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I Age

The I-ron Grip· of Civilizat.ion:

by John Zerzan Civilization is control and very

largely a process of the extension of control. This dynamic exists 00 multiple levels and has' produced a few key transition points of fundamental importance.

The Neolithic Revolution of domestication, which established civilization, involved a re­ori,entation of the human mentality. Jacques Cauvin caJled this level of the initiation of social control "a sort of revolution of symbolism."1 But this victory of domiriation proved to be incomplete, its foundations in need of some further shoring up and re­structuring. The tirst major civilizations and empires, in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia, remained grollJlded in the consciousness of tribal cultures. Domestication bad certainly prevailed-without it, no civilization exists­but the newly dominant perspectives were still intimately related to natural and cosmological cycles. Their tOlal symbolic expressive­ness was not yet fully commensurate with the demands of the Iron Age, in the first millennium B.C.

Karl Jaspers identified a turning point for human resymbolization, the "Axial Age",1 as having occurred belween 800 and 200 B.C. in the three major realms of civilization: the Near East (including Greece), India, and China. Jaspers singled out such sixth century prophets and spiritual figures as Zoroaster in Persia, Deutero-Isaiah among the Hebrews, Heraclitus and Pythagoras in Greece, the Buddha in India, and Confucius in China. These individuals simultaneously-but independenlly-made indelible contributions to post-Neolithic consciousness and to the birth of the world religions.3 In astonishingly parallel developments, a decisive change was wrought by which civilization established a deeper hold on the human spirit, world-wide.

Internal developments within each of these respective societies broke the relative quiescence of earlier Bronze Age cultures. Wrenching change and new demands on the original patteffi5 were in evidence in many regions. The World's urban population, for example,

GREEN ANARCHY #22

nearly doubled in the years 600 to 450 B.C.4 A universal transformation was needed-and effected-providing the "spiritual foundations of humanity" that are stiU with us today. I The individual was fast becoming dwarfed by civilization's quicken­ing Iron Age pace. The accelerating work of domestication de­manded a recalibration of consciouso~ss, as hu man scale and whole­ness were left behind. Whereas in the earlier Mesopotamian ci viliza­lions, for example, deities were more closely iden­tified with various forces of nature, now society at large grew more differen­tiated and the separation deepened between the natu­raj and the supernatural. Natural processes were still present, ofcourse, but increasing social and eco­nomic tensions strained their integrity as well­springs of meaning.

The Neolithic era-and even the Bronze Age--had not seen the complete over­turning of a nature-culture equilibrium. Before lheAxiaI Age, objects were described linguistically in terms of their activities. Beginning with the Axial Age, the stress is on the static qualities of objects, omitting references to organic pro­cesses. In other words, a reification lOok place, in which outlooks (e.g. ethics) turned away from situation-related discourse to a more abstract, out-of-context orientation. In Heney Bamford Parkes' phrase, the new faiths affirmed "a human rather than a tribalistic view of life."6

Page 20

The whole heritage of sacred place,s, tribal polytheism, and reverence for the earth-<:entered was broken, its rituals and sacrifices suddenly out of date. Synonymous with the rise of "higher" civilizations and world religions, a sense of system appeared, and the need for codification became predominant. 7 In the words ofSpengler: "the whole world a dynamic system, exact, mathematically disposed, capable down to its first causes of being experimentally probed and numerically fixed so that man can dominate it. ..."~ A common aspect of the new reformulation was the ascendance of the single universaJdeity, who required moral perfection rather than the earlier ce~mon.ies. Increased control'of nature and society was bound toevolve toward increased inner control.

Pre-Axial, "animistic" humanity was sustained nol only by a less totalizing repres­sion, but also by a surviving sense of union with natural reality. The new religions tended to sever bonds with the manifold, profane

world, placing closure on it over and against the super­natural and unnatural.

This involved (and sti 11 involves) what Mircea Eliadc called "cosmicjzjng," the passage from a si tu­ational, conditional plane to an Kunconditioned mode of being."~ A Buddhist image represents "breaking tlnougn the roof'; that is, transcending the mundane realm and enter­ing a trans-human reality.'o The new, typically mono­theistic religions clearly viewed this transcendance as a unity, beyond any particularity of existence. Superpersonal authority or agency, "ilie most culturally recurrent, cognitively relevant, and eVolutionari Iy compelling concept in reli­gion", II was needed to cope with the growing inability of political and religious authority to adequately contain Iron Age disaffection.

A direct, persona! relationship with ultimate spiritual reality was a phenomenon ilial testi tied to Ihe breakdown of community. The development of individual religious idenlity, as distinct from one's place in the tribe and in the natural world, was characteristic ofAxial

consciousness. The personalizing of a spiritual journey and a distancing from the earth shaped human societies in turn. These innovations denied and suppressed indigenous traditions, while fostering the implicit illusion ofescapingcivilization. Inner transformation and its "way up" was spirit divorced from body,

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nirvana separate from samsara, Yogic with- 'In Home~:;:Od'yS.rS::(8th·cen~ry le,;~iJ".' drawal, life-denying asceticism., etc, were deeply the, t~,hno~o,gi~lf~;~~!1~~ac9. ,C~c(oi> ,:,,': dualistic, almost wiltout exception, have surposmgly easy fives compared'

AIJ this was taking place in the context of an to people iJ"llronAge G;ree&of tbattime, ... unprecedented level of rationalization and con- when the beginnings ola factory system, trol of daily life in many places, especially by were already in place. Development' of about 500 ST. S.N. Eisenstadt referred to a steel plows and weapons accelerated resultant "rebellion against the constraints of the destruction of nature (erosion, division of labor, authority, hierarchy, and... the deforestation, etc.) and ruinous warfare. structuring of the time dimensi~n ...."12 The In Persia, oi1was already being refined, Axial religions formed during a period of if not drilled. There the seer Zoroaster social disintegration, when long-standing (aka 'Za:rathQstra) emerged', providing sources of satisf3l;l.ion and security were being such p,otcnl concepts as imm:on.ality; the undermined, and the earlier relaLive autonomy Last Judgment,. and the Holy Spirit of tribes and villages was breaking down. The (which were quickly incorporated into overall outcomes were agreat strengthening of Judai sm). The dualism of the divine technological systems, and,an almost simultll- Ahura Mazda's struggle against-evil was neous rise of mighty empires in China (Tsin paramount theologically, 'in a religious Shi hwang-ti), India (Mauryadynasty), and the system intimately tied to the needs of West (the Hellenistic empires and, slightly later, the sta te. In fac t, tbe Persia n legal the Imperium Romanum). system of the Achaemenian period

Domestication/civitization set this trajectory (558-350 B.C.) was virtually synonymous in motioo by its very nature, giving birth to with Zoraoastrianism. and the tatter in technology as domination ofnature, and systems fact quickly became the state rei igion. based on divisio(l Of labor. There was mining AccOrding to HarJe, Zoroastria.nism wa.~

before 3000 B.C. in Sinai (early Bronzet\ge1. ~'bom to seive 'the demand for social and a surge in tbe progress of metallurgical order in a rapidly changing and ex~ technology during the third millen.D1uIIt These panding socielY."'~ innovations coincided with·the emergerice of Zoroastrian monotheism was not only true states, and with the invention of writing. a definitive turning away from animism N am ing the stages of cu Itural development by and the ,01 d gods, but also a marked reference to metals is apt testi mony to their elevation 'of the' categories of good and central role. Metalhrrgy has long stimulated all evil as t1niversa1~ and ru Iing concepts. other productive activities. By 800, B:C. at the Both of these characteri sties were Axial latest, the Iron Age had fuUy arrivedJn l.heW~t, Age essentials. Spengler regarded with rrul.SS production of standardized-goods. Zarathustra as a "traveling co'mpanion

MassifiCiltion of society tended to bee'ornethe of the prophets of Israel"" who also norm, based on specializatio,n. For '~iample, steered populat belief awa'y from the ,­ ,Zoroaster .(Z~'~~,,',':1,11 ,.ra;)'.j,;, Bronze Age smiths hadprospeeted miried, and web of pantheistic, localist, nature­ ,~ " '~I"· ,,;~~,>'~~h?~J;, i"'~~'i"'.::ll'"

smelted tbe ores and then',\-Vorked and alloyed oriented rites and outlooks. 16 Am~s had announced ~hiS,;"~isl:'.'~s·.'fi(~~, the metals. Gradually, eacQ of these pi-oce~es,' : The Hebrew~Judaic tradition was undergoing ri.tua l!zing, tr.ans6,<r~d,f;~~~Y,i~,~g,.~p iri t~~l became the pur,view ,of correspo,n<\ing ;t:, )~k,' <fl' ~i,mil;~:~ange, especi~IY during the dIrectIOn. Jewlsb un.lguet).lj,~~J~~~,;4W9Idecij specialists, eroding 'autondrny: a~'ld{".-> ':/0', '. , same Sixth century againSt the backdrop ofradica11,urii~'qliv:initY. s,elf-sufficiency. With' resp-ecf to\;', .; heart of the Axial The "new man" of; Ez.e~ieL(~[rY;"sixth pottery, a commoJ1,domes(ics:~iJlf" Age. Tbe eastern century B.c.) was partof'a,D,yw '~~p~rnatl-'ral

was taken over by profession'ars?J.~ ~B Medilerranean, and dimension thai, ag,li.o(took;:it~ .Qi~tigsBom Bread now came more often' "~:" Israel in particular, an unstable time.. As Jae<;\Q Neusner,polnted from bakelies than,from was experiencing a out, by the sixth centurya.C,,}:iir;;the.,very the household. It ls surge of Iron Age latest-the economy w,as no loiig~r,groiinded

no accident that the ,:!,:-, .. ,,',_ urbanization. The social in subsistence or self-slifficiei'i;ly~18 The role Iron Age and the /,'o.rder was .u,nder considerable strain in the of.the household had beeri.~?JJV.,~~miniShed Axial Age COrn- -coheext o(il'n'ational need for identity and b¥\:Ii visi o.n of labor and',~~lJiJP.~g market. mence at almost ,,:,t'i>'ohetence,-'~,s'pecially in tile face of more An omnipotent god d' dw&·absolute exactly the same ., powerful;': empire-building neighbors. The submission reflected' , aspirations for ti me, c. 800 B.C. "i .Israelite's' spent two-thirds of the sixth top-down, stabilizi.ng~a~Mrity.,Ya~weh, like The turbu lence ' .',' '-centUry as captives of the Babylonians. Zeus, was originaHY':Jl,,:c,nature god, albeJl and upheavals in . , Yahweh rose from local fertility connected to domesti,cation. His rule came the actual world ,", g'od to monotheist status in a to hold sway over tbe).l;!oral and civic order, find new consola- ' manner commensurate with the anchored by the rule.ofkings. The positive, tions andcompen- requirements of a beleaguered redemptive role· of ~I}ffering emerged here, sations in the ' ,and threatened people. His unsurprisingly, 'along~)¥i.th refined political spiritual reaJ.m.--. grandeur, and the universality domination: Deute~o,IsaJah (Second Isaiah), new symbolic. of his field of relevance, parat- greatest of the HeQrew prophets of the Ax ial forms for fur- leled the Hebrews' desire for Age, created a royal Ideology in the sixth iher fraclioning , 'Strength in a hostile world. 17 century B.C.19'lle:announced that the very societies.'4 ~'In the eighth century B.C .• (~mt~~'~J"o" r.ext po..'3e) .

Page 21 SPRING 'OS ISSUE

essence of the Covenant with God was embodied in the king himself-that the king was the CovenanL20 The force of this announce­ment derived from universal cosmic Jaw, beyond any sense perception or earthly parallel; natural phenomena were only its expressions, wrought in an infmity unknowable by monaJs.

In pre-Socratic Greece, especially by the time of Pythagoras and Heraclitus in the sixth century B.C., tribal communities were facing disintegration, wh.ile new collecti vitics and institutionalcomplexes were under construction. The silver mines of Laurium were being worked by thousands of slaYes. An "advanced mlwufaclllring technology"!1 in large urban workshops often displayed a high degree of d ivi sian of labor. "Pottery in Athens was made in factories which might employ, under the master-poHer, as many as seventy men."!2 Sirikes and slave uprisings were not un­common,23 while home industries and small-scale cultivators struggled to compete ngainst the new massification. Social frictions found expression, as always, in competing world views.

Hesiod (8 Lh century B.c.) belonged to a tradition of Golden Age proponents, who celebrated an original, uncorrupted humanity. They saw in the Iron Age a funher debasing movement away from those origins, Xenophanes (6" century), to the contrary, unequi vocally proclaimed that newer was better, echoing Jewish prophets of the Axial Age who had conlrihuted significantly to pro­gressive lhinking. He went so far as to see in the forward movement of civilization the origin of all values, glorying in urbanization and increasingly com plex lechnolog ica I sy stem s. 2' Xenophanes was the first to proclaim belief in progress.') Although the Cyni~s held out in favor of an earlier vitality and Independence, the new creed gained ground. The SophiSlS upheld its standards, and att,?r.50~ B,C.• widespread embrace of high.er CIVIIJzatwn swamped lhe earlier longing for a primordial, unalienated world.

The transcendentalizing foundation for this shift can be read in an accclerat.ing distancing

GREEN ANARCHY #22

of p ople from the land that had been taking He was the detached observer, seeking freedom': placon multiple levels. A land-based pluralism from the world, who mainly accepted a ver/ ofslllall producers. with polytheistic attachments narrow sphere as locus of allenti on and! to local custom, was transformed by urban responsibility. This amounts to a fatalism C

growth and stratification, and the detached that founded Buddhism upon suffering as a" perspective that suits them. Plato's Republic prime fact, a condition of life (hal must be' (c. 400 B.c.) is 8 chilling, disembodied artifact of accepled. The message of dukkha (suffering)'­the rising tendency toward transformation expresses the ultimate incapacity of the; of though.t and society along standardized, human condition 10 include happi ness. isolating lines. This model of society was Yet Buddhism promised a way out of social

,a contrived imposition of the new author- dislocation and malaiseJO , through its focus iUlrianism, utterly removed from the surviving on individual salvation. The goal is "extin­-richness that civilization had thus far conti nued guishedness" or Nirvana, the suppression of

. to coexist with, interesl in the world by those disenchanted Social existence intruded to the furthest with it. Similarly, Buddha's presentation of

reaches of consci ousn:ess, and the two the "cosmic process" was stripped of all schema, Iron Age and Axial Age, also over­ earth1y processes, human aod non-hurn an. i lapped and interacted in India. The period While critieizjng the caste system and hereditary' " from 1000 to 600 B. C. marked the early Iron priesthoods. he took no active role in opposing " Age transition from a socio-economic-cultural them. Buddhism was highly adaptive regardi ng • mode that was tribal/pastoral, to that of changing social situations,and so was lIseful \ settled/agrarian. The reign of surplus and to the ruling classes. ' sedentism was greaLly hastened and extended Buddhism became another world religion, ;'. by fuH-f1edged iron and steel plow-based with global Olltreach and distinctive super- ' cultivation. Iv1ines and early factories in India human beings to whom prayers are directed.: also cenlered on iron technology, and helped By around 250 B.C. Buddha had become the' push forward the homogenization of cultures familiar seated god·figure and Buddhism the:. in the Mauryan stale of this period, New official religion of India. as decreed by Asoka, surges of domestication (e.g. horses), urban­ laSt of the Mauryan dynasty. ization, large estates, and wage labor took place in the Ganges valley, as "tribal egalitarianism," in Romila Thapar's words, surrendered to th&>llcwly evolving system, by 5.00 B.C.2~ , . -~j \ GautamaThiS was also roughly (he tllne of Gautama ~­

,~ BuddhaBuddha. Buddhism's origins and role with' . respect to the spread of Iron Age sociely can ' readily be traced.~1 Canonical scriptures refer to early Buddhist teachers as con su Han ts to the ru Iers of In dian stales, a testi many to ~ .• Buddhism's direct usefulness to the new urban ordcr in a time of great flux. Various commentators have seen the Buddhist reformulation of the premises of Hinduism as an ideology that origi­nated to serve the needs of a chal­lenged, emergi ng strucLUre. n The early supporters, it is clear, were largely members of the urban and rural eli tes. ,q

For the • Buddha--illld f '

for the other Axial prophets in genera]" - the personal . took prece- , ~ '\ dence over ::;, , the soc ial.

years is long enough for LIS to have learned scale modes of livelihood. The Zhou dynasty that escape from community, and from the had been gradually falling apart since the earth, is not a solution, but a roOl cause of 8'" century; continuous wars and power our troubles. struggles intensified into the period of the Aul1lentic spirituality is so importantly a Warring States (482-221 B.C.). Thus lhe function ofour connection with the earth. To indigenous spiritual traditions, including reclaim the former, we must regain the shamanism and local nature cults, were latter. That so very much slands in our way overtaken by a context of severe techno­ is the measure ofhow bereft we have become. logical and political change. Do we have the imagination, strength, and

Taoism was a part of this age of upheaval, detennination to recover the wholeness that o ffed ng a path of detachment and was once our human bil1hright? otherworldliness, while preserving strands of animist spiritual tradition. In fact, early Taoism was an activist religion, with some Endnotes:of its "legendary rebels" engaged in resis­tance [0 the new stratifymg lrends, in favor I li.lc:ql,.l'::.s C;,.u\'in. rh~ Birfh Of (ITt COd1 ,wJ fill': O,.lg/lTJ of

A,fl,I'/culltif"t: (Cambndgc. Cambridge Univc:r.sJly Prc.ss. 2COO), p.2of re-esw.blisru ng a class less Gol den Age.l' ~ Karl JiiIspcrs, Tfu On~m (tIld Gool of H(.l!on' (New Hal,oe:n Y~k

Uf.lI'V.ersJ1y p(~~. J953), especially lho; rn-sr 25 pages. \ Chri:sllaWtj' and J.'1I~m may no properly L:i'lTI.!ij4.JerOO l,!,uer :spUl-off~

The primitivist theme is evident in the Chuang TZlA and survives in the Tao Te Ching. of (hIS AxiOl.I pc::tloo. their own n;:HUrc~ .tlre..ady e~li..Ihlu;:h~d !OI:"lC

{'el)tlJne~ earli,l'.key text of Taoism's most prominent voice. • Ar..dl\..~ Bosworth. "Wodd Cities ~nd World bcoflomic C).'cle~:' In

Lao-tse (6th century B.C.). An emphasis on Ch'ifhFflmrA' (IN/ Wnrld SY!Jlems. cd. S~eflhlln K.- S:.mucr.son (W:,Jlnllt CITek. CA' AItaM ira Pre~<, I995). p, 214simplicity and an anti-state outlook put

The Iron Age came to China slightly later than to India; indu~trial production of cast iron was widespread by the 4 th century S.c. Earlier, Bronze Age polytheism resembled that found elsewhere, complete with a variety of spirits, nature and fertility festivals, etc., corresponding to less specialized, smaller­

The spiritual realm was decisively circumscribed, with earlier, earth-based creeds Tendered obso lete. Ci vi Iization's origi nal victory over freedom and health was renewed and expanded, with so much sacrificed in th~

updating process.

accepting civil iUllion'$ trajectory as inevi tab Ie. It was the sense of the "unavoidable" that drove people of the sixth century B.C. to the false solutions of Axial Age reli giosity; lOday, our sense of inevitability renders people help­less in lhe face of ruin, on all fronts. 2500

Taoism on a collision course with the demands of higher civilization in China. Once again, the 500s B.C. were a pivotal time frame, and the opposed messages of Lao-lSC and Confucius were typical ofAxi s Age alternatives.

In contrast to Lao-Ise, his virtual opposite, Confucius (557-479 B.C.), embraced the state and the New World Order. Instead ofa longing for the virtuous time of the "noble savage", before class divisiolls and division of labor, the Confucian doctrine combined cultural progressivism with the abandonmenl ofcormections with nanll'C. No ban was placed on the gods of mountains and winds, ancestral spirits, and the like; but they were no longer judged to be central, or even important.

Confucianism was an explicit adjustment to the new realities, align ing itself with power in a more hands-on, less transcendent way than so me other Axial Age spin tualisms. For ConfuciUS, transcendence was mainly inward; he stressed an ethical stringency ill service to au thori ty. In th is way, a further civiJizational colonization was effected, at the level of the individual personality. Internal­izalion of a rigid ruling edifice, minus theol­ogy but disciplined by an elaborate code of behavior, was the Confucian way that reigned in China for two thousand years.

These extremely cursory snapshots of Axial Age societies may serve to at least introduce some context to Jaspers' formulation of a global spiritual "breakthrough". The mounting conflict between culture and nature, the growing tensions in human existence, were resolved in favor of civilization, bringing it to a new level of domi­nation. The yoke ofdomestication was modern­ized and fitted anew, more lightly than before.

ConfuciUs The whole ground of spiritual practice was

altered to fit the new requirements of mass civilization. The"li..xial Age religions offered "salvation" at the price of freedom, self­sufficiency, and much of what was left of face-to-face community. Under the old order, the authorities had to use coercion and bribery 10 control their subjects. Henceforth. they could operate more freely wi thi n the conq uered terrain of service and worship.

The gods were created, in the first pillce, om of the deepest longings of people who were being steadily deprived of their own authentic powers and auwnomy. But even though the way out of progressive debasement was barred by the Axial Age shift, civilization has never been Wholeheartedly accepted; and most people have never wholly identified with the "spiritualized" self. How could these ideas be fully embraced, predicated as they were on a mammoth defeat? For Spengler, the Axial Age people who took up these new religions were "tired megalopoJitans".J2 Today's faithful, too, may be tired megalopolitans-all too often still spellbound, after all these years, by ideologies of sacrifice, sufferi ng, and redemption.

The renunciations have been legion. Buddhism was founded, for example. by a man who abandoned his wife and newborn child as obstacles to his spiritual progress. Jesus, a few centuries later, exhoned his followers 1'0

make similar "sacrifices". Today's reality of unfolding disaster has a

lot to do with the relationship between religion and politics-and more fundamentally, with

Page 23

~ Karl Ja5.pcrs, \t41y 10 lliMDllJ (N ew 11 i:lvcn, Yu.k: Ur.-j".-eTSJ Iy Prc:.s:). 200J r195 1n, pp 98-99, b Henry 81'1Il'lford Pa(k~. GOdK ami MIPI: n~ Ongin.' nf We.tlt'.t1'i' 0<1"", (New York; \,ntag< Book,. 1965). P 71.

) John Plott, GIuhat Hi.Y10rr (1 PhIJQ.wJph~., vo~ l (Odh. M(llll~1

M.llll"Kh>>>. 1963). p. 8. .lO:!;w<.Ltcl S~lgler, Tltr- D~dou(1J)Tf: We,,"1, ...nJ,]J (Nt=wYork. Allrc.JA,

J(nop r. 1928). p. 309 ~ M lrcM EI Ji:lde, "S lrLlctLl re s: .:l.rJd OlarLge.~ Jr't lh~ H 1.o;.LQ.-y of R~J19 I OC'i,~.··

in Cm' Inl'incible, c:d,~, Carl H, Kmdlng iIIId Robert M. Ad:J.m:=:. (Chici3g.o· Ul1iversltr of ellie-agO rres~, 19~8). fl· ~r)j

III 'bid" rP )6:5·l66. Kn.r: Bgrtb·~ 1~IP mlO "l.hc upper ~10ry of faHtI'· Jlal>

;} simiJar sen;'lC, quolcd In Sc.yycd HoS$ew No».r, Kn(!Il'Jr:(,/gt' ami !ht:

Sncrrrd (A~OOny. State Unlv.:=rsiLy Qr N-:w York, 1989), p 48, II Scot~ AtriUl. In GN15 We TrrJ.~l llr~ f!,1'~'IJ.!i('mcJr)' UJ'tlJ.~cap~ f'lJ RdlX101l (NI:W York Odord Uni"""-;l'.iolty PreKS. 2002>, p, 57.

11 S.N. Etsens:[adt, '1"he Axial Ag.e Breakl:hfOu~IV:::' DQC'{w'~,~ 104 (1975). p, l3, "~y lhe ~ destroy thi::lC m.:.111 woo fLrsl <h:sco...·ered tLOIl~ Hntl who t"iN.[:st:( up;J. .wn'.!L.:1J here" -P1.auLLI~ ,)',1 ctfJtLIr'}' B.C. EJ,~crul.:Jdr...

j:;i 1h-c t:.:st ess.;))' on ,he: ave-rail topic that I N.VC (Ollnl.l.

IJ The fa1c of dOmeliltc ~nd-luom w<::a~~ glmo.'l th£Ee m..iUellni .. lillel come.~ to mind: (he indepe:ndeflt we:a\'er household was ovcfWhc.lmcd ~'j

llll: faclorv s'Isl.em of the [ndustnal Rr;:::vollJtJr:"In Il [[ 1~ a ~~!-;.J(1g: iTOIJ)' lh~r NI(n..~be n"mcd nl~ IU'''Che!ypill "beylll'Jd

good .::L~d e-YJl" figure L:.m.thusUi:l. I~ \'llho HllrlC. Idca,,: of S(Jewl (),..Ju In rlw Andem World (We:1i:Lpo:;l'l.

CT: G",,"woOO ~'"'. 19981. p. 18, 16 Spen~Jcf. up. ('If" PI" 168. 20.:5 17 V. Nikirl"fM'~. "£1hlcal Mor.olhti;lO,na," &~ulu..\·l04 (J97)). P? 8o-~ l I~ Jacob Ncusnet. Ti't: Sodal ~/uJu.'j oj 'udai.tm' £smy~' (INri ReJlcrtrnm. vol. 1 (A,lnm,' Schola" Pre", 198.1). r 71. I') Paolo s.:J.~(;l'u, Th~ Ur:SllJry of 11i~ Seui/la Tt:-m!J!c Pc:rmd (Sllefti.eJJ' Shcffleld Acad<",ic Pre-", Ltd '. 2000 I. p 87 ~ In'd" pp 99- 100, 21 f',::-Jmr;;~ Klemm.A HWO'-:r'oj~hr(!mlI.. chJ1(lI(J{~Y (New York Charle~

Scnb"''' Son.I, 19:19). p, 28, ~l (,,]mrJ-cs Smgcf, 1;..) Holulya(d und J\.R Hall. Cd5., .1 Hutory oJ hchftulo,{;,-. \,()I f lOxford' Cl:]J~ndou P1e~, J954). p. 408. t) C. Osborne: Wiled. n/~ Allclt!lIIUtwly. vol. J (Ch.ieag('l' Chur!es ~rr,

18BB). Chap!<f V, N Llldwl~ E~I1i:,e(l'l, 1h~ /de-a of Prv,~r"J$ III Clu.'f.'vaJ !lfJflqllily (B1.I1~Lm('lre' Jflhn~ Hopk~ll~ Unj ....eH.ily P1e~~, 1967). pp 15-l6, ~ lold.. p J. ~~ RQrnila Tbapi1I. "EJ:hic~, RelJglon, <1(ld 5cx:hll Prolesl in T(l(1Il:J,"

1l~,d"l"s(l()<l).191S.p.122.S<,$oPP 118·121. F for c:'(,~mplc. \'ibha Tnpp{ht. ed_.Arcl(rJe(lmeJaJ.'uJ1!.,\' HI l11dw (Deihl. Stk.lmda PubJhhlng HOllSC, 199RI. CSflCCI~lIy ViJ;.ly Kumar, "$ocwl 1m rl jeatic;1olli. of Tl:CMO~ogj' " :.I: S<:c Greg Ba.(JI.':Y <l.nd Ian MabhiCt, 171/: Soc/u1ogv of I;.orl)' BlUidhJ.\'1J1 (C£'mbnd~' Crunbrldge Unl'l/~rsl~Y Pre.ss. 2(04), j:1P JS-2l 11.;Jlley llnd MabocL. It ",i'lOLlI.d be saJd, see mOf":: of" the pJC'1.ure [hIm jU::-1 Inj~ -"lSpOCl

./'J TlllJra~, up cit., p l2S, )11 BmicY a.nd Mahhec.. n/,. (:u., P J

)1 Joseph Ncc<l.h3m. Sci~J1uand ClI'Ilt?ptirm 1'1 CJlIfW. vol. 2 {C;Irt1ltnd~e C"mb"dge Un,V<r;;'Y P",,,,. 1962). rr99.IOO, 1)9 l~ Spengt.::r. flp .11.• p. 356

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