3d printing - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

7/4/2014 3D printing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing 1/23

An ORDbot Quantum 3D printer.

Timelapse video of a hyperboloid

object (designed by George W.

Hart) made of PLA using a

RepRap "Prusa Mendel" 3D

printer for molten polymer

deposition.

3D printingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

3D printing or Additive manufacturing[1] is a process ofmaking a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape

from a digital model. 3D printing is achieved using an additive

process, where successive layers of material are laid down in

different shapes.[2] 3D printing is also considered distinct fromtraditional machining techniques, which mostly rely on theremoval of material by methods such as cutting or drilling

(subtractive processes).

A 3D printer is a limited type of industrial robot that is capableof carrying out an additive process under computer control.

While 3D printing technology has been around since the 1980s,it was not until the early 2010s that the printers became widely

available commercially.[3] The first working 3D printer was

created in 1984 by Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corp.[4] Since thestart of the 21st century there has been a large growth in thesales of these machines, and their price has dropped

substantially.[5] According to Wohlers Associates, aconsultancy, the market for 3D printers and services was worth

$2.2 billion worldwide in 2012, up 29% from 2011.[6]

The 3D printing technology is used for both prototyping anddistributed manufacturing with applications in architecture,construction (AEC), industrial design, automotive, aerospace,military, engineering, dental and medical industries, biotech(human tissue replacement), fashion, footwear, jewelry,eyewear, education, geographic information systems, food, and

many other fields. One study has found[7] that open source 3D printing could become a mass marketitem because domestic 3D printers can offset their capital costs by enabling consumers to avoid

costs associated with purchasing common household objects.[8]

Contents

1 Terminology2 General principles

2.1 3D Printable Models2.2 Printing2.3 Finishing

3 Additive processes3.1 Extrusion deposition

3.2 Granular materials binding



3.2 Granular materials binding3.3 Lamination3.4 Photopolymerization3.5 Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography

4 Printers4.1 Industry use4.2 Consumer use

5 Applications5.1 Industrial uses

5.1.1 Rapid prototyping5.1.2 Rapid manufacturing5.1.3 Mass customization5.1.4 Mass production

5.2 Domestic and hobbyist use5.3 Clothing5.4 3D bio-printing5.5 3D printing for implant and medical device5.6 3D printing services5.7 Research into new applications

6 Intellectual property7 Effects of 3D printing

7.1 Space exploration7.2 Social change7.3 Firearms

8 See also9 References10 Bibliography11 Further reading12 External links

Terminology

The term additive manufacturing refers to technologies that create objects through sequentiallayering. Objects that are manufactured additively can be used anywhere throughout the product life

cycle, from pre-production (i.e. rapid prototyping) to full-scale production (i.e. rapid manufacturing),

in addition to tooling applications and post-production customization.[9]

In manufacturing, and machining in particular, subtractive methods refers to more traditional

methods. The term subtractive manufacturing is a retronym developed in recent years to distinguishit from newer additive manufacturing techniques. Although fabrication has included methods that areessentially "additive" for centuries (such as joining plates, sheets, forgings, and rolled work viariveting, screwing, forge welding, or newer kinds of welding), it did not include the informationtechnology component of model-based definition. Machining (generating exact shapes with high

precision) has typically been subtractive, from filing and turning to milling, drilling and grinding.[9]



3D model slicing.

The term stereolithography was defined by Charles W. Hull as a "system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed"in a 1984

patent.[10][11]

General principles

3D Printable Models

3D printable models may be created with a computer aideddesign package or via 3D scanner. The manual modelingprocess of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphicsis similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is aprocess of analyzing and collecting data of real object; its shapeand appearance and builds digital, three dimensional models.

Both manual and automatic creation of 3D printable models isdifficult for average consumers. This is why several 3D printingmarketplaces have emerged over the last years. Among themost popular are Shapeways, Thingiverse and Threeding[12][13][14]

Printing

To perform a print, the machine reads the design from 3D printable file (STL file) and lays downsuccessive layers of liquid, powder, paper or sheet material to build the model from a series of crosssections. These layers, which correspond to the virtual cross sections from the CAD model, arejoined or automatically fused to create the final shape. The primary advantage of this technique is itsability to create almost any shape or geometric feature.

Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in dpi (dots per inch), or micrometers.Typical layer thickness is around 100 m (250 DPI), although some machines such as the Objet

Connex series and 3D Systems' ProJet series can print layers as thin as 16 m (1,600 DPI).[15] X-Yresolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100 m(510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.

Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to severaldays, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems cantypically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machineused and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.

Traditional techniques like injection molding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymerproducts in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible and lessexpensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers andconcept development teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop sizeprinter.

Finishing



Rapid prototyping worldwide

2001[16]

The Audi RSQ was made with

rapid prototyping industrial KUKA

robots.

Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a slightly oversizedversion of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing material with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision. As with the LUMEX Avance-25 [1](http://www.matsuura.co.jp/english/contents/products/lumex.html) and other machines slated for IMTS2014 IMTS Press Release | International Manufacturing Technology Show(http://www.imts.com/media/imts_releases/20131004.html)

Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course ofconstructing parts. Some are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously.Some also utilize supports when building. Supports are removable or dissolvable upon completion ofthe print, and are used to support overhanging features during construction.

Additive processes

Several different 3D printing processes have been inventedsince the late 1970s. The printers were originally large,

expensive, and highly limited in what they could produce.[17]

A large number of additive processes are now available. Theydiffer in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in thematerials that can be used. Some methods melt or softenmaterial to produce the layers, e.g. selective laser melting(SLM) or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective lasersintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), while otherscure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies,e.g. stereolithography (SLA). With laminated objectmanufacturing (LOM), thin layers are cut to shape and joinedtogether (e.g. paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its ownadvantages and drawbacks, and some companiesconsequently offer a choice between powder and polymer for

the material from which the object is built.[18] Some companiesuse standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build materialto produce a durable prototype. The main considerations inchoosing a machine are generally speed, cost of the 3D printer,cost of the printed prototype, and cost and choice of materials

and color capabilities.[19]

Printers that work directly with metals are expensive. In some cases, however, less expensive

printers can be used to make a mould, which is then used to make metal parts.[20]



Type Technologies Materials

ExtrusionFused depositionmodeling (FDM)

Thermoplastics (e.g. PLA, ABS), HDPE, eutectic metals, ediblematerials, Rubber (Sugru), Modelling clay, Plasticine, RTVsilicone, Porcelain, Metal clay (including Precious Metal Clay)

Wire

Electron BeamFreeformFabrication

(EBF3)

Almost any metal alloy

Granular

Direct metal lasersintering (DMLS)

Almost any metal alloy

Electron-beammelting (EBM)

Titanium alloys

Selective lasermelting (SLM)

Titanium alloys, Cobalt Chrome alloys, Stainless Steel, Aluminium

Selective heatsintering (SHS)[21]

Thermoplastic powder

Selective lasersintering (SLS)

Thermoplastics, metal powders, ceramic powders

Powder bedand inkjethead 3Dprinting

Plaster-based3D printing (PP)

Plaster

LaminatedLaminated objectmanufacturing(LOM)

Paper, metal foil, plastic film

Lightpolymerised

Stereolithography(SLA)

photopolymer

Digital LightProcessing(DLP)

photopolymer

Extrusion deposition

Main article: Fused deposition modeling

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was

commercialized in 1990 by Stratasys.[22] With the expiration of the patent on this technology there isnow a large open-source development community, as well as commercial and DIY variants, whichutilize this type of 3D printer. This has led to a two orders of magnitude price drop since thistechnology's creation.



Fused deposition modeling: 1

nozzle ejecting molten plastic, 2

deposited material (modeled

part), 3 controlled movable

table.

The CandyFab granular printing

system uses heated air and

granulated sugar to produce

food-grade art objects.

In fused deposition modeling the model or part is produced by extruding small beads of materialwhich harden immediately to form layers. A thermoplastic filament or metal wire that is wound on acoil is unreeled to supply material to an extrusion nozzle head. The nozzle head heats the materialand turns the flow on and off. Typically stepper motors or servo motors are employed to move theextrusion head and adjust the flow and the head can be moved in both horizontal and verticaldirections. Control of this mechanism is typically done by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)software package running on a microcontroller.

Various polymers are used, including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC),polylactic acid (PLA), high density polyethylene (HDPE),PC/ABS, and polyphenylsulfone (PPSU). In general the polymeris in the form of a filament, fabricated from virgin resins. Multipleprojects in the open-source community exist that are aimed atprocessing post-consumer plastic waste into filament. Theseinvolve machines to shred and extrude the plastic material intofilament.

FDM has some restrictions on the shapes that may befabricated. For example, FDM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since they would be unsupported during thebuild. These have to be avoided or a thin support may bedesigned into the structure which can be broken away duringfinishing.

Granular materials binding

Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materialsin a granular bed. The technique fuses parts of the layer, andthen moves the working area downwards, adding another layerof granules and repeating the process until the piece has builtup. This process uses the unfused media to support overhangsand thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces theneed for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece. A laser istypically used to sinter the media into a solid. Examples includeselective laser sintering (SLS), with both metals and polymers(e.g. PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS, Alumide, Carbonmide,elastomers), and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed and patentedby Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph Beaman at the Universityof Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s, under sponsorship of

DARPA.[23] A similar process was patented without being commercialized by R. F. Housholder in

1979.[24]

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but willcompletely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layerwisemethod with similar mechanical properties to conventional manufactured metals.



Stereolithography apparatus.

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts(e.g. titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electronbeam in a high vacuum. Unlike metal sintering techniques that operate below melting point, EBM

parts are fully dense, void-free, and very strong.[25][26]

Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer at atime by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and printing a binder in the cross-section ofthe part using an inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has been printed. Thistechnology allows the printing of full color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The strength ofbonded powder prints can be enhanced with wax or thermoset polymer impregnation.

Lamination

Main article: Laminated object manufacturing

In some printers, paper can be used as the build material, resulting in a lower cost to print. During the1990s some companies marketed printers that cut cross sections out of special adhesive coatedpaper using a carbon dioxide laser, and then laminated them together.

In 2005, Mcor Technologies Ltd developed a different process using ordinary sheets of office paper,a Tungsten carbide blade to cut the shape, and selective deposition of adhesive and pressure to

bond the prototype.[27]

There are also a number of companies selling printers that print laminated objects using thin plasticand metal sheets.

Photopolymerization

Main article: Stereolithography

Stereolithography was patented in 1986 by Chuck Hull.[28]

Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithography(SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid. This processdramatically redefined previous efforts, from the Photosculpture

method of Franois Willme (18301905) in 1860[29] through

the photopolymerization of Mitsubishi`s Matsubara in 1974.[30]

In Digital Light Processing (DLP), a vat of liquid polymer isexposed to light from a DLP projector under safelightconditions. The exposed liquid polymer hardens. The build platethen moves down in small increments and the liquid polymer isagain exposed to light. The process repeats until the model hasbeen built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the solid model. The EnvisionTEC

Perfactory[31] is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.

Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray inultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 m) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer iscured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used



RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel).

immediately, without post-curing. The gel-like support material, which is designed to supportcomplicated geometries, is removed by hand and water jetting. It is also suitable for elastomers.

Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D microfabrication technique used in multiphotonphotopolymerization. This approach traces the desired 3D object in a block of gel using a focusedlaser. Due to the nonlinear nature of photoexcitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the placeswhere the laser was focused and the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under

100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.[32]

Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using LEDs.[33]

Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography

In this technique a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is convertedinto a two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid

resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer.[34]

In research systems, the light is projected from below, allowing the resin to be quickly spread into

uniform thin layers, reducing production time from hours to minutes.[34]

The technique has been used to create objects composed of multiple materials that cure at different

rates.[34]

Commercially available devices such as Objet Connex apply the resin via small nozzles.[34]

Printers

Industry use

As of October 2012, Stratasys, the result of a merger of an American and an Israeli company, nowsells additive manufacturing systems that range from $2,000 to $500,000; General Electric uses the

high-end model to build parts for turbines.[35]

Consumer use

Several projects and companies are making efforts to developaffordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this workhas been driven by and targeted at DIY/enthusiast/early adoptercommunities, with additional ties to the academic and hacker

communities.[36]

RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktopcategory. The RepRap project aims to produce a free and open

source hardware (FOSH)[37] 3D printer, whose fullspecifications are released under the GNU General PublicLicense, and which is capable of replicating itself by printing



MakerBot Cupcake CNC.

Printing in progress in a Ultimaker

3D printer during Mozilla Maker

party, Bangalore

Airwolf 3D AW3D v.4 (Prusa).

many of its own (plastic) parts to create more machines.[38][39]

RepRaps have already been shown to be able to print circuit

boards[40] and metal parts.[41][42]

Because of the FOSH aims of RepRap, many related projectshave used their design for inspiration, creating an ecosystem ofrelated or derivative 3D printers, most of which are also opensource designs. The availability of these open source designsmeans that variants of 3D printers are easy to invent. The qualityand complexity of printer designs, however, as well as thequality of kit or finished products, varies greatly from project toproject. This rapid development of open source 3D printers isgaining interest in many spheres as it enables hyper-customization and the use of public domain designs to fabricateopen source appropriate technology through conduits such asThingiverse and Cubify. This technology can also assistinitiatives in sustainable development since technologies areeasily and economically made from resources available to local

communities.[43][44]

The cost of 3D printers hasdecreased dramaticallysince about 2010, withmachines that used to cost$20,000 costing less than

$1,000.[45] For instance,as of 2013, severalcompanies and individualsare selling parts to buildvarious RepRap designs,with prices starting at

about 400 / US$500.[46]

The open source Fab@Home project[47] has developedprinters for general use with anything that can be squirtedthrough a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant andchemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have

been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in the US$2000

range.[46] The Kickstarter funded Peachy Printer is designed to cost $100[48] and several other new3D printers are aimed at the small, inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold.Professional grade 3D-printer crowdsourced costing $1499 is designed by Rapide 3D and has no

fumes nor constant rattle during use.[49] The 3D Doodler, "3D printing pen", raised USD 2.3 million

on Kickstarter with the pens selling at USD 99.[50] Though the 3D Doodler has been criticized for

being more of a crafting pen than a 3D printer.[51]

As the costs of 3D printers have come down they are becoming more appealing financially to use for

self-manufacturing of personal products.[8] In addition, 3D printing products at home may reduce the

environmental impacts of manufacturing by reducing material use and distribution impacts.[52]



In addition, several RecycleBots such as the commercialized Filastrucer have been designed andfabricated to convert waste plastic, such as shampoo containers and milk jugs, into inexpensive

RepRap filament.[53] There is some evidence that using this approach of distributed recycling is

better for the environment.[54]

The development and hyper-customization of the RepRap-based 3D printers has produced a newcategory of printers suitable for small business and consumer use. Manufacturers such as

Solidoodle,[35] RoBo, and RepRapPro have introduced models and kits priced at less than $1,000,

thousands less than they were in September 2012.[35] Depending on the application, the printresolution and speed of manufacturing lies somewhere between a personal printer and an industrial

printer. A list of printers with pricing and other information is maintained.[46] Most recently deltarobots, like the TripodMaker, have been utilized for 3D printing to increase fabrication speed

further.[55] For delta 3D printers, due to its geometry and differentiation movements, the accuracy of

the print depends on the position of the printer head.[56]

Some companies are also offering software for 3D printing, as a support for hardware manufactured

by other companies.[57]

Applications

Three-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single items as it is toproduce thousands and thus undermines economies of scale. It may have asprofound an impact on the world as the coming of the factory did....Just as nobodycould have predicted the impact of the steam engine in 1750or the printing pressin 1450, or the transistor in 1950it is impossible to foresee the long-term impact of3D printing. But the technology is coming, and it is likely to disrupt every field ittouches.

The Economist, in a February 10, 2011 leader[58]

Additive manufacturing's earliest applications have been on the toolroom end of the manufacturingspectrum. For example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its missionwas to reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was

earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods (typically slowly and expensively).[59] Withtechnological advances in additive manufacturing, however, and the dissemination of thoseadvances into the business world, additive methods are moving ever further into the production end

of manufacturing in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.[59] Parts that were formerly the soleprovince of subtractive methods can now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones.

Standard applications include design visualization, prototyping/CAD, metal casting, architecture,education, geospatial, healthcare, and entertainment/retail.



An example of 3D printed limited

edition jewellery. This necklace is

made of glassfiber-filled dyed

nylon. It has rotating linkages that

were produced in the same

manufacturing step as the other

parts.

Full color miniature face models

produced on a 3D Printer.

Printing going on with a 3D printer

at Makers Party Bangalore 2013,

Bangalore

Industrial uses

Rapid prototyping

Main article: rapid prototyping

Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s andhave been used extensively for rapid prototyping and researchpurposes. These are generally larger machines that useproprietary powdered metals, casting media (e.g. sand),plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for rapid prototypingby universities and commercial companies.

Rapid manufacturing

Advances in RP technology have introduced materials that areappropriate for final manufacture, which has in turn introducedthe possibility of directly manufacturing finished components.One advantage of 3D printing for rapid manufacturing lies in therelatively inexpensive production of small numbers of parts.

Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing andmany of its processes remain unproven. 3D printing is nowentering the field of rapid manufacturing and was identified as a

"next level" technology by many experts in a 2009 report.[60]

One of the most promising processes looks to be theadaptation of selective laser sintering (SLS), or direct metallaser sintering (DMLS) some of the better-established rapidprototyping methods. As of 2006, however, these techniqueswere still very much in their infancy, with many obstacles to beovercome before RM could be considered a realistic

manufacturing method.[61]

Mass customization

Companies have created services where consumers cancustomize objects using simplified web based customizationsoftware, and order the resulting items as 3D printed unique

objects.[62][63] This now allows consumers to create custom

cases for their mobile phones.[64] Nokia has released the 3Ddesigns for its case so that owners can customize their own

case and have it 3D printed.[65]

Mass production



CartesioLDMP mass production

3Dprinter

A MakerBot Replicator 2

The current slow print speed of 3D printers limits their use for mass production. To reduce thisoverhead, several fused filament machines now offer multipleextruder heads. These can be used to print in multiple colors,with different polymers, or to make multiple printssimultaneously. This increases their overall print speed duringmultiple instance production, while requiring less capital costthan duplicate machines since they can share a singlecontroller.

Distinct from the use of multiple machines, multi-materialmachines are restricted to making identical copies of the samepart, but can offer multi-color and multi-material features when

needed. The print speed increases proportionately to the number of heads. Furthermore, the energycost is reduced due to the fact that they share the same heated print volume. Together, these twofeatures reduce overhead costs.

Many printers now offer twin print heads. However, these are used to manufacture single (sets of)parts in multiple colors/materials.

Few studies have yet been done in this field to see if conventional subtractive methods arecomparable to additive methods.

Domestic and hobbyist use

As of 2012, domestic 3D printing has mainly captivatedhobbyists and enthusiasts and has not quite gained recognitionfor practical household applications. A working clock has been

made[66] and gears have been printed for home woodworking

machines[67] among other purposes.[68] 3D printing is alsoused for ornamental objects. Web sites associated with home3D printing tend to include backscratchers, coathooks,doorknobs etc.

As of 2013, 3D printers have been used to help animals. A 3D

printed foot let a crippled duckling walk again.[69] 3D printed stylish hermit crab shells let them inhabit

a new style home.[70] Printers have also made decorative pieces for humans such as necklaces,rings, bags etc.

The open source Fab@Home project[47] has developed printers for general use. They have beenused in research environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D printing technology,

including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of principle.[71] The printer canprint with anything that can be dispensed from a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of thechemical application envisage that this technology could be used for both industrial and domesticuse. Including, for example, enabling users in remote locations to be able to produce their own

medicine or household chemicals.[72][73]

The OpenReflex analog SLR camera was developed for 3D printing as an open source student

project.[74]



Clothing

3D printing has spread into the world of clothing with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-

printed bikinis, shoes, and dresses.[75] In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing toprototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American

football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.[75][76]

3D bio-printing

As of 2012, 3D bio-printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia forpossible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjettechniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and

slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.[77] The firstproduction system for 3D tissue printing, was delivered in 2009, based on NovoGen bioprinting

technology.[78] Several terms have been used to refer to this field of research: organ printing, bio-

printing, body part printing,[79] and computer-aided tissue engineering, among others.[80]

An early-stage medical laboratory and research company, called Organovo, designs and developsfunctional, three dimensional human tissue for medical research and therapeutic applications. Thecompany utilizes its NovoGen MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting. Organovo anticipates that thebioprinting of human tissues will accelerate the preclinical drug testing and discovery process,enabling treatments to be created more quickly and at lower cost. Additionally, Organovo has long-

term expectations that this technology could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation.[81]

3D printing for implant and medical device

3D printing has been used to print patient specific implant and device for medical use. Successfuloperations include a titanium pelvic implanted into a British patient, titanium lower jaw transplanted to

a Dutch patient,[citation needed] and a plastic tracheal splint for an American infant.[82] The hearing aidand dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D

printing technology.[83] In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the

face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.[84]

3D printing services

Some companies offer on-line 3D printing services open to both consumers and industries.[85] Suchservices require people to upload their 3D designs to the company website. Designs are then 3Dprinted using industrial 3D printers and either shipped to the customer or in some cases, the

consumer can pick the object up at the store.[86]

Research into new applications

Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment to create

open source labs [88][89] or other science-based applications like reconstructing fossils inpaleontology, replicating ancient and priceless artifacts in archaeology, reconstructing bones and



VLT component created using 3D

printing.[87]

body parts in forensic pathology, and reconstructing heavily damaged evidence acquired from crimescene investigations. The technology is also currently being researched for building

construction.[90][91][92][93][94]

In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible

artistic applications of 3D printing technology.[95] By 2007 themass media followed with an article in the Wall Street

Journal[96] and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed design

among their 100 most influential designs of the year.[97] Duringthe 2011 London Design Festival, an installation, curated byMurray Moss and focused on 3D Printing, was held in theVictoria and Albert Museum (the V&A). The installation was

called Industrial Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will

Newly Materialize.[98]

A proof-of-principle project at the University of Glasgow, UK, in2012 showed that it is possible to use 3D printing techniques tocreate chemical compounds, including new ones. They firstprinted chemical reaction vessels, then used the printer to squirt reactants into them as "chemical

inks" which would then react.[71] They have produced new compounds to verify the validity of the

process, but have not pursued anything with a particular application.[71] Cornell Creative Machines

Lab has confirmed that it is possible to produce customized food with 3D Hydrocolloid Printing.[99]

Professor Leroy Cronin of Glasgow University proposed, in a TED Talk that it should one day be

possible to use chemical inks to print medicine.[100]

The use of 3D scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use ofmoulding techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more difficult, or too invasive to be

performed, particularly for precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts[101] where direct contact withthe molding substances could harm the original object's surface.

An additional use being developed is building printing, or using 3D printing to build buildings. Thiscould allow faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of off-Earth

habitats.[90][102] For example, the Sinterhab project is researching a lunar base constructed by 3Dprinting using lunar regolith as a base material. Instead of adding a binding agent to the regolith,researchers are experimenting with microwave sintering to create solid blocks from the raw

material.[103]

Employing additive layer technology offered by 3D printing, Terahertz devices which act aswaveguides, couplers and bends have been created. The complex shape of these devices could notbe achieved using conventional fabrication techniques. Commercially available professional gradeprinter EDEN 260V was used to create structures with minimum feature size of 100 m. The printedstructures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other metal) to create a Terahertz

Plasmonic Device. [104]

China has committed almost $500 million towards the establishment of 10 national 3-D printing

development institutes.[105] In 2013, Chinese scientists began printing ears, livers and kidneys, withliving tissue. Researchers in China have been able to successfully print human organs using



specialized 3D bio printers that use living cells instead of plastic. Researchers at Hangzhou DianziUniversity actually went as far as inventing their own 3D printer for the complex task, dubbed theRegenovo which is a "3D bio printer." Xu Mingen, Regenovo's developer, said that it takes theprinter under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or a four to five inch ear cartilage sample.Xu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may be possible within the next ten to twenty

years.[106][107] In the same year, researchers at the University of Hasselt, in Belgium had successfullyprinted a new jawbone for an 83-year-old Belgian woman. The woman is now able to chew, speak

and breathe normally again after a machine printed her a new jawbone.[108]

In Bahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstone-like material has been used to create uniquecoral-shaped structures, which encourage coral polyps to colonize and regenerate damaged reefs.These structures have a much more natural shape than other structures used to create artificial reefs,

and have a neutral pH which concrete does not.[109]

Some of the recent developments in 3D printing were revealed at the 3DPrintshow in London, whichtook place in November 2013 and 2014. The art section had in exposition artworks made with 3Dprinted plastic and metal. Several artists such as Joshua Harker, Davide Prete, Sophie Kahn, HelenaLukasova, Foteini Setaki showed how 3D printing can modify aesthetic and art processes. One partof the show focused on ways in which 3D printing can advance the medical field. The underlyingtheme of these advances was that these printers can be used to create parts that are printed withspecifications to meet each individual. This makes the process safer and more efficient. One ofthese advances is the use of 3D printers to produce casts that are created to mimic the bones thatthey are supporting. These custom-fitted casts are open, which allow the wearer to scratch any itchesand also wash the damaged area. Being open also allows for open ventilation. One of the best

features is that they can be recycled to create more casts.[110] In December 2013, BAE Systems

fitted and successfully test flew a Panavia Tornado with parts made by 3D printing.[111]

Intellectual property

3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries and many legal regimes,including patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark can apply. However, there is notmuch jurisprudence to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream andindividuals and hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non profitdistribution, or for sale.

Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3d printing, orthe distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, a person would have tocontact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price.

Patents cover processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a finiteduration which varies between countries. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, orselling such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent. A report(http://www.patentinsightpro.com/techreports/0214/Tech%20Insight%20Report%20-%203D%20Printing.pdf) on analysis of patenting activity around 3D-Printing from 1990-Current.

Copyright covers an expression[112] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the



Copyright covers an expression[112] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the

author plus 70 years thereafter.[113] If someone makes a statue, they may have copyright on the lookof that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identicalor similar statue.

When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the questionhas appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be

separated from the functional aspects of the item.[113]

Effects of 3D printing

Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to beflexible, ever-improving users of all available technologies in order to remain competitive. Advocatesof additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counterglobalisation, as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy

products from other people and corporations.[17] The real integration of the newer additivetechnologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional

subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.[114]

Space exploration

As early as 2010, work began on applications of 3D printing in zero or low gravity environments.[115]

The primary concept involves creating basic items such as hand tools or other more complicateddevices "on demand" versus using valuable resources such as fuel or cargo space to carry the itemsinto space.

Additionally, NASA is conducting tests with company Made in Space to assess the potential of 3D

printing to make space exploration cheaper and more efficient.[116] Rocket parts built using thistechnology have passed NASA firing tests. In July 2013, two rocket engine injectors performed aswell as traditionally constructed parts during hot-fire tests which exposed them to temperaturesapproaching 6,000 degrees Fahrenheit (3,316 degrees Celsius) and extreme pressures. NASA isalso preparing to launch a 3D printer into space; the agency hopes to demonstrate that, with the

printer making spare parts on the fly, astronauts need not carry large loads of spares with them.[117]

Social change

Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth aboutthe social and cultural changes that might result from the advent of commercially-affordable additive

manufacturing technology.[118] Amongst the more notable ideas to have emerged from theseinquiries has been the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes,

so the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might get further eroded.[119]

Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designsfor new objects around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight services might also become

less.[120] Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to beseen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectualproperty rights with the new technology widely available.



Firearms

Main article: 3D printed firearms

In 2012, the U.S.-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic gun

that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."[121][122] DefenseDistributed has also designed a 3D printable AR-15 type rifle lower receiver (capable of lasting more

than 650 rounds) and a 30 round M16 magazine.[123] The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both anupper and lower receiver), but the legally-controlled part is the one that is serialized (the lower, in theAR-15's case). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first working blueprint toproduce a plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the United States Department of State

demanded that they remove the instructions from their website.[124]

After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D

printing and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[125][126] may have on gun control

effectiveness.[127][128][129][130]

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Joint Regional Intelligence Center released amemo stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability offree digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing maypresent public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns,"and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completelyprevent their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution ofthese 3D printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or

software files."[131]

Internationally, where gun controls are generally tighter than in the United States, some commentatorshave said the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative firearms are not as easily

obtainable.[132] European officials have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under

their gun control laws,[133] and that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but noted that

as the technology improved the risks of an effect would increase.[134][135] Downloads of the plans

from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.[136][137]

Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet of gun plans has been likened to the futility of

preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS which enabled DVD ripping.[138][139][140][141] Afterthe US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via

The Pirate Bay and other file sharing sites.[142] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on

3D printers, to prevent them being used for printing guns.[143][144] 3D printing advocates havesuggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and couldinfringe on free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor Hod Lipson suggesting that

gunpowder could be controlled instead.[145][146][147]

See also

3D modeling3D scanner3D Printing Marketplace



Additive Manufacturing File FormatList of common 3D test modelsList of emerging technologiesMass customizationMolecular assemblerOrgan-on-a-chipSelf-replicating machineTissue engineeringMilling (machining) computer controlled machine productionNumerical control DIY machine production

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