753 B.C.E. – 476 C.E.

Rome is a fusion of four cultures: Etruscan, Latin, Greek and Phoenician.

1. Latins unified Italy with their military strength

2. Greeks mastered philosophy, religion and arts

3. Etruscans were urban planners, charioteers, architects, metallurgists

4. Phoenicians developed the earliest alphabet, were superior merchants, contributed to naval strength in the Mediterranean

In mythology, Rome was founded by two brothers, Romulus and Remus, in 753 B.C.E. who were raised by wolves and rose to prominence through their determination.

Capitoline She Wolf 500-480 B.C.E. depicts the twin brothers nursing from their wolf mother (right). It was probably an Etruscan work, but it clearly represents the pride Romans felt in this mythical founding narrative of their wild and animal spirited ancestors.

Historically, Etruscan kings ruled the Latin people for 300 years. In 509 B.C.E., Latins overthrew Tarquin the Proud of the Etruscans and the Roman Republic began. Romans shared political rule and required consensus among the top leaders before decisions were final.

Early Republican politics were class based. Their agrarian society naturally divided among land holding lines between patricians and plebeians.

Patricians owned larger portions of land and shared greater political influence. The Roman Senate was controlled by patricians who were elected for life. Two elected consuls led the Roman military. Occasionally, a dictator would be appointed during intense warfare, but this was a temporary title and relinquished once things stabilized.

The Popular Assembly was a political body of plebeians. Four tribunes were appointed to protect plebeian interests. Plebeians were numerically larger but owned smaller holdings. Plebeians served as soldiers in the Roman army. In 287 B.C.E. plebeians granted right to make laws in the Popular Assembly. By 264 B.C.E., one of the consuls had to be a plebian. These plebeian reforms helped unify the Italian peninsula by 250 B.C.E.

The Punic Wars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146 B.C.E.) were 3 different episodes between Rome and Carthage. Hannibal son of Hamilcar (247-182 B.C.E.) fought during the Second Punic War. Romans destroyed Carthage in 146 B.C.E., and it never emerged as a civilization again. By the end of the Punic Wars, Rome gained control over North African coast and controlled all trade in the Mediterranean Sea. This initial territorial expansion began a 300 year march for regional dominance.

At its peak, the Roman Republic ruled from Spain to Palestine and from Libya to northern France. The Roman military known for its discipline. Citizenship was granted upon completion of service in the Roman military. Many soldiers fought and died for this possibility but never saw the fruit of their intense labors. Jewish historian and Roman captive, Josephus estimated 300,000 Roman soldiers in the first century C.E.

The Roman Senate gained power as the Roman military succeeded. Spoils from war were brought back to Rome. Patricians bought war captives as slaves to work their massive plantations. Patricians gained wealth and efficiency and they began to drive plebeians off their land. Unemployment soared as smaller farmers lost their land.

By the middle of the first century B.C.E., Roman generals competed for control over Rome. The First Triumvirate (59-44 B.C.E.) was a secret arrangement between three Roman generals: Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 B.C.E.), Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106-48 B.C.E.) and Gaius JuliusCaesar (100-44 B.C.E.). Their infighting would bring an end to the Roman Republic.

In 59 B.C.E., Caesar served as consul and the Senate made him governor of Illyricum (Croatia). To celebrate the First Triumvirate, Pompey married Caesar’s daughter Julia. In 55 B.C.E., Crassus served as consul. Things started to heat up once Crassus died in Parthia (53 B.C.E.) as one of the wealthiest men in Roman history.

In 52 B.C.E., the Senate appointed Pompey a sole consul, which broke Republican precedent. They asked Caesar to resign his military post and disarm his men. Caesar refused and a civil war commenced from 49-45 B.C.E. These civil wars overflowed from Italy to Greece, Egypt, Spain and Africa. Caesar’s army defeated Pompey’s army and gained the upper hand at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.E.

In 46 B.C.E., Caesar established a dictatorship after conquering Rome by force. The Senate became very apprehensive at his rapid reforms. He established written laws, regulated taxes, extended Roman citizenship to Italians, resettled officials overseas to monitor Rome’s territories, developed an urban plan for Rome’s development including the Forum. In 44 B.C.E., Marcus Junius Brutus assassinated Caesar for fear of his power.

Following the death of Julius Caesar, a new wave of civil wars commenced. The Second Triumvirate (43-33 B.C.E.) was a formal arrangement to combat the enemies of Caesar in the Senate. This was not a secretive affair, but it likewise ended horribly for the Republic. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (ca. 89-12 B.C.E.), Mark Anthony (ca. 80-30 B.C.E.), and Gaius Octavius Thurinus (63 B.C.E. – 14 C.E.) made a formal agreement to share control of Roman Republic. The Second Triumvirate produce similar rivalries as the First.

Once they destroyed the enemies of Caesar, Lepidus was accused of rebellion and was forcibly exiled to Circeii, Italy in 36 B.C.E. Mark Anthony and Octavian divided Roman occupied areas between them. However, their misunderstandings led to a civil war that ended in 31 B.C.E. when Octavian defeated Mark Anthony at the Battle of Actium. Afterwards, Octavian was appointed imperator and consul for life. The Senate gave Octavian the name Augustus or “the Revered One” in 27 B.C.E., which became his title throughout Roman history.

Caesar Augustus controlled the Roman military for over 50 years. The Senate’s laws could be vetoed by Augustus. Legislative, judicial, and executive powers rested with Emperor Augustus. He needed Senators to rule major land holdings and worked with them to ensure general stability.

From 30 B.C.E. - 180 C.E., over 200 years of peace in the Mediterranean world known as Pax Romana. Augustus tried to restore the glory of the Roman Republic. He remodeled Rome with new sculpture and architecture. He enacted laws to stabilize the family structure and promote morality (pater familias). He established police and fire departments. A militaristic model of leadership remained despite the lack of open warfare in the Empire. The Senate served the Caesars following Augustus. Republican rule ended with Augustus. The first five emperors (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero) were descendants of Augustus who ruled collectively for 95 years between 27 B.C.E. to 68 C.E.

Slaves did not receive the same treatment as the general citizenship. It was not the ideal state of human existence, but it was a ‘necessary evil’ to ensure Romans had what was comfortable in this life. Slaves were not abused or horribly mistreated. They were allowed to participate in society and had no visible markers of their status.

Roman Senators and patricians had large estates that required tremendous manual labor. Slaves enabled these wealthy politicians to hold office while maintaining their farms. Slaves were household servants and personal assistants. Some slaves were educated. Slaves fought as gladiators in the Coliseum. There was no standard treatment of slaves, but they were generally considered like hired workers.

Slaves could be emancipated legally and some became Roman citizens. They were a key component of Roman Imperial greatness. Slaves numbered in the hundreds of thousands in the Early Roman period and in the low millions by the end of the first century C.E.

Women were largely treated as the Greek women during the Republic. Women were always under male authority. Marriages were arranged by the father and the potential husband or the husband’s father. In the late Republic, women had gained considerable freedom. Marriages of choice were more common. Women could divorce their husbands, which led to criticisms by conservatives at the higher rates of divorce. Roman husbands and wives tended to be more loyal than their Greek counterparts.

Roman political figures were men. Women did not have much of an influence in shaping the Roman Empire. Occasionally, the wife or mother of an Emperor could have some influence. Political assassinations and intrigues were often rumored. Politics generally was left to men. Women had to use secretive measures to accomplish their goals so it is difficult to really weigh their impact. Roman historians and writers record women in both extremes. It is hard to find even tempered accounts about the role of women in the Roman world.

Stoicism shaped the nature of law in the Roman world. Since people were assumed to be reasonable, Roman Law relied upon reason as a basis for justice. Stoics emphasized the “natural law” of all peoples by virtue of being human. Romans applied this to their citizens and extended dignity to all who were considered legal participants in Roman society.

Roman Law ranked the best in the Ancient world. In 450 B.C.E., the plebeians insist Roman Laws be published. This began a process of written laws that set the standard for the next 1,000 years in Europe. It incorporated local laws which were unique to each region of the Republic and the Empire, but it also tried to create general principles based upon Roman legal philosophy.

In 449 B.C.E., The first Roman Laws were codified as the Twelve Tables of Law. Tribunes could veto Senate decisions. Roman Law grew through acts of the Senate and the Assembly. This made Roman Law exceedingly complex. It required specialists to properly represent cases in Roman courts.

Julius Caesar’s reforms included the beginning of a formal law code. By 45 B.C.E., Twelve Tables of Law had grown archaic and could not adapt to the many cultures and new customs within the growing Republic. Ius Civile developed over 500 years as the codified body of law in the Empire.

Roman Law applied to citizens but it extended throughout the Empire. Only citizens were protected. Foreigners and slaves had no protection unless they were attached to a Roman citizen. As the number of citizens grew in the Empire, it became an international standard of justice. Citizenship became one of the ultimate prizes in life since it ensured greater protection in the courts throughout the Empire.

In 533 C.E., Emperor Justinian codified Roman Laws for the Byzantine Empire. Iuris Civilis formed the basis of many European monarchies legal structure during the Middle Ages transition from Empire to nation-states.

The Orator (left) 1st century B.C.E. illustrates the realism and specific features of a public speaker during the Roman Republic. He is dressed in typical Roman fashion. Roman male and female sculptures are rarely nude since they serve cultural and political purposes more than aesthetic ones.

Augustus of Primaporta (far right) c. 20 B.C.E. depicts the first Emperor in a dignified manner as a soldier and a leader. Like The Orator, his hand is raised in a commanding fashion. The Cupid at the base of his ankle is to pay homage to Venus. Augustus mirrors images of Mars (god of war) and Apollo (god of the sun). Romans presented their leaders in an idealized fashion similar to the Greeks’ depiction of their gods. Roman appropriated art to serve as propaganda for the Empire.

Imperial Processionfrom the Aura PacisAugustae (altar of peace) ca. 13 B.C.E.

Figures are depicted calmly in procession as the altar is built to commemorate the peace under Emperor Augustus.

Notice the Roman togas as a stark contrast to Greek nudes.

Romans tended to use greater realism in their visual arts to portray the ages, flaws, and true features of subjects. Unlike the Greek sculptures, they were willing to show people as they appeared to the natural eye.

Romans were master builders. The Roman Empire included 50,000 miles of paved roads. 18 aqueducts carried over 40 million gallons of water each day into Rome. Romans used concrete for the first time in Western history. What Greece was to sculpture, Rome was to architecture.

Romans used the Etruscan arch as an architectural feature in virtually every major structure. It proved to be more durable and versatile than the Greek post and lintel construction. Arches were used in grand structures like the Coliseum, in domes and vaulted ceilings, in aqueducts, and in public buildings.

Arches distributed the weight outward toward the buttress once the top stone (keystone) is inserted. The keystone often had a sculptural decoration. Arches built together make a barrel vault (tunnel). Four arches built in a square fashion make a groin vault.

The Coliseum had 3 stories of seating above the ground floor. The outer facade used Doric, Ionic and Corinthian capitals in succession on each level. It seated 50,000 people for gladiatorial games, public ceremonies and sporting events. Below the ground floor there were gladiators’ chambers, athletes’ rooms and animal cages. See the Roman entertainment mosaic 1st c. C.E. for examples of Coliseum games.

The Spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem on the Arch of Titus 1st century C.E. depicts the great menorah from the Jewish temple in Jerusalem that was taken away after Titus defeated the Jewish armies in 70 C.E. This procession illustrates the power of the Roman military and the proceeds from such conquests around the Mediterranean.

The Pantheon was the temple to the Roman gods. Its 30 foot wide oculus allows fresh air and natural light for the rotunda. It is the first of its kind. The interior dome with no supporting pillars was unimaginable in the classical world. The 143 foot high ceiling is equivalent to diameter of rotunda, making it perfectly symmetrical. Today it is a Catholic Cathedral. Giovanni Paolo Panini's painting depicts it as it would have looked during Roman times.

Pont du Gard is a 900 foot long gravity fed aqueduct in Nimes, France supported by a two tiered bridge aqueduct. The total structure is 25 miles long.

Maison Carrée is a Roman Temple with Corinthian capitals. It is also located in Nimes, France. Roman temples were not major sanctuaries. Basilicas were the major meeting places for political and social affairs.

Roman literature developed during the late Republic and early Imperial periods. The

following four individuals contributed to the rich literary tradition in Roman culture.

Lucretius (99-55 B.C.E.) wrote a treatise in defense of Epicureanism titled On the Nature

of Things. His poetry influenced Virgil and Horace whose work became staple features of

Roman literature.

Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) wrote ethical and political manuals to educate politicians during

the late Republic. He was a Roman philosopher, writer and statesman who wrote over 900

letters and 100 speeches and essays. He served as consul, statesman and orator. Cicero

opposed Caesar and Mark Anthony for their usurpation of power. He was a loyal friend

of the Republic and died for his principles. In 43 B.C.E., Cicero was assassinated by

sympathizers to the Second Triumvirate for his opposition to the Republican political

ideals.

Tacitus (56-120 C.E.) was a Roman senator and respected orator in the early Imperial

period. His works on public speaking challenged Roman politicians to battle with their

wits. For Tacitus, persuasion mattered most in politics. Great orators exerted their

influence and control their audiences and had no need for physical coercion or violence.

Virgil (70-19 B.C.E.) was the Roman equivalent of Homer. Aeneid was written first by

Virgil and later recited by poets at public gatherings. His Aeneid provides the

mythological founding narrative for Rome. Aeneas is a Trojan hero of this epic poem.

Aeneid records his journey from Troy to Rome and includes romance along the way. It is

similar to Odysseus’ devotion to Penelope in Odyssey only Aeneas is devoted to his fate –

the founding of Rome. His role in founding Rome predates Romulus and Remus. His

primary enemy is Juno (Hera) wife of Jupiter (Zeus) who tries to stop him from fulfilling

his fate. Jupiter protects him and enables him to succeed. In his journeys, Aeneas travels

to the underworld like Odysseus and Gilgamesh.

Plautus (254-184 B.C.E.) wrote comedic plays in the 3rd century B.C.E. Terence (195-159 B.C.E.)

wrote plays similar to newer Greek comedies by Menander.

Catullus (84-54 B.C.E.) wrote erotic poetry comparable to Sappho’s poems from Lesbos.

Horace (65-8 B.C.E.) (upper right) was the son of a former slave who wrote poems to the delight of

Augustus. His work honors the Empire. He believed poetry should be pleasing and useful. Poetry

should be rhythmic, patriotic and eloquent in Horace’s opinion. His satires make observations

about Roman life during the late Republic and early Empire. Satire was particularly Roman. They

are short poems which use humor and sarcasm to teach lessons. Horace embraces Stoic ideals of

moderation and humility. Romans are often reprimanded for departing from these philosophical

precepts.

Ovid (43 B.C.E – 17 C.E.) wrote love poems and mythological accounts of romance. His Art of Love

and Metamorphoses made him a Roman favorite. Ovid’s works earned him banishment in 8 C.E.

after suspicion of an affair with Augustus’s granddaughter Julia. He wrote Metamorphoses during

his banishment. It is a 15 volume set of poems retelling 200 Greek and Roman myths and legends.

This key work of literature reestablished the place of the gods in Roman society.

Juvenal (60-130 C.E.) (lower right) wrote scathing satires exposing the corruption of Imperial

Roman society. His poems are negative and biting. According to Juvenal, there was very little

redeemable value in his culture. The gap between rich and poor is extreme in Juvenal’s estimation.

Greed and corruption permeate Roman life. City life is portrayed as a corrupting agent to all.

Women are portrayed grotesquely by Juvenal. They are vain and self-indulgent. Roman women

go out on their husbands and leave their children unattended. In his work, you see the Republican

ideals and the Augustinian pater familias have lost their place in ethics and in family life.

Inevitably, he overstates the case for effect and readers today should be careful to take his work at

face value.