the technique to assess its feasibility and effectiveness in your particular teaching-learning context. There are design considerations, however: Consider learner maturity, in terms of: • age/maturity, e.g. younger children will need some step-by-step help experience gained of the learning programme. Self-assessment may be something

gramme is well under way and the learners have developed eir own ability to succeed in its various demands.

is

how u t be to link self-assessment to some form of conferencing s

ed on the bas We are getting into some very powerful evaluation ere!

It c

here are of course constraints - time comes to mind straight away - but this is for the

effe

Mlearning sessions or pro

•to introduce once the proconfidence in it and th

You'll certainly need to prepare the kind of initial guidance you'd give to learners (an outline of possible ideas is given in ‘self-assessment by learners above - but the list not exhaustive - you might wish to include other reflective components). Perhaps the most important (and interesting) section of your experiment is to decide on

learner self-assessment will be communicated and then developed by the teacher. seful way forward mighA

sy tem with learners, where their work is reviewed and your assessment is matched to the learner’s self-assessment. New goals for the individual could then be agre

is of shared input to reflection. h

an also be linked to your record-keeping.

Tmoment an experiment - a ‘one-off’. You can't make an informed assessment of its

ctiveness until you've designed it, tried it and reflected upon it.



3.1.5 Maintaining records of learners' progress

TH NEED FOR RECORDS

chers need to give this area of professional practice more attention th

E Tea an ever before.

•

achievement and standards for evidence of learner performance with accompanying

er able

application process

age which can now be space-saving and very

versatile. They enable hard copies and electronic transfer of extensive data to be button

based assessment in public examinations e and

a d ata.

There are many reasons for the increased interest in record-keeping including:

Requirements of national government bodies concerned with educational

remarks/commentary • Inspection of educational establishments, teacher competence and other

performance issues • Increasing involvement of parents, management and other stakeholders in learn

achievement. For example sponsorships and scholarships may require considermaterial about individual learner’s progress as part of the

• The technology for keeping records is changing rapidly. Paper-based systems are

being replaced by computer stor

made, literally, at the press of a • New assessment methods such as school-

often require greater accuracy, fairness and sophistication of record storagmaintenance.

e chers are therefore accountable for ways in which they gather, analyse, store anT

publicize assessment d

190



ISSUES

191

olleagues and line managers easy access to your records? Do the learners have any rights of

• Confidentiality is a problem for teachers and learners. This involves taking and making records (say of review and conferencing sessions) as well as storing and using such information

• Security is also an issue. It’s not just a matter of physical safety of filing cabinets and

store cupboards, but system and network safety and the need to keep back-up copies and anti-virus protection for electronic storage systems. There may be insurance and even health and safety considerations at issue here, too

• Updating of records must be regularly (preferably immediately) and thoroughly

carried out. Design of well-planned, easy to operate, easy to replicate paper of software systems is well worth time and effort

• Teachers need to be on the lookout for new developments in information storage and

retrieval systems, as they need to keep ever-increasing volumes of data about learner development.

MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION This has become a crucial issue for educational establishments and training organisations. Some learning programmes involve many different assessments and the number of learners involved may number thousands per year. Data quickly accumulates but the same demands may be placed on its input, storage and retrieval. Teacher-assessed and practical assessment schemes may make big demands on space for learner portfolios, files of work and product of practical work. Given the importance and sheer size of such material and data flows, we need to ask questions about human resources. • Who manages these systems? • Who operates them? • Who is responsible for maintaining them? • Who advises on legal systems which may change and in turn cause new

requirements to operate? • Who in the institution is ultimately responsible for such activities?

These changes mean that you need to be aware of issues which are developing concerning the maintenance and storage of records of learners’ progress. • Who has access to such records? What procedures are in place to give c

access to these records? If so how and when can they exercise such rights of access?



192

ATCH POINTS TO W Some societies are becoming increasingly litigious. Education and training can be aught up in this. Any form of legal action will ultimately call for evidence and evidence

up to date your records are ly to be in.

u . ll be a new requirement in your programme design, or one to which you more importance or attention.

cis mainly found in records. The more complete, relevant and the better position, you, your learners and your employers are like

s es of management may call for changes to be made in your information systemsIsThis may weeed to given



Practice

193

al information su ess and l of su

AN INSPECTOR CALLS!

Remember: • performance records are information which is in demand • such records form part of a range o• important issues

f profession to storagerround acc retrieva ch information.

AND NOW

A simulation: Imagine that you face an official external inspection within the next 28 days Your head of department or training manager has given you the task of reporting on your 'maintenance of systematic, useful and usable records of learners’ progress’. Ever mindful of your enthusiasm for and skill in handling issues such as this your line manager has proposed the following steps in producing your review. Conveniently these address possible questions which the visiting inspector might pose.



1. Current procedures

194

n a pro-forma like this indicate how information on your learners’ performance is anaged and maintained (you will need to produce a larger version - this version is to

show column headings only). Examples are given. Types of assessment information recorded

Method of recording

Method of storage

Access Additional notes

Om

observations of drama techniques

notes made on observation of performance

placed in files stored in secure staff office

• me • H of Dept

Files are colour coded by course: • yellow = basic • red = standard • blue = advanced

2. Management of information Who in your institution is responsible for: • Direction of overall input, storage and retrieval policy?

f assessment? ity of record material?

Updating staff on legal and regulatory developments regarding records e.g. data ation

• training ha affecting tmaintenance of such f

3. Recommendations for What recommendations would you set out for improving your owmanagement of assessm n

• Designing and maintaining records o• Supervising secur and storage •

protection legislWhat, if any,

? ve you received on issuesormation?

he nature and in

development

n use and e t information?



195

3.2.1 Preparing sum nts mative assessme

sed at the end of a programme Summative assessment is u formally to assess a learner’s skill and knowl ramme. The table provided below ill ds and gives advantages and disadvantages of each: Assessment method Adv Disadvantages

edge gained as a result of that prog

ustrates assessment metho

antages

1. Observation of

performance

•

•

If carried out using a well-designed checklist, observation can capture evidence of performing a range of subject or vocational skills plus interpersonal and communication skills to measure actual performance against desired outcomes

• Most useful when used to individuals rather than groups

• Observation can be carried out by others (e.g. supervisors) and used as evidence of reaching learning outcomes

• May require more than one observation to assess consistency of performance

• Can be combined with oral questioning to confirm knowledge and understanding or

• Time consuming,

especially if teacher has to travel to carry out observations

• May not be suitable for assessing in group situation as evidence of individual performance must be recorded simultaneously

• Not all skills can be observed readily

• Requires careful planning for situations when teacher can observe the maximum possible range of tasks being carried out

• Learners may feel under pressure

• Learners may be nervous when they know they are being observed and may make mistakes

• If carried out under simulated conditions, may not assess learner's ability to perform in a real work environment (see simulation)

The most reliable method of assessing performance of practical activities Can be used to assess application of knowledge and understanding into a real work environment as well as skills performance

•



196

any areas not observed

2 . Skills test •

carry out a

• st en

ure successful

•

• to rrent level of

nt • be

d through observing

kills

•

arios and have

•

t

Can be effectively used to assess ability topractical task to the required standard after training has takenplace, e.g. speed, accuracy, performance to standards Learner completes task againgiven parameters which are thused to measperformance Can be used to assess application of knowledge andunderstanding into a real work environment as well as skills performance Can be effectively used as toolmeasure cuperformance and note areas where skills must be improved during diagnostic assessmeSuccessful achievement maymeasureskills test or by examination of products completed during stest May be carried out through computer-generated programmes where learners work through scento successfully complete each one before starting the next

As with observation

• Can be expensive to set up in terms of provision of resources and equipmen



197

.

• lation reflect

environment, enables

rk environment

Suitable for assessing nt

ce in real work

e

ly an

ucts completed during simulated activity

• Useful for providing opportunities to learners where real work environment is not available, e.g. provision of a ‘model’ office where learners can practice skills by carrying our real tasks for members of staff

• May be used successfully using appropriate IT programmes

ironment

•

ful may not be

available • IT skills may be needed

and success may depend on how well these are

3. Simulation

• Can be effectively used to

simulate realistic conditions, e.gflight simulator If conditions for simupressures and constraints of a real work learner to perform tasks in a learning environment before undertaking them in the wo

•performance where assessmeof performanenvironment is not suitable, e.g. where unsuccessful performanccould cause danger or damage, e.g. assessing ability to faeroplane

• Successful achievement may bemeasured through observing or by examination of prod

• May be difficult to reflect

pressures and constraintsof a real work envExpensive to set up and resources and equipment required for successsimulation

used

4. Projects and

assignments

• Work-based projects are an

effective method of assessing application of skills, knowledge and understanding in a real work environment

Can be used to assess learner’s ing and decision-

• ith nce learning

Most effective if used with marking scheme and grading criteria (if relevant) which provides basis for assessment and can be used for fair and objective assessment of results

•

• t material submitted has

• ful y

teacher to ensure ability to complete and full understanding of what is required

•problem-solvmaking strategies as well asability to complete to required standard Can be used effectively wopen or dista

•

May require a level of literacy and/or numeracy which is not a requirementof the task Need to ensure tha

been completed by the learner Requires carepreparation of learners b



198

s alternative to written tests

interviewing and

5. Oral questioning

• Can be combined successfully with observation, skills tests or simulation to assess knowledge

• Requires considerable expertise from teacher in

and ability to apply understanding in different contexts

• Useful where learners have literacy problems or disability a

questioning techniques • Learners are under

pressure or may be nervous

. Written and oral tests • Useful to assess retention of

• Multiple-choice tests and those which require learner to adapt learning to provide answers offer opportunities to assess understanding

• All learners complete same test under same conditions, thus is an objective measure

• Assesses knowledge and

possibly understanding if well designed

• Considerable expertise is required to ensure tests are fair and at correct level

• Adult learners may have been adversely affected by past experience in the educational system

• Does not provide a true reflection of a learner's ability to perform tasks

• May require literacy or numeracy skills which are not immediately required for performance of a task

• Rationale of tests depends on ability of learner to recall selected information 'on demand'

• May not provide the opportunity to review performance and identify future learning or actions unless these are planned into time available

6 knowledge

7. Examinations

• As for tests • Examinations can be used

effectively as a final measure to assess achievement of learning outcomes on a learning programme

• Requires 'examination

techniques' on the learner's part

• Otherwise, as for 'tests'



199

PREPARING YOUR LEARNERS Formative and summative assessments complement each other, assessing progress and achievement in relation to the learning objectives. This continuity should be clear to your learners as well as to you the teacher, and any other stakeholders in the successful delivery of the learning programme. So the summative assessments themselves should hold no surprises in terms of concepts, topics and skills for those who have to undertake them. Your learners need to be prepared. You should properly introduce summative assessments to your learners. They should be aware of: • the purpose of the assessment process • the nature of the assessment objectives and criteria for success • appropriate methods of response to/involvement in assessment methods • any revision or preparation requirements • permissible learning aids e.g. calculators, laptop computers • regulations about what cannot be used in the assessment room, e.g. programme

notes, mobile telephones • the exact duration of the assessment sessions : dates, times and venues • arrangements for the communication of results and feedback • regulations from the external awarding body (if any) or company administering the

training programme. POINTS TO WATCH You should be well prepared yourself for these sessions. You should have to hand necessary exemplar material, schedules and copies of regulations (if these are appropriate/relevant to learners). You will need to be formal when administering summative assessments but in practice assessments and preparatory sessions you can reassure learners should be reassured and reduce nervousness. With young learners, many teachers undertake summative assessment procedures without taking the learners through all of the items above - this is a matter of judgement about how much and what information will reassure. Also younger learners will need to know the procedures they can follow e.g. can they ask questions? can they use dictionaries?



200

ASSESSING FINAL ACHIEVEMENT Assessment of all agreed learning outcomes may take place in several ways, depending on the types of outcomes required, the assessment strategy selected and the centre in which the learning programme took place. In an educational institution, final assessment may be through: • formal examination, at the end of the programme or part programme (module) • a mixture of coursework and module tests or examinations • module assignments or projects, each contributing towards the final marks obtained • a portfolio of work gathered over the length of the course. In a training organisation or a company where the learning focus is skills development, final assessment may be through: • skills tests • assessment of performance in the learner’s work environment e.g. through

observation • evaluation of information from the learner’s supervisor or line manager relating to

successful and consistent performance to the standards required. DESIGNING YOUR OWN SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS You will find it useful to gain experience of this and the various disciplines involved. Opportunities may arise for such design work at the end of modules for ‘internal’ school or college examinations or tests. If you are going to design your own summative assessment material, these points will help: 1. Check out the relationship between programme aims and objectives, syllabus

and session content and your summative assessment objectives. You and others should be able to identify continuity between them

2. In the case of written assignments such as tests and examinations make sure

that you design a full mark scheme to accompany your question paper. This is particular important if more than one person is going to mark learners' work.

3. When setting out your question paper pay particular attention to:

• The rubric (instructions to candidates - including time allowed) • The layout and wording of questions. Questions should be clearly and

unambiguously worded • Options and sections should be clearly identified • Any additional material (such as maps, diagrams etc) should be clearly

produced and headed • Check that the learners know what has to be handed in at the end of the

assessment session



201

• Ensure that the allocation of marks is clearly shown on the paper itself • Make sure that sufficient copies of the test/examination paper are available

with spare copies in the assessment session. • Check validity and reliability.

The following table illustrates possible assessment strategies for the activities listed: Activity Most suitable assessment methods

1. Practical tasks

• Observation combined with oral questioning to confirm

knowledge and understanding

2. Activities in small groups

• Observation where assessment of the process is a key

component, e.g. where learners are developing interpersonal, communication, and teamwork skills

• Examination of the results of activities • Learner's self-assessment may contribute • Video-recording of activity and scrutiny of final tapes

3. Simulation

• Observation • Examination of products created during simulation • Video-recording of simulation and scrutiny of final tapes

4. Role-play

• Observation • Learner's self-assessment may contribute • Peer assessment

5. Assignments and projects

• Scrutiny of assignment or project using marking scheme

as basis for assessment 6. Case studies

• Scrutiny or discussion of written or oral summary of

findings

7. Business games

• Scrutiny or discussion of written or oral summary of

findings • Observation of process

8. Skills practice

• Observation combined with oral questioning to confirm

knowledge and understanding



202

ADMINISTERING SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT You must be careful with the environment in which assessment takes place. For example, if learners are asked to prepare for a one hour set of written tests, then the room must be quiet, well-lit, well-ventilated and so on. There should be restrictions on conversation and comment so that everyone has the same chance to think and write in comfort and confidence. This enables equal opportunity for each learner - the ‘level playing field’. The term ‘level playing field’ is commonly used in discussions about assessment. It has come to mean a combination of concepts which include: 1. Fairness/equality of access to assessment In both formative and summative assessment teachers should ensure that all learners involved in the assessment exercise should have: • Equal notice of the time, date, venue of the exercise • Clear instructions as to what materials they are to bring along • A clear picture of the skills, knowledge and understanding to be assessed • Guidance over what to prepare and how • Time schedule for marking, results and feedback. 2. Fairness/equality of operation The assessment environment should be managed in such a way that: • All learners have the requisite test/examination materials, paper, etc • There is silence within the room so that all may concentrate at ease • Matters of comfort such as light/shade, temperature, ventilation, etc. have been dealt

with in advance • Teacher supervision ensures that no form of copying or discussion takes place

during the assessment session • External interruptions and disturbances are minimised • Timings are clearly stated and adhered to. 3. Marking, results and feedback • The time schedule for these should be familiar to all learners and should be adhered

to • There should be as little variation as possible in scheduling if more than one group

undertakes the same assessment exercise • Clearly the same mark scheme must be operated and the same methods of results

communicated and feedback to stakeholders employed if more than one group undertakes the same assessment exercise.



203

Such practical considerations need even more attention when important observation of performance assessments are taking place (eg for coaching and sports certificates, drama and music qualifications, oral examinations for languages, workplace skills, teamwork demonstrations etc). Here environmental considerations can include the noise levels and activities outside the test location as well as conditions inside the venue. Sports and outward bound assessment need to pay careful attention to: • weather forecasts and conditions • issues of health and safety • transport to and from outdoor venues • suitability of candidate's clothing. MORAL ISSUES As well as fairness in assessment (the ‘level playing field’) a number of moral issues may arise in the context of assessment. These include.: Transparency To what extent should our designs, purposes and operation of assessment regimes, justification of choice of assessment and communication of results and feedback be ‘transparent’? Why, to what extent and to whom should such disclosure be effected? There is no single simple answer to these questions. There may be school, local or national regulations to guide you on this issue or it may be left to your own professional discretion. If there is choice available on this issue be careful to consider the likely consequences of your options. Performance and Personality It is important to emphasise, especially in feedback to learners, that any criticism you may advance is of a learner’s performance and not of his/her personality. Nervousness and Sensitivity Learners are understandably nervous about three stages of assessment:

• Preparation for assessment exercises (revision) • The assessment exercise itself • Feedback; getting the results and dealing with the feedback and other

consequences An understanding teacher will reassure and clarify in the first stage, administer the second stage rigorously and fairly and handle the third stage sympathetically and honestly.



204

Public v Private Results/Feedback This may be a difficult balance to strike, especially with summative assessment results. Many teachers feel that a factual communication of results by lists on notice boards, websites, postal information, etc followed by individual feedback which stresses ways forward for the learner is an effective combination of methods especially in cases of difficulty and/or disappointment. Even in the communication of formative assessment results care needs to be taken when work is returned to learners in class. Those with problems can be helped by:

• Realistic and constructive comments on returned scripts • A quiet chat after the class



205

Practice Revising assessment procedures Check out these questions against your experience with a summative assessment:

Validity - did the assessment test all required levels and subjects? Relevance - did the assessment meet the needs of all stakeholders? Did the learners view the assessment as valid and reliable? Was the standard of the assessments appropriate to the programme? Were most learners able to succeed? Was the time allowed for each assessment task reasonable? Were tasks clear, technically correct and appropriate? Were tasks relevant - not going beyond the content of the programme?

POINTS TO WATCH There are number of factors which may impact on the teacher’s ability to be fair and impartial such as:

learners are unaware of, or do not fully understand, the criteria against which they are being assessed

learners are assessed before they are fully prepared and at a level where they are able to demonstrate competence

learners are nervous and intimidated by the environment or administrator of the assessment process, and make small mistakes as they perform tasks, although they have the ability to perform competently

learners’ assessment is carried out using methods that are inappropriate to the skills that must be demonstrated

although criteria for successful performance have been set, the teacher adds additional standards based on his or her opinion of what the learner must demonstrate or interprets the criteria in too stringent a manner

the teacher does not like the learner and is biased OR the learner does not like the teacher and does not expect a fair assessment

younger learners may be fearful of expectations, processes or outcomes.

Avoid these pitfalls and you will be ☺



206

3.2.2 Using summative assessments

SEQUENCE OF USE Here we are managing summative assessment to ensure fairness and to facilitate achievement. This is a sequence of linked processes:

1. Design of assessment tasks and mark schemes

2. Instructions of and preparation of learners

3. Management of assessment sessions

4. Assessment of outcomes - marking/grading

5. Results and feedback to learners

6. Evaluation of the summative assessment process



207

CASE STUDIES In this section we are going to look at two case studies:

Christina is dealing with a summative assessment exercise for her sequence of drawing classes

Etienne is setting up an end of module examination in AS level physical geography. Case Study 1 Christina has decided to run a 2½ hour practical assessment of her learners’ drawing skills. The assessment objectives follow closely the technical instruction themes carried out in the sequence of learning sessions. These include: • ability to use line, methods of shading • composition • use of tone (light and shade) • confidence in handling appropriate materials • observational skills. She has devised an assessment grid which includes her marking scheme. The levels of performance are graded from ‘poor’ to ‘acceptable’ to ‘outstanding’. There are no quantitative marks as such.



208

Her assessment system looks like this: (only part of the grid is included) Skill Requirements Level of achievement

1 Poor 2 Acceptable 3 Excellent

Assessor Signature

Date

1

Ability to locate drawing sensibly and accurately on paper

1 2 3

2

Ability to apply basic principles of composition to still life assembly

1 2 3

3

Ability to use line and shading confidently and appropriately

1 2 3

This scheme is Christina’s own design. Case Study 2 Etienne has set up an examination paper for his AS level geography learners. This is how it begins (again, only part of the paper is shown) Question paper AS LEVEL PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY TIME ALLOWED 1½ HOURS INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES The number of marks is given in [ ] at the end of each question or part question All the figures referred to in the questions are contained in the Insert Sketch maps and diagrams should be drawn whenever they serve to illustrate your answer Make sure your name is on each piece of paper you use for your answer and you indicate clearly which question you are answering Answer one question from Section A and one question from Section B



209

Section A Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology 1. Study diagram 1

(a) What kind of rainfall is being generated on the diagram? [1]

(b) Give an example of an area of the world where this type of rainfall is frequently seen [1]

(c) The diagram shows a cross-section through a drainage basin. What effects

might the basin suffer if much of its vegetation is suddenly removed? [11]

(d) What kinds of human and physical forces might be responsible for the rapid removal of vegetation from the basin [12]

2. (a) Outline the processes by which rivers erode their channels [7]

(b) Explain the effect of erosion on the form of river channels [8]

(c) Using examples discuss the effects human activities may have upon the different flows that occur within a drainage basin system [10]



210

Mark scheme Here is part of Etienne’s mark scheme for question 1

(a) orographic or ‘relief’ rainfall [1]

(b) west coast of USA or South America (except desert areas of Peru and Chile) [1]

(c) for 9-11 marks

High quality explanation with abundant illustration: wide range of points covered. Mentions and explains – incompetence of soil from removal of root system; collapse of channel banks; increased sediment yield; clogging of channels, lakes and reservoirs. Reduced transpiration from surface. Reduced interception therefore more direct pounding of surface; gullying and other accelerated erosion. Destruction of humic layout of soil with reduction in soil fertility. Rapid run-off. e.g. Cumberland or West Virginia in 1930s; slopes of 1990s Madagascar; deforestation in Nepal, Brazil, Indonesia.

for 5-8 marks

Explanation of some of the above points with some examples. Partial answer.

for 1-4 marks

Poor quality level of explanation; answer skeletal with one, two or no examples. Only a few explanatory points identified.

(d) for 9-12 marks

High quality explanation with wide use of a range of illustrations. Mentions and explains:

(i) Physical forces of removal: fires (natural) e.g. Rocky Mountain National Park; volcanic eruptions e.g. slopes of Vesuvius, Etna, St Helens; increasing acidity e.g. Sahel

(ii) Human forces of removal: creation of ski-runs/slopes e.g. French Alps: Albertville; overgrazing e.g. West Africa, Sudan; fires (accidental and deliberate) e.g. S France, Portugal 2003

for 5-8 marks

Explanation of some of the above points with some examples.

for 1-4 marks

Poor quality level of explanation; skeletal answer only.



211

POINTS TO WATCH 1. When he was developing his summative assessment paper, Etienne modelled his

rubric (instructions to candidates) on past examination papers. His question 2 is in fact taken verbatim from the specimen paper for AS Geography which was published by Cambridge International Examinations. These steps give his learners some experience of summative assessment which is close to the kind of examination experience they will shortly be preparing for.

2. On the other hand Christina designed her entire assessment scheme. It has some

weaknesses and may lead to a high degree of subjectivity. However it could be developed into a more effective ‘criterion-referenced’ scheme of assessment. For example she can improve the descriptors for levels of performance.

3. Many of your teaching colleagues can be of direct help to you - even if they conduct

entirely different learning programmes. A second opinion on assessment objectives, layout of questions, mark schemes and wording of assignments is often very useful. A colleague will often identify omissions, highlight ambiguities and suggest amendments from his/her experience. This is good professional practice and it’s good to give your summative assessment material such a critical read/review before it gets to the learners!

4. If a number of your learners use English as a Second Language (and the test is in

English) you need to check that they are disadvantaged by the vocabulary used in the assessment.

REVISING ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES In all programmes it is necessary continually to check and perhaps revise the assessment procedures being used. You need to ensure that the validity of assessment (checking against a syllabus or Programme Plan to ensure a representative sample of topics and abilities are being assessed) and the reliability of them (through a mark scheme to ensure that all assessments are consistent for all) continually improve. Changes can – and should – be made were it is found necessary or desirable. It is useful periodically to ask the following questions: • validity: does the assessment assess all required levels and subjects? • is the assessment meeting the needs of stakeholders • how do the learners view the assessment (valid and reliable?) • is the standard of the assessments appropriate to the programme (check against the

Programme Plan)? • are most learners succeeding? ( are assessments too difficult, too easy, not related

to the teaching); if not, the reason will need to be identified



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• are results what you expected? If not, why not? • were assessments achievable in the time allowed? • do assessments allow for the assessment of all levels of ability, or were some

disadvantaged because assessment tasks (e.g. questions) were too easy/hard and were therefore unable to show their true skills?

• were tasks clear, technically correct and appropriate? • were tasks relevant - not going beyond the content of the programme? Assessments must be fair, objective and impartial. Internal assessments need to be above reproach with no bias, and the scrutiny by external agencies e.g. awarding bodies or internal personnel help to ensure this. Most educational institutions will have verifiers who check assessors’ work and external agencies will moderate a centre’s grades and systems. There are a number of factors which may impact on teachers’ ability to be fair and impartial. Such factors include: • lack of awareness by learners of the criteria for assessment • learners are assessed before they are fully prepared • learners are intimidated by the environment, teacher of the assessment process • inappropriate assessment methods • additional criteria added • lack of time or resources for assessment.



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Practice Check out the room in which your summative assessment session is to take place and the staff who may be involved in it. 1. Step One – ‘Talk the Talk’ Imagine you had to hold a summative assessment session of your own design (i.e. outside the normal schedule of public examinations, etc)

(a) who would you contact to check room availability?

(b) who would you contact to arrange invigilation (supervision) if you could not be available yourself?

(c) what arrangements would you have to make with the invigilator to:

• check presence or absence of examinees? Give instructions to

examinees? • supply script and question papers? • return scripts and question papers (if required)?

2. Step Two – ‘Walk the Walk’ Go to the room selected and check it out for yourself for the following: • potential causes of exterior disturbance e.g. building work • potential causes of interior disturbance e.g. noisy fans • count numbers of desks and chairs. If insufficient, where can extra supplies be

obtained? Include chair and table for invigilator • arrange furniture so that desks are equally spaced • construct notices asking for ‘Quiet Please; Examination in Progress’ • any potential difficulties with heating, lighting, ventilation and/or air conditioning.



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3.2.3 Analysing summative assessment data

MARKING In written summative assessments it is essential to mark work with accuracy, consistency and thoroughness. This means you need to refer closely and carefully to mark schemes and assessment criteria. If you know you have a great many scripts (i.e. completed assessment written work from learners) to mark, be fair to yourself and your learners by breaking up your marking sessions, taking proper comfort breaks and maintaining your concentration. If you are part of a marking team you may have to submit samples of marked work to the team leader who then checks your marking and compares your marking with those other markers in the team. There may be a meeting then to agree how the marking will be interpreted and details managed. This process is called standardisation of marking. It is an essential part of the formal assessment of public examinations. In a skills-based context, similar advice applies, although here you could well be dealing with a series of exercises involving use of assessment criteria. This can be very taxing and a great deal of concentration is required. Moreover, such assessment may require more than just circling of letters of numbers on a scoresheet. Some of these assessment systems ask for the provision of comments and remarks. This is not easy at the best of times and teachers who work in outdoor environments can describe the difficulties of writing assessments in snow, blistering heat and driving rain!



Not many teachers see marking as being the highlight of their professional activity. Can it be elevated above the level of ‘necessary chore’? It can certainly be made more interesting and more worthwhile if it is geared to a variety of assessment designs which are in turn, linked to specific sections of teaching and learning. It therefore shows learners’ varying abilities to respond to different learning experiences. If we see marking as part of a process or design, enquiry and professional development then it can act as a key source of information on the way in which learners can act as a key source of information on the way in which learners can develop their own skills, understanding and knowledge. Marking is at its fairest and most productive if a mark scheme is consistently developed applied. Make marking work for you. Merely ticking, correcting and scoring does not make the most of a valuable opportunity to feedback directly to the individual learner. Not many such opportunities may exist. So take the opportunity to:

• Highlight successes (however small) • Correct errors or misconceptions • Say what a mark means • Show the learner ways in which his or her work can be developed • Set new goals – ‘try this’

Marking makes much more sense if it is seen by learners and teachers to perform a series of valuable purposes. So it must be carefully targeted and interwoven into the Programme Plan. It should be a natural follow-up to learning and assessment objectives. These, not some misconceived ‘ritual’ or ‘habit’ should drive the frequency of marking.

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PROCESSING OF EXAMINATION DATA Let's assume that we have collected summative assessment data from our group of learners who have just completed a written examination. The examination was designed and conducted ‘in-house’ and there are 25 learners in the group. Have a look at the table which shows the results obtained. We’ve substituted learners’ names with letters of the alphabet. Candidate Percentage Rank

A 61 7 B 92 1 C 57 8=

D 68 6 E 48 16 F 32 21 G 43 22 H 57 8= I 37 23 J 88 2 K 20 25 L 47 17 M 86 3 N 70 5 O 57 8= P 44 21 Q 85 4 R 45 19= S 50 15 T 57 8= U 45 19= V 51 14 W 46 18 X 56 12 Y 55 13

You will see from the table that we've already processed the data by producing a rank order, giving the relative positions achieved by the learners. We can see the range of the data from the highest (1st) of 92% to the lowest (25th) of 20%. We can calculate the mean mark - 55.88% the median - 55% and the modal mark - 57%.



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Very often such measures are recorded on and form the basis of summative assessment reports. How much detailed analysis you enter on such reports is determined by:

i. school or college or departmental policy ii. your own preference iii. perhaps a combination of i and ii iv. requirements of local or national bodies

You can, given the choice, extend your analysis by reference to percentiles, standard deviation and other such measures. But there’s an important question for you to consider here: Who is going to be making use of such data? There are two main groups of users: 1. Learners, parents and other stakeholders These will want to know - • the marks or percentage achieved i.e. a measure of outright/raw attainment • how the learner did relative to other learners in the same class/group/year/cohort • what the teacher made of this performance. In these circumstances - • raw marks or percentages, plus rank order and mean marks (for set and/or

group/year) will give an accurate numerical response to the first two requirements • but what did you as teacher make of the performance? Here we need to look at the

relationship of the expected to the observed performance • there is no reason, having constructed the test paper and the mark scheme, why you

should not pencil into a fourth column on the results table the mark or % you would expect each candidate to achieve. In a fifth row you can indicate with + and - signs the differences between the expected and the observed performance .... an interesting exercise!

2. Departmental, school, college users Here there are other considerations such as how did groups perform relative to each other. We can look at comparisons of marks ranges, means, medians, and modes and we could if necessary look at percentiles and standard deviation. We can also look at year-on-year comparisons for the same or similar tests. You can end up handling great masses of data (as examination boards do) and there is no doubt that computerisation can help you enormously especially through adept use of software packages (eg spreadsheets).



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SKILLS-BASED DATA Supposing our group of learners has been undertaking a course in communication skills. Such skills might include: • making a presentation • speaking and listening • conducting an interview • note taking • producing a short report. As we've already seen, many such skills can be assessed using a criterion-referenced assessment scheme. These feature levels of competence or performance plus descriptors of qualities needed from the learner to establish themselves at that level. A simple example of such a scheme in the UK is the Diploma of Achievement 16-18 skills-based course. In this scheme a six mark range is employed but the descriptors are written for 2, 4 and 6 only eg: Making a presentation

2 4 6 The presentation is complete

As 2, and the presentation is interesting and competent

As 4, and the presentation is confident, enjoyable and appropriate to the audience

Here you have three levels of achievement. But when the scheme of assessment was trialled, teachers thought it better in practice to include three other ‘marks’ - 1 (not quite a 2), 3 (not quite a 4) and 5(not quite a 6). This was a useful suggestion, enabling teachers to make finer judgements, which was in the end adopted into the assessment scheme. Notice that we have written ‘marks’ in single inverted commas because strictly speaking 2, 4 and 6 are not really marks. They are levels or bands of skills attainment. They could just as easily be called gold, silver or bronze or A, B, C or whatever. You will come across similar criterion-referenced schemes. You can use limited numerical analysis of performance but be very careful of what such measures actually mean. Much depends on how the descriptors are constructed and worded and what the designers’ expectations of performance were and are.



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Practice Next time you're involved in the processing of summative assessment data, try working as a team. When examination boards undertake this task they work through a number of examination teams, each with its team leaders, chief examiners and so on. Your team could actually manage, process and evaluate the entire summative assessment system for your particular set of responsibilities. Individual team members can be assigned to: • draw up possible questions, assignments and assessment tasks • produce mark and assessment schemes • develop score sheets, marksheets, report forms • handle the marking of a component, question or paper • be responsible for making calculations based on data • produce graphs, charts etc of data • produce written analysis of findings from data processing. The whole team could finalise task designs • agree mark schemes • standardise marking and assessment procedures • help process data • evaluate the assessment exercise(s). Alternatively, if you work in a small institution (eg a small primary school), you can collect example of learners’ work for each of the ‘levels’ identified in the institution’s curriculum. You can annotate samples with descriptors of ways in which they have met the required standards (the criteria/mark scheme employed).



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3.2.4 Providing feedback about achievement

'HIGH STAKES' Communicating results of summative assessments to learners is always a momentous event. You can use all kinds of methods including sending results by post, making them available for collection at institutions, pinning them up on university noticeboards, reading them out in learning sessions and even publishing them in newspapers. The results of examinations, especially public examinations, performance on training courses and skill tests are becoming more and more important. They are pivotal to academic, professional and vocational qualifications. They are not only indicators of success but also milestones in people's lives. They will almost certainly affect prospects for future courses, future employment and future life styles. Of course the most important and immediate 'consumer' of such results of summative assessments is the learner himself/herself but there may well be other users of such information: • Within companies results of training programmes held in-house or externally may

well affect the direction of a trainees' career within the organisation. • Some employment activities cannot and will not accept applicants who do not

possess nominated fundamental qualifications. Employers are users of this data. • Success in one set of summative assessments may allow entrance into new courses

and further qualifications – e.g. the transition into higher education depends to a great extent on summative assessment data.

• The institution itself will wish to record and store internal and external summative

assessment data. Even once the learner or trainees has left, others may request information about individuals' performance for reference purposes.

• In some cases the publication of a school’s results will affect parental choice of

school for their children.



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Given the growing importance attached to performance in summative assessments it is vital for us to consider the way we as professionals support learners when they receive such results. FEEDBACK FOR THE NEXT STAGE Where groups and/or contacts with learners resume after the results of summative assessments have been made known, the teacher should: • Debrief learners on the outcomes of the assessment, being sensitive to the

emotional needs of the learners • Set out ways forward for all the learners, reassuring those who have not done so

well. This will include details of new courses to apply for, new sources of information, details of retake opportunities where applicable and other potentially useful ideas. It is important to be positive as well as realistic.

• Clear up any individual problems arising from marking or other technical issues. This kind of feedback session needs to be carried out promptly once the summative assessment results have been made known. FINAL FEEDBACK Where the learners leave the institution and have no more learning sessions with the teachers - usually a learner's situation after external examination results. • Here the learners may call at the centre to find out their examination results • Where this happens (and it happens at most schools or colleges) then staff should

be available on-site or at least on-call to deal with enquiries and agree new career or educational strategies as and when these may be required.

• It may be necessary for learners who are applicants to colleges or universities to

telephone these establishments. It is good to set aside a room with telephone facilities for this purpose. Directories, career data and notebooks also come in handy.

• There may be a health and safety issue. These are stressful events for even the

most 'laid back' of learners and there might be some risk of illness or injury if results are disappointing.

• Senior colleagues may need to be present to deal with the possibility of queries

about marks/grades. • Stress is also an important feature in the lives of younger learners. ‘Knowing the

learners’ is a key quality for a sensitive teacher to have.



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Practice 1. For teachers of older learners: Canvass the opinions of former and current learners who have undergone the stress and worry involved in obtaining external examination results. Some questions for them include: • How did they feel about the way their learning centre handled the distribution of

results? • What was their view of the role played by learning centre staff in acting as

counsellors and 'back-up' in the hours after results were made known to learners? • Can they suggest any ways in which:

- results might be better, more thoughtfully, distributed?

- the facilities open to learners at 'results times' might be improved? 2. For teachers of younger learners: Consider how learners are helped to cope with ‘success’ and ‘failure’. This could be done in the context of winning and losing school matches, quizzes etc.



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3.2.5 Maintaining records of learners’ achievement

FORMAT? We've looked at problems involved in storage, access and security. Now we're going to focus on the format of records. In one way this seems to involve a question with a straight choice between: hard copy or disk storage? Increasingly institution and teachers are opting for the latter, though there are advantages and disadvantages with each format. HARD COPY? Advantages • It's already in existence - a known set of methods such as filing and cheap, easy to

operate systems such as folders, filing cabinets etc • It's paper-based and so copies can be readily made • It requires no power source other than human labour to operate it • It requires little investment in machinery and training though it can become unwieldy

without photocopying facilities. Disadvantages • It's bulky and time-consuming. Special rooms and cupboards may be needed for

physical storage of files, registers etc • It's paper-based. Paper is both heavy and inflammable • It's clumsy in terms of entry of data onto pro-formas etc • It's not easy either to use for cross-referencing and or to access and replicate.



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DISK STORAGE Advantages • Disks, CDs, etc can hold enormous amounts of data on a very small physical space • Once saved, data can be quickly and easily retrieved (but also easily erased!) • Even cheap printers can produce copies of very acceptable quality very rapidly • Spreadsheets and other software applications make entry and processing of

information easy • The price of PCs is gradually decreasing • There is little doubt that technological developments will make this option even more

attractive in the future in terms of size, speed, applicability, versatility and price • The machinery concerned takes up very little space and can be operated in a wide

variety of teaching/learning areas. Laptops, especially, make proper recording of data highly mobile.

Disadvantages • Cost: equipment is still more expensive to purchase than hard copy but it is

decreasing and reliability is increasing • Distribution: if the institution is to purchase these machines then which members of

staff, which departments will receive them and where will they be located? • Training : some basic training in procedures and keyboard skills may be required • Security:

- of the machines themselves. As they are versatile they do have resale value so are attractive targets for theft

- of material stored on disks, hard disks, etc. This can be attached by hackers and

corrupted by viruses • Individuals: computer-based records work well for the recording of ‘statistical

information’ but may not reflect other areas of a learner’s progress and achievement.



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Practice Think about the following questions: • How long should you maintain records of learners' achievements? • What kind of material needs to be stored for a long period? • Does your learning centre have any policy framework for dealing with the difficulty of

length of storage of information like summative assessment results? • Can long-term storage be concentrated around one or two 'master' or 'central'

storage facilities? POINT TO WATCH Is your institution affected by regulations brought about by data protection legislation and, if so, how? Check your understanding if data protection legislation.


Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 4 : EVALUATION

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Module 4

EVALUATION



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4.1.1 Evaluating learning

REFLECTION You've planned and taught your programme, and assessed the learners’ progress and achievement. You've been keeping notes and reflections which you have kept since you started your Diploma experience. Let's remind ourselves about the Kolb experiential learning cycle

Looking at the diagram you can see how we could almost rename it 'the reflective learning cycle'. Reflection is a most important part of our professional practice. But we all know that reflection is often put off until later, squeezed out by other pressing needs. Then by the time we get round to it, we can't quite remember all the points which were important, and we've lost the freshness of the ideas. Or we may just simply forget. Many teachers would benefit immediately from devoting more time to the process of evaluation. Some shy away from it because they are worried about 'criticism'. Be positive! Think of reflection as being an exercise to build strength. This series of activities will build up your awareness and confidence. It will also enhance the variety of your professional practice.



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PLANNING FOR EVALUATION Successful evaluation can only be carried out if you have three things in place: 1. A set of criteria against which success can be measured 2. Effective methods of gathering and analysing information 3. Procedures covering the ways in which evaluation is to take place and the part to be

played by everyone concerned. You can't measure unless you have something to measure against. The criteria for evaluation may comprise any or all of the following: • performance indicators • measurable objectives • national or professional standards • centre standards • personal expectations or goals. Properly worded, detailed performance indicators describe the standards which should be reached by anyone performing a skill, i.e. they indicate the required performance levels. Whether these five types of indicators of success are designed by the teacher as measurable objectives, are part of national or professional standards or are set by the centre, they are essential as a measurement tool. BASIC STEPS IN PROGRAMME EVALUATION You should have given these some thought along the way as you have been teaching your programme. 1. Decide what you want to find out about 2. Decide from whom you can obtain the variety of information needed for successful

evaluation. Use notes on self-evaluation, too 3. Decide the methods you will use to collect the required information 4. Design your criteria for success against which you can evaluate the information you

will collect. Remember: this is about evaluating the programme, not only about the assessment of learning.



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METHODS OF EVALUATION Evaluation can be achieved by using a wide variety of methods: • discussion • planned oral feedback during the programme • written feedback • spontaneous feedback. People who can be involved in evaluations can include: • learners • colleagues or members of a teaching team, other non-teaching staff working

alongside you • line managers • other stakeholders • funding agencies • awarding bodies and other external agencies. POINT TO WATCH It's good to aim for a variety of evaluation sources as each of the above will have their own (probably different) perspective on the learning programme. WHAT SHOULD BE EVALUATED? All aspects of the programme can be evaluated, but the main aspects include: • learning methods/learning strategies • organisation of learning sessions and the learning programme itself • use of resources • the content of the programme • individual satisfaction of results and addressing needs • contribution of activities to other aspects of learner development e.g. language skills. POINTS TO WATCH 1. It is important that you ensure everyone involved in evaluation has a clear idea of

their role and the desired outcomes. So:

- Keep your contacts with people 'warm' - do a bit of 'networking' - Go that extra mile - go to see them - make a special effort - Have your questions sharp and ready - don't waste people's time

2. Feedback information needs careful examination and analysis which may be

quantitative as well as a qualitative. When designing questions think of the best format for answers in terms of processing those responses

3. Make sure you can list main points arising from your feedback sources. Use

appropriate methods to support and illustrate these points



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4. If you are going to use methods of quantitative analysis, there is no need to involve

yourself in sophisticated statistical techniques - unless you want to. Simple frequency charts, means etc will suffice. Look for what is significant in your data and any anomalies which occur

5. Listen carefully to oral responses to your questions. Note down key issues which are

raised. Think of yourself as a journalist looking for quotes. Make sure you make a clear written record of what is said

6. Do not forget to review and use your own reflections from your records - e.g. you

personal development diary. your log or 'day book' - made during the progress of the learning programme. This is vital reflective evidence!



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Practice Now try your hand at designing your own evaluation questionnaire. Questionnaires are by far the most widely used method for collecting information, so here are steps you can take in designing your own questionnaire. 1. Decide what want to find out 2. Decide from whom you can obtain evaluation information 3. Methods of collecting information? Step 1: Decide what you want to find out You'll want to discover the strengths and weaknesses of your learning programme. It will help to know which parts of the programme you organised and carried out well and where your professional practice could be improved. The following are important questions to ask but don't be afraid to add in your own: • did the methods used achieve the outcomes required? • were sessions organised effectively? • did activities used within sessions achieve the desired outcome? • were resources used effectively? • was the content of the programme suitable to achieve desired outcomes? • were both learning outcomes and individual learning needs satisfied for all learners

taking part? You can add your own specific question(s). Step 2: Decide from whom you can obtain evaluation information Clearly you'll wish to get feedback information from the learners themselves. There could be a great many of them, so processing the data could be very time consuming. You could go for responses which are quantifiable and easy to process eg The learning sessions stimulated my interest in the subject as a whole (Circle the number to indicate your response)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6

As well as from the learners you might wish to obtain information from: • teachers, support teachers, and others who have played a part in the learning

programme • line managers responsible for learners and their progress and achievement, both in

your own centre and in companies where learners might operate



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• learner's employers (if relevant) • funding agencies who have paid for all or part of the learning programme (where

relevant) Step 3: Methods of collecting information? You could use postal or other methods to send your written questionnaire to the evaluator. You would then expect a written, postal response. These tend to be either slow or 'overlooked'. More effective as a method is to take your questionnaire with you and use it as a working basis for interview. You might want to use the questionnaire at events such as parents' evening, open days etc - but don't make the questionnaire too long and cumbersome! You can build in regular times during the programme when you encourage the learners to reflect on their own learning. POINTS TO WATCH 1. You might wish to consider different types of questionnaire tailored to different

events/circumstances and different types of respondent. You could keep the main approach of the questioning the same but amend the length and format.

2. This will certainly become necessary if you're dealing with very young learners. But,

you can still get a flavour of their views!

How did you like the session on friendship?

(Colour in the face which says your answer)

☺ 3. Think about the spatial design (layout) and quality of production of the questionnaire

itself. Don't produce a 'rushed' version. Make sure it is typed or word processed. Write a clear, professionally phrased letter to accompany it if you are using a postal method.



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HIGH FIVES AND LOW NO’S

Look at the information you have been collecting through evaluation during the programme.

Filter out from the feedback information the teaching and learning activities which went really well (let's call them the ‘High fives’) and those which misfired (let's call these the ‘Low no’s’).

In this activity you will look in turn at

1. the activities which went well. Identify reasons for their success

2. the activities which didn't go so well. Identify reasons for their relative lack of success.

‘High fives’

Activities which went well need careful thought. How are you going to define ‘what went well’? Perhaps they were frequently mentioned in feedback? Perhaps they were easier to manage in the classroom? Perhaps they motivated learners or helped them achieve learning objectives successfully.

Take one example of a ‘high five’ and write the reasons for its success in your diary. Remember, your diary is for you to include as much detail as you think will be useful for future reference, for example, when completing your assignment.

'Low no’s'

Activities which didn't go so well also need careful thought. In the same way as you analysed the reasons for the success of high fives look in detail at the reasons for lack of success in the low no’s.

Take one example of a low no and write the reasons for its lack of success in your diary



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4.1.2 Using evaluation to plan improvements

ANALYSING INFORMATION FROM EVALUATION SOURCES • For quantitative responses, tabulate your data, draw your histograms, calculate

your percentages and your means. Use spreadsheets where applicable or possible. • For qualitative responses, look for emerging trends which repeat themselves from a

range of sources. Note dissenting views and 'anomalous' remarks. Identify and use statements which seem significant for any reason. Don't be afraid to quote directly from your own notes or remarks made in writing.

• For younger learners, count those smiling faces! Also remember that younger

learners remember more about how they learn than what they learn. Young learners will also need to learn the ‘vocabulary’ needed to express an opinion or to give an example to support what they are thinking.

Generally look particularly for responses which will help you: • make changes to learning methods • make for more effective organisation • make changes to topics and content • make more effective use of resources • devise more effective methods of satisfying learning outcomes. This list is just a start. You'll have had subject specialist and other questions which will produce useful feedback. DETERMINING FEASIBILITY AND BENEFITS The first stage of planning for improvements is to review the feedback you've had and physically highlight (or write out afresh) all potential improvements. Don't be afraid to recognise the strengths in your programme.



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After you've done this, you can select the improvements which are necessary. These will be necessary for a variety of reasons, listed in order of priority: 1. Identified problems relating to health and safety issues and must therefore take

priority to ensure the health and welfare of learners and safety of the learning environment

2. A problem has been identified which is preventing the majority of learners from

achieving their identified outcomes 3. The benefits to be obtained from implementing the improvement will outweigh the

costs or time implications in implementation 4. The improvement is within the teacher’s control or level of authority, is easy to

implement and will resolve an issue of which the teacher was unaware before evaluation.

FORMULATING AN ACTION PLAN An effective action plan will provide the following details. Bear in mind that your recommendations might need approval by other persons. They'll need factual information on which to make decisions about expenditure in terms of costs and time: • the improvements need to be made, listed in priority order • the benefits to be obtained from each improvement • how each improvement will be implemented • by whom each improvement will be implemented • by when each improvement will be implemented. Objectives must be:

Specific Everyone knows exactly what has to be done

Measurable

Achievable

Realistic

Tim

Here is a sa

The teacher can evaluate whether or not improvements have actually brought about the intended benefits and have been achieved by the planned deadlines by nominated persons

The desired outcomes can be achieved to the required level by the deadline required

The outcomes can be achieved within existing resources and practicalities

e-scaled Everyone knows the intended deadline for implementation

mple from an action plan


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Area for improvement Benefits to be obtained How improvements will be made By whom By when

Immediate

Immediate and ongoing

Etc

1. Photoco

2. T

pying of materials

Some of these are admittedly poor as copies are then photocopied. By improving the quality of master copies, photocopies will in turn be legible and of higher quality. Allowing more time for photocopying by support staff will avoid these being rushed. Photocopies to be checked prior to sessions to ensure legibility and ease of understanding by learners

Prepare set of master copies for each handout Store these in folders under name of session Meet with support staff to discuss how quality of copies can be improved Allow time for checking of copies prior to session

Teacher Support staff

iming of presentations and Q&A sessions

Shorter presentations will allow for improved knowledge retention Selection of vital information for

Sessions plans to be examined and improvements made to timings

Teacher

Etc

Etc

Etc

Etc

MODULE 4 : EVALUATION

Practice Fine - you've got ideas for improvements. But how are you going to put ideas into practice?

Various factors may have an effect, including

• people

• resources

• organizational structures.

What factors will help, and how can you get them to help you?

Jot down your ideas in your diary.

Are there any factors which will cause problems, and how can you avoid these? There may be many reasons why the best laid plans do not work out in practice. You can make a start on your own action plan You can use a pro-forma such as the one used in our 'sample from an action plan'. But, you don't have to take it as the only way to produce an action plan. If you want to redesign, reword the headings, go ahead. If you want to use a different format - give it a try! You might want to include in your plan an area for notes on progress of each 'area of improvement'. That's a good idea. It converts a document into a living document. It might be useful to you to devise a way of mentioning the source prompting the 'area for improvement'. Was it the learners, a line manager or something from your own reflection? It could be good to have this as you'll be looking at this document quite frequently. A point of good practice here - go for 'agreement in advance' over as many points as you can. Talk to those involved in implementation as early as you can, get their agreement and keep talking to them! POINT TO WATCH The very act of listing your areas for improvement and methods of tackling them will etch this plan on your subconscious mind. In order to internalise your goals it's helpful to write them down as part of your commitment to making improvements in your professional practice.

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4.1.3 Making improvements and planning further evaluation

CLOSING THE CIRCLE

got to stage 4 in the Kolb learning cycle. This is where we get to put ction. Planned improvements must be put into action effectively d we must plan for evaluation of the results of the improvements.

This means that when we come to the next round of design, practice and assessment, we can include changes we have ourselves identified as a result of on-going evaluation. POINT TO WATCH

We've now plans into ahowever an

Implementing change is one of the most difficult tasks you can set yourself. Changes in education and training will affect not only learners but colleagues, line managers and any other stakeholders. This is about dealing with people effectively. Why planned improvements sometimes fail

d improvements may fail for a variety of reasons, eg: • staff are not committed to the ethos of continuous quality improvement • implementation of improvements has not been planned so that it does not

interfere with the learning process in any way

Let's be realistic. Well planne


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• no mechanisms have been planned for checking progress and/or for evaluation of successful implementation of improvements

• time or cost implications cause practical difficulties in implementing

improvements • staff are constrained by other priorities or have insufficient time to carry out

improvements • staff are unable to see that benefits will outweigh efforts in implementing

changes • resources which are needed to implement improvements are not made

available. You'll see that several of the difficulties may be beyond your control. For example a sudden change by your managers may result in an overall reduction in your budget or contact time with the learners. WAYS FORWARD It might be that you did not make your case for improvement particularly well

ys of making progress:

1. Introduce the idea of making changes gradually, by stages. 'Warming' colleagues and line managers to your thinking reduces suspicion. It enables others to respond in a considered fashion rather than give a 'knee-jerk' reaction which is usually negative

2. Involve people in your thinking. Make them feel part of your ideas. Then they

will feel more receptive 3. Do as much research as you can. Try to find out what the budgetary

constraints are and are likely to be. Frame proposals in that light 4. Do not be put off by 'failure'. ‘Failure’ is part and parcel of professional

experience as it was for:

• Thomas Edison - failed then thousand times before he perfected a lamp which could be worked by electricity

• J K Rowling - turned down by several literary agencies before Harry Potter became a worldwide success

Don't be put off! Here some practical wa


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• Guiseppe Verdi - rejected by a music conservatoire in his native Italy, went on to write Aida and other operas. It is said that one million people attended his funeral.

5. Always picture ‘success’ in your mind. Don't get 'attached' to outcomes - one

or more details in your plan might not get realised. It wasn't you who 'failed'! 6. It helps to share experiences. It's a good idea to talk through your ideas with

someone else. They might be a colleague - maybe from a different department or discipline. They might be someone from a different institution or company. You'll probably know someone whose professional thinking 'chimes' with yours. You'll be able to 'bounce' ideas off them, sound out ways forward. This is a very powerful method of development and can effectively produce a third thinking force: 1 + 1 = 3!

7. Persistence - do not pester, but be persistent! 8. Early warning - always be up to date. Keep your eyes on notice boards,

websites, newspapers, professional journals - any source of information which might convey changes in your institution, its operation and development, in requirements of external bodies e.g. awarding bodies.

EVALUATING THE SUCCESS OF PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS Here you are planning for a fresh round of evaluation data to be collected. Targets without evaluation have a nasty habit of disappearing from sight! So keep your eyes firmly on your targets through evaluation. This data may be collected through a variety of methods including:

• Evaluation of learning sessions on a continuous basis.

• Oral or written feedback from learners and others involved in the next programme

• Final evaluation of the next learning programme

• Own observation to ensure planned benefits have been achieved

• Observation carried out by others to obtain an objective opinion.

We've almost closed the Kolb learning cycle … we're at Stage 4.

We're planning 'active experimentation' before we incorporate it into our next ssion … our next Module 1.

design se


WORKING WITH OTHERS

Our trainers travel worldwide to introduce the Diploma to new centres. The training often involves group exercises. It's noticeable how quickly and effectively teachers respond to group and team challenges. Teachers make fine team members and leaders, yet it's surprising how little they use teamwork techniques in getting their own work done.

In reflecting upon your course plan and considering improvements to it for the next teaching-learning cycle, you should think about using teamwork to greater effect.

Which of the questions on this list might be more effectively and efficiently tackled by teamwork?

• designing course plans

• designing session plans

• designing assessment schemes

• managing assessment

• developing use of audio-visual aids

• developing use of ICT

• programme plan evaluation

• designing improvements to plans

• implementing improvements to plans

• trialling new techniques

• evaluating new techniques

• attending external courses, exhibitions, organising learner visits, fieldwork

• designing and monitoring induction.

Teamwork enables you to bounce ideas off each other, discuss the pros and cons of methods, allocate tasks, motivate each other, produce developments quickly, monitor and evaluate improvements effectively.

Teaching can often be seen as a lonely business. ‘Lonely’ in the sense that teachers may see their tasks as being solitary or individual. This may sometimes be true but there are ways of breaking the mould and learning a lot by doing so. We have looked at teamwork as a way forward but there are other ways.

1+1=3 is a technique frequently used by professional people. It is a kind of sharing. You will find it useful and therapeutic to talk to someone else about professional matters. This kind of interaction can be very effective and productive (hence 1+1=3 not 2). The ‘other person’ may be from a different discipline, department or field of interest. It’s good if they are.

Think now about who you talk to frequently and frankly. Always choose someone with a positive approach. 'Mutual moan' sessions produce even more negativity – avoid them at all costs!!

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Practice Two things for you to try. 1. What improvements are you going to make to evaluation features in the next

and revised programme plan? Evaluation itself can be improved so as to be as streamlined and effective as possible.

Some thoughts to help you with this:

• Was your on-going evaluation of the learning sessions and the learning

programme strong enough and consistent enough to be of much use to you when final evaluation was considered? If you're not really satisfied, then you need to make some practical changes.

• Did you really give enough time and opportunity for learner feedback?

• Even when you are not taking your learning programme as a context for

undertaking this Diploma, might there still be a case for inviting external observation of your learning sessions?

• Do you need to expand your canvas of the opinions of other stakeholders

in the learning programme's success. Such involvements can have all kinds of professional benefits.

2. Have a good think about 1 + 1 = 3.

• Think about sharing your ideas with one other colleague, or with a support group. Such discussions can be professionally and personally beneficial.

• Sharing successes with a colleague prepares the ground for those times

when you'll need to share the ‘failures’ too. POINTS TO WATCH Always choose someone with a positive approach to life as well as with an open and positive professional standpoint. Avoid people who'll tell you 'it can't be done' and 'you'll never get that off the ground!' If the Wright Brothers had listened to them at Kitty Hawk they would have made just another boring canoe!

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4.2.1. Evaluating own practice

WHY?

There are many reasons for evaluating your work as a teacher. Some of these reasons might be to determine what changes you may need to make in your planning or classroom practice, or to recognise when a particular session or technique has worked effectively. Evaluation doesn't always have to be done to identify change. Sometimes it can establish that change is not necessary.

It's not possible to evaluate yourself as a teacher simply through the assessments that you do of your learners' learning. Although there will be a natural correlation between the quality of teaching and the quality of learning, this is not as clear cut as it may sound.

Many factors impact upon what learners learn. As well as teaching styles for example, there's also the actual programme or scheme of work that you must deliver that can have its effect too, as can the resources available to you and the time scales in which you must work.

In short, evaluation of the work of a teacher is necessarily complex, and not possible to achieve on the basis of one single line of enquiry, such as the educational outcomes achieved by learners.

Although evaluation is complex, it is also something that can be achieved on an ongoing basis. If you get into the habit of spending time regularly reflecting on your practice in the classroom and in the profession generally, you will amass a significant amount of evidence on which to base your self-evaluations. BE POSITIVE One of the curious things in life is how little time we spend thinking about ourselves and what we do. We tend to give 'ourselves' remarkably little space. This Diploma asks you to take a planned approach to evaluating your own professional practice, including courses, criteria and goals. This is a positive, beneficial and fascinating set of processes. It involves you as a person as well as you as a professional. It is interesting that in teaching we can often learn as much if not more when things go wrong as when they go well. If a session appears to have been

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successful we often don’t feel the need to reflect. However, if the learners have been difficult, or do not appear to have learned anything, we need to reflect on reasons and think about the changes which we might need to make. COLLECTING DATA It's good to gather information from a variety of sources. Select those which are likely to provide valid and reliable evidence of your own professional practice. These include:

• self assessment against set criteria, which may have been developed by either the teacher or the institution

• work results - learner qualifications etc • results of observed performance • results of assessment by others against national and/or centre standard • results of own evaluations of learning sessions and learning programmes • results of appraisals of performance • ongoing feedback from others including learners and others in the centre • information on future changes relating to areas of work.

The principles for evaluating your own professional practice as a teacher are very similar to those used for evaluating learning programmes. Again, three things must be in place at the planning stage:

1. a set of criteria against which success can be measured 2. effective methods of collecting and analysing information 3. procedures covering the ways in which evaluation takes place and the

part to be played by everyone concerned. CRITERIA, METHODS AND ANALYSIS Criteria can include:

• agreed performance indicators • measurable objectives • organisational standard.

These can be quantitative and/or qualitative. Methods include self-analysis and analysis with professional colleagues. We 've already mentioned the benefits of '1 + 1 = 3' - they are seen clearly when your colleagues help you to conduct evaluation of your own practice. These benefits include:

• simple re-assurance - 'talking you through' the steps involved • checking that you have thought through all aspects of your evaluation • helping you to get issues in perspective and identify experiences.

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Perhaps other professionals can be of help, too. For example:

• line managers and heads of departments • colleagues with experience of professional development and experience

of inspection • members and officials of professional and subject associations.

On the next page, you’ll find a basic self-evaluation tool you can use. These questions are only intended as a guide and you may well find that there are other more suitable questions covering issues that relate to your specific circumstances, which you can add if necessary.

Go through the questions one by one, using them to evaluate yourself as a teacher. Although technically they only need a yes, no or sometimes answer, you may wish to think about any further comment that you would like to add in your diary.

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Evaluating my work with my learners Answer each statement by circling either ‘yes’, ‘sometimes’, or ‘no’ (coded as Y, S, N).

Y S N My learners feel happy and safe in my classroom

Y S N They are able to question me when they don’t understand something

Y S N They have the opportunity to develop their thinking skills through their written and oral work

Y S N I work hard at developing sound working relationships with my learners

Y S N I help my learners to feel self-reliant and to show self-respect in their behaviour and dealings with others

Y S N I nurture effective communication in my classroom

Y S N There is a culture of trust in my classroom

Y S N My learners develop self-worth and self-esteem in my classroom

Y S N I help my learners to develop skills such as creativity, literacy and numeracy. Evaluating my other work as a teacher

Y S N My classroom is set up for effective learning to take place

Y S N I collaborate with other teachers where appropriate

Y S N The assessments of learners that I do inform my teaching

Y S N I work within institution-wide policies

Y S N I teach with emotional awareness in mind

Y S N I involve parents in learning where appropriate

Y S N I encourage a relationship between my learners’ homes and school Identifying what I do well in my work Which three aspects of your work as a teacher do you do well?

1. …………………………………………………………………………………………

2. …………………………………………………………………………………………

3. ………………………………………………………………………………………… Identifying what I would like to improve in my work Which three aspects of your work as a teacher would you like to improve?

1. …………………………………………………………………………………………

2. …………………………………………………………………………………………

3. ………………………………………………………………………………………… For each of these aspects, how can you improve, who would help you, and what resources are available to you? How Help Resources

1. …………………………… …………………………… ………………………………………………

2. …………………………… …………………………… ………………………………………………

3. …………………………… …………………………… ………………………………………………

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Analysis You can use a variety of methods to analyse the impact of your own level of skills and competence on learners and their learning outcomes. You might want to list the areas which seem to you to be of interest and concern and then expand each area, supporting the findings you list with evidence (either qualitative or quantitative) from the data you've collected from the various sources you've used. Look for the expected and the unexpected, the typical and the atypical. Highlight areas of good practice and be frank about areas for further improvement. Chris Kyriacou lists some useful areas for professional reflection: - obtaining a 'measure' of the classroom climate or working atmosphere - exploring your use of classroom rules - exploring how pupils feel about particular topics - monitoring a particular learner's curricular experiences for one week - examining tasks in terms of their learning demands - investigating question and answer sessions - evaluating the techniques you use to assess learners' progress - reviewing the motivational qualities of different activities - looking at the quality of your relationships with learners - examining the time learners spend on different types of activities - reviewing the work you set for the more able learners - reviewing your use of information technology activities. These tend to be generic professional issues but there may also be subject specific issues which you also wish to identify from your teaching and training experience. For example teachers involved in skills tuition and training courses 'on location' in manufacturing or business workplaces are often involved in demanding learning environments. Teachers of science subjects may wish to look at aspects of experimental and laboratory work. Those dealing with special needs education may have a number of issues which need specific reflection and analysis.

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Practice This is the time for sorting through the information you have collected and making sense of the important themes which you can identify. It's important to make notes on these themes and collate them into a series of expanded points. One way to think of this is to imagine you had to produce a written report on your own practice for some outside body.

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4.2.2 Identifying goals for improvement

GOAL SETTING We've reached the point where we can identify and record personal goals for improving professional skills and practice. When we talk about 'personal' goals we are talking about goals specific to you as a teacher. Goal setting as a technique involves a lot of quiet contemplation by the goal-setter – and imagination. It is an important stage in the professional development sequence:


Goals:

• can be characterised by their priority and their feasibility

• should be ‘SMART,’ that is to say: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-scaled

It does help if you can 'picture' where you would like to be with certain aspects of your professional practice by when. Human beings can be very effective at this. But we are often reluctant to use this technique and are even more reluctant to talk about it! The fact is that all successful people have these 'pictures' in their mind and are determined in achieving their aims. Step 1: Consider yourself • Your current level of skills and competence • Your individual aspirations connected with your current job and future plans • learning aims • Your current and anticipated job requirements • Your preferred learning styles. Step 2: Think practically how to achieve your goal • programme attendance/attendance at professional courses • work experience on other programmes of where delivery methods are

different • job shadowing/ observing a colleague in a similar teaching role • coaching from more experienced teachers • mentoring from another teacher • open and flexible learning, distance learning, e-learning through internet or

intranet • self-study through books and other publications. Step 3: Research ways to achieve your goals • publications • attendance at conferences • information from professional bodies through subscriptions and periodicals • internet • information on government policy relating to your future needs • emerging national and international standards, curriculum development and

new areas of work.

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Step 4: Create a realistic plan of action Remember that professional practice goals need to be Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-scaled Example As a result of a completed Evaluation Plan for her own performance as a teacher Maria identified these goals for developing her own professional practice: 1. Develop use of IT Skills so that I can operate new computerised system of

maintaining learner records 2. Address issues of timing of activities within session plans, identifying specific

delivery areas where insufficient time has been problematic 3. Improve time management skills to ensure that all resources are available

prior to learning sessions 4. Review handouts and materials provided to learners to ensure content and

format are clear and accurate and provide all necessary information. Subsequent compilation of a set of master copies for each learning session

5. Review of time allowed for tutorial sessions with Programme Co-ordinator 6. Closer supervision of learners when completing classroom activities. At first glance these seem to be clearly identified goals, but we asked Maria to sharpen them up a bit by considering two additional considerations for each goal

• Feasibility • Priority

These helped Maria gain a fuller understanding of what exactly might be involved in advancing these potential improvements.

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For example: In Improvement 6 '…closer supervision of learners when completing classroom activities' Maria knew from feedback from learners that this was an important issue for them, so its priority is high. It is a question of redirecting attention and effort in the learning sessions and should be easily achieved. It is therefore feasible. Thoughts on continuing professional development

In her book Continuing Professional Development (RoutledgeFalmer, 2000), Anna Craft emphasises the wide range of methods of professional learning.

These include:

• action research

• self-directed study as well as teacher research linked to awards such as masters and doctorates

• using distance-learning materials

• receiving and/or giving on-the-job coaching, mentoring or tutoring

• school-based and off-site courses of various lengths

• job shadowing and role rotation

• peer networks

• membership of a working party or task group

• school cluster projects involving collaboration, development and sharing of experience and skills

• teacher placements including those in business but also in other schools

• personal reflection

• experimental 'assignments'

• collaborative learning

• learning mediated by information technology (for example, through email discussion groups, or self-study using multimedia resources)

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THE PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT MINDSET

The mindset that encourages in you a drive to progress in your career (even if that means maintaining your current position) will undoubtedly enhance your mental and intellectual well-being. In fact, it could be said that a successful approach to professional development is dependent upon your attitude of mind. Regardless of any external factors that may impose limitations on you, the way in which you handle these will ensure you gain as much as you can from what's offered.

Factors which indicate the presence of a state of mind that is open to personal and professional development include:

• a willingness to seek out learning opportunities

• a willingness to see positive learning potential in all aspects of life

• an affinity with the process of reflecting on learning and change

• an overriding leaning towards curiosity about, rather than resistance to, change.

THE TENSION BETWEEN PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

There's no doubt that all forms of personal and professional learning and development can have a positive impact on a school, but this does not negate the inevitable tension that will exist between individual and institutional priorities for development. These will be linked, but they are not interchangeable.

Put simply, the ambitions and targets of the individual would, in an ideal world, be perfectly matched to internally and externally perceived development needs that must reflect nationally imposed targets and obligations as well as reflecting the need for the school to be accountable for the education it provides.

In order to avoid damaging degrees of tension between the direction in which you, as an individual, want to travel and the direction in which others within your school would like you to develop, a balance needs to be sought. It's no good training to be a pastoral leader because it would really fit nicely with what your principal has in mind for you when what you truly have your heart set on is being a head of department. Responsibility for appropriate development must be accepted both by you as an individual and by the institution in which you work.

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WORK-LIFE BALANCE

As societies and economies develop and modernise, occupations become more demanding and complex and the balance for individuals between work and life more difficult to manage. Work is occupying an increasing and increasingly dominant part in our lives. Teaching is an excellent example of this.

Teachers can point to the growing number of roles expected of them as professionals. As we have seen in this guide, they are becoming counsellors, organisers, designers, mentors, trainers and so on. The needs of learners are becoming more demanding, specific and urgent, as the world around the school becomes more sophisticated. This flower diagram shows a broad classification of activities which make up our lives. Look carefully at the diagram. Each one occupies a space in our life. Each petal represents activities in your life. You can invent new categories and have more petals if you wish. Note that WORKSPACE is only one of our petals. We have drawn the petals as though they occupy equal space in our lives. They never do! But have you got the shape of flower that you would like? Notice the arrows on the diagram. They all emanate from the centre ‘SELFSPACE’ because it is from our own minds and imaginations that the power to effect changes in the petals originates. Supposing you were to draw each petal proportionate in size to its importance in your life, how big would each be? Sketch your personal flower taking each petal (and the centre) in turn. You could check it out by looking at the actual time you spent on each ‘petal’ yesterday, last week or last month.


Teaching brings with it many possibilities to expand into other spaces. For example marking, writing and out of school activities can easily invade the spaces around actually being in school. This is understandable – most teachers are lively, enthusiastic and care a great deal about their work.

The Diploma itself may seem to add to your pressure on time. Our insistence that you consider properly-targeted design and carry out full on-going evaluation adds to the time already spent on other teaching-learning activities –or does it?

Proper, fully thought-out design can lead to efficiency as well as effectiveness in teaching. A full, detailed teaching course plan can cut out ‘last-minute panics,’ fraught negotiations over resources, clashes with colleagues and many of the frustrations which can wear you out so easily. Involving others, working as a team or a group can lighten your load by sharing the work equitably. If you plan your time at school effectively you should be able to get some marking done before you leave for home. Try to manage your effort at work more effectively.

Perhaps you might take a bit of time for your own selfspace and now that you are in control of your workspace you might look at some of the other petals in the same constructive light.

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BRANCHING OUT

Teachers can sometimes see themselves as isolated professionals. It's possible to turn up to school, get on with the teaching and return home, and have little contact with other teachers.

But let's see things differently. Look at this diagram, which shows a teacher as tree!

In the diagram, the tree is firmly rooted in professional skills and training, subject specific knowledge and grows upward in professional skills and training.

Notice the function of the branches. By reaching out to others in the school the tree will

• make a contribution to the development of others

• derive beneficial input from others.

Teamwork is a very strong way in which you can branch out.

We're thinking in terms of your own institution and its professional teachers. These trees make up your own 'forest'.

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This diagram shows that there are many other forests.

courses

s of interacting with

How can you reach out to them?

There are plenty of options. The following list will give you a start:

• join a professional association and attend its meetings

• self-study through books, publications and on-lone

• observe professional practice in other schools

• arrange teaching/learning exchanges with other schools.

In your experience, what has worked best for you in termcolleagues outside of your own school?


Feeling good and moving on

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The following table offers a framework of questions that have been designed to help you to focus your thoughts on any development and career planning needs that you may have. The questions in the framework are not exhaustive by any means.

Read the questions and think about the responses that you want to record in your diary. Consider these points as you work through the table:

• always trust your instincts and intuitive feelings when deciding where you want to go in your career and the path you'd like to take to get there

• think about the development of new skills and the expansion of existing skills and the relationship between the two

• gather as much information as possible about the resources available to you

• consider the short, medium and long-term

• think about what's urgent to you and what's important to you



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Practice Draft your own development plan. You can identify and refine your own goals for potential improvements in your own professional practice. The themes arising from your analysis of your evaluation should help you immediately. You can now use a pro-forma to state/identify your potential improvements, comment on their feasibility and identify their priority. For example: Potential improvement Feasibility of making

improvement Priority?

Need to keep records up to date

I need to redesign my system so that it becomes easier to operate

Urgent – each week I get further and further behind with my record keeping because my existing system is too complex



4.2.3 Completing a professional development plan

BE PRACTICAL You can now draw up a development plan to identify and prioritise development needs so that you realise your goals. Many people almost set themselves up to fail in their intentions largely because: • they have planned too 'long-term' and been too ambitious and so … • deadlines appear far away in the future and … • the impetus of the plan is then lost. A development plan should concentrate on immediate short-term and mid-term priorities. Long-term priorities can be recognised but only insofar as they provide a working context for more immediate issues. If your institution has an appraisal process in operation, use this opportunity to discuss your perceived needs and bring them to the attention of line managers. COMPLETING A DEVELOPMENT PLAN As we have seen there are essentially four principles in developing your own professional development plan: 1. assessing your own current professional practice 2. identifying areas for potential development 3. prioritising these 4. identifying the most suitable methods of satisfying identified development needs.

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SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT PLANS The short-term plan is based on the evaluation of your current practice and you use it to develop your professional practice in your current role. The long-term plan is again based on evaluation of current practice but sets out to be your long-term goals to further your career. Both are important in terms of lifelong learning and development. If development is planned only against short-term goals and targets, or to remedy current problems, you may not strive to advance in your career. If development is planned only against long-term goals and targets, your progress may slide as deadlines appear to be far away and not urgent. Development plans should be agreed with everyone else involved in your development, such as your line manager or head of department. An ideal opportunity for raising such issues is at an appraisal. Development plans can be finalised after advice and guidance from these or any other relevant sources. Here is a sample development plan, developed in more detail from the draft plan written earlier. Area of improvement Actions to be taken Target date Criteria for success

Information technology training to operate new computerised system of maintaining learner records

Contact Programme Co-ordinator to identify dates and times of IT training programme Register for training programme and carry out all necessary training

By the end of this week Completion by date of implementation of new system

Suitable dates identified. Permission to attend granted. Training covers all necessary knowledge and skills. Time is allowed for practice to make sure learning is applied to new system before next induction sessions

Feedback from learners for selected sessions indicates that support and supervision has been effective and enabled identification of any problems

Collect together all session plans for review at scheduled time Carry out review of all plans and identify those areas where problems have occurred due to insufficient time allowed Rewrite sessions plans to incorporate planned changes

By the end of this week Deadline in two weeks from start of new recruitment At least two weeks prior to each session to allow time for

All plans collected and placed in folder by the end of the week. Individual session plans to be reviewed and revised at least 2 weeks prior to each session, with amendments completed in time for photocopy deadline. All amended materials to be supplied to support staff by

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photocopying photocopying

deadline.

Closer supervision of learners when completing learning activities

Review of session plans should ensure that time allowed for activities is realistic. Self assessment after each learning session is then necessary to ensure that supervision has been effective

Ongoing during each session Self assessment after each session

Feedback from learners for selected sessions indicates that support and supervision has been effective and enabled identification of any problems

POINT TO WATCH You can see that a lot of thought and preparation has gone into the way this plan has been designed and phrased. 'Area of improvement' and 'actions to be taken' have been sharpened up to make them specific. Including the 'criteria for success' column has made them measurable. You can see that the teacher has concentrated on quite detailed short-term objectives which are achievable. The range of measures being considered is also realistic. The 'Target Date' column makes the scheme time-scaled SMART work indeed!

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Practice Over to you! Now's your opportunity to draw up your own professional development plan. It's a good idea to approach this in two clear stages. Stage 1: Short-term development plan Using the columns and headings in the 'sample development plan' as a working template write in your own: • areas of development • actions to be taken • target dates • criteria for success. Stage 2: Long-term development plan You can use the same template for this This is more personal and 'timings' may be more difficult Try to use the same phrasing and be specific.

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4.2.4 Specifying actions and evaluating outcomes

ACTIONS AND BENEFITS This is about the ways in which you can put the main points of your plan into action. Then we'll see how these steps can be evaluated. There is no really foolproof way of doing this - much depends on what suits you as an individual. Using the planning example we set out above in the guidance for Completing a Professional Development Plan we can look at what our teacher, Maria, had to say about the actions she intended to take and the benefits she expected to gain. She commented on benefits for her as a teacher: BENEFITS FOR THE TEACHER • Forward planning will help improve time management during the next programme and

meeting deadlines • New skills learned through the Diploma have already been put into action in the current

programme • Continuous evaluation and self-assessment help the teacher quickly to identify and act on

potential problem areas. The teacher can make small improvements along the way which lead to big improvements in the programme as a whole

• The teacher can develop time management skills by implementing the development plan to

deadlines set • The teacher will be able to facilitate learning outcomes more consistently, leading to job

satisfaction • The teacher will receive a better response from his or her learners by developing better or

more appropriate learning materials.

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Interestingly, and encouragingly, Maria also looked at benefits for her learners BENEFITS FOR THE LEARNERS • Sessions and activities will be more realistic and help learners gain skills and knowledge

through doing rather than listening • Learners will be able to learn through reflection on what was achieved and how achieved if

more time is allowed for feedback and review of activities • Learners will benefit from higher quality of resources and clarity of handouts • Learner records of progress and achievement will be computerised and this will lead to

greater safety sand security of records • Learners will continue to be involved in review and evaluation of the programme and

individual learning sessions. This will enable them to give their own views, feel involved and so improve learning on a continuous basis.

MILESTONES AND RECORDS You need to involve yourself in implementing and updating your plan. This includes actually ticking off targets when they have been achieved. It sounds almost naïve, but achievement and recording achievement is just as important for professionals like teachers to do for themselves as it is for their learners. Achieving important improvements and planned objectives is a cause of real satisfaction for teachers. You should make a record of what you have achieved and what the benefits of that achievement have been. You can incorporate these records into future design and evaluation, and they can be produced and discussed in appraisal and may be used in inspection or other professional reviews. These records act as milestones in your professional development. There is a saying 'nothing succeeds like success'. All successful individuals and successful organisations are careful to follow up one achievement with another so that a 'culture of success' is developed. Playing a part in constructing such a professional working environment is a great source of professional satisfaction.

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CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE GOALS We have been involved almost completely in explaining goal-setting and development in professional terms. This is fine because this Diploma is about developing professional skills and practice and projecting these developments into the future in a positive and constructive manner. Career development is clearly closely related to professional development but it is part of a much wider range of considerations. These include: • family and partner relationships • happiness with your current post • awareness of fresh opportunities elsewhere • financial and accommodation matters • leisure and social interests • need for further training and qualifications • desire for promotion or work in another field • desire to travel and/or live and work overseas There may be many more considerations we have omitted. But notice our choice of words - you can see these as 'considerations' not 'constraints' POINTS TO WATCH You've gained a taste for achievement. Try to picture what you'd like to happen in your life as a whole. You can set yourself 'life goals' and pursue them enthusiastically. If you do set yourself these broader goals: 1. Write them down. People who write their goals down are many more times more

successful than those who do not 2. Write them down exactly 3. Pursue them tirelessly. Never give up 4. Don't show them to anyone. Not even friends and relatives. People you know best

can be the first to discourage you - without realising. If you can manage your professional work effectively and satisfactorily, you will be in command of your own efforts. You'll be able to manage not only your own work but also the other spheres of activity which make up your life - family, home, friendships, sports and hobbies, spiritual and religious activities … The final words in the conclusion to CIE's video about The Reflective Teacher are 'What have you learned for the future?' So, how are you going to teach in the future, and how will your learners learn?


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Practice Our final activity is something for you to think about. In a personal development course a trainer was trying to explain the benefits of 'taking command of your own life'. Perhaps his audience, his learners, were dumbfounded by such a thought; their faces showed little sign of response. With just a little air of desperation the trainer cried out …. 'Well what are you then? A piece of driftwood bobbing up and down on the sea or a speedboat cruising smoothly across the ocean en route to Paradise?'

and finally …

Learners sense a teacher or trainer's feelings

If you feel confident, they will feel confident in your ability to pull them through

If you enjoy then so will they

Enthusiasm is greeted by enthusiasm

so

in your teaching

be confident and enthusiastic, but above all

Enjoy

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