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NETWORK

Ajman University of Science and Technology NetworkInstitute of Environment, Water and Energy

First Semester 2010-2011

Environmental SciencesResources

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Energy Resources

United States

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Renewable energy Non-renewable energy Future availability

Net energy yield Cost Environmental effects

Energy Resources

Energy Resources in theWorld

NaturalGas23%

Coal22%

Biomass12%

Oil

30%

Nuclear power6%

Hydropower,geothermal,Solar, wind

7%

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Energy Resources

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Energy Resources

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Energy Resources

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Energy Resources

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Energy Resources

Energy Sources. Primary sources of energy are fossil fuelssuch as oil, natural gas, coal, and to a lesser extent,nuclear by fission of radioactive elements (in Francehowever, majority of electricity is produced by nuclear), solarin direct heating, in photovoltaic cells, rivers that providehydroelectricity which in certain regions such as the UnitedStates Pacific Northwest and in Norway and Sweden is verysignificant (note that it is the solar energy that actually"drives" the rivers), wind for turning turbines to generate

electricity, geothermal, biomass, and possibly oil shale inthe future.

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Energy Resources

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Energy Resources

Energy use over the next two decades is expected toincrease significantly throughout the world, with highestgrowth rates in Asia. By the year 2015 world energy demandis projected to be around 562 quadrillion Btu or 593x109Giga Joules. This growth represents more than a 50%increase over the consumption in 1995. Two-thirds of thisincrease in energy consumption is expected to be due to thedeveloping countries concentrated mostly in Asia whereenergy growth is projected to be on an average of 4.2%

annually, while for industrialized economies it is projected tobe 1.3%.

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Energy Resources

Other than nuclear power, all sources of energy areprojected to grow: Oiluse is expected to exceed 100 millionbarrels per day by 2015 which is a growth of 50% over 1995.Coal use is projected to be in excess of 7.3 billion ST or 6.6billion MT or Mega Grams by 2015 on a world wide basis,compared to 5.1 billion ST or 4.6 billion MT or Mega Gramsin 1995. Natural gas usage is expected to increase at 3.1%annually and by 2015 and is projected to be the principalfossil fuel for the world.

Due to these tremendous increases in fossil fuel usage worldwide, the carbon emissions to the atmosphere are expectedto increase by about 60% by 2015 over the 1990 level.

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Energy Resources

Oil, Natural gas, and coal are the three (fossil) fuels that areabundantly used. These fuels are remains (fossils) of lifeforms such as marine organisms and plant life, thatflourished on our planet millions of years ago. Thisenergy is thus a stored form of solar energy thataccumulated over millions of years, and at the current andprojected rates of consumption, fossil fuels will be used up ina fraction of time compared to the time it took to collect the

energy from the sun.

Fossil Fuels

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Anticline, fault, salt dome, and stratigraphic traps

III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Common oil traps

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Petroleum resources occur in most part of the world to somedegree, however, the major commercially valuable resources occurin relatively few locations where geological conditions wereappropriate for the formation and storage of these fuelsunderground. It is believed that petroleum was formed from

deposits of plant and animal remains since petroleum deposits arefound almost exclusively in sedimentary rock formations laid downmillions of years ago when plant life flourished.

Petroleum is a mixture of a number of hydrocarbons with somesulfur, nitrogen and organo-metallic compounds also present. A

number of processing steps are involved in producing the varioushigh value salable fuel streams such as gasoline, diesel and jetfuel from the petroleum.

1. Oil

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Petroleum resources, both liquid and gaseous, have become themajor sources of energy in many countries because of theavailability and convenience of these fuels for both transportationengines and

Oil which contains more than 300 molecular species needs to beatomized (less than 10 microns to provide large surface area), andwithin the combustor it has to vaporize and mix before combustioncan occur.

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Oil transportation is not a very safe process.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

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Natural gas like petroleum is generally believed to be derived fromdeposits of plant and animal remains from millions of years ago.Natural gas may be found along with oil or by itself as in many gasfields where little or no oil is found.

Natural gas as supplied is the cleanest fuel with sulfur removed(except for small amounts of odorants added), no ash and onlymolecular nitrogen, and a high hydrogen to carbon (H/C) ratiowhich minimizes the greenhouse gas CO

2emission. Along with

methane which is by far the major combustible constituent ofnatural gas, other light hydrocarbons, namely ethane, propane,

and butane are present in the natural gas. Raw natural gas maycontain CO

2and sometimes N

2which have no heating value.

2. Natural Gas

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CO2

is typically removed from the natural gas while ethane,propane, and butane are usually removed and marketedseparately as special fuels. A number of other elements andcompounds are also found in natural gas such as, H

2, H

2S and He.

H2S is also removed from the natural gas before it is pipelined for

sale.

About 900 of the next 1000 US power plants will use naturalgas? Domestically produced and readily available to end-usersthrough the existing utility infrastructure, natural gas has alsobecome increasingly popular as an alternative transportation fuel.

Natural gas is clean burning and produces significantly fewerharmful emissions than reformulated gasoline. Natural gas caneither be stored on board a vehicle in tanks as compressed naturalgas (CNG) or cryogenically cooled to a liquid state, liquefiednatural gas (LNG).

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Coal was formed from plant life under the action of immensepressures and temperatures prevailing within the earth's crust overa period encompassing millions of years. The major elementspresent in the "organic portion" of coal are carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. Sulfur (mostly as iron pyrite) is alsopresent as part of the "inorganic portion" or ash in the coal alongwith oxides of alumina, silica, iron, alkaline earths and alkalis. Coalalso contains some chlorine. Coal is classified into the followingfour types according to the degree of metamorphism:

3. Coal

anthracite which is low in volatile matter (which forms tars, oils

and gasses when coal is heated) and consists of mostly carbon(fixed carbon)

bituminous which contains significant amounts of the volatilematter and typically exhibit swelling or caking properties whenheated

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Coal has a very complex structure and being a solid is moredifficult to burn. Coal combustion undergoes de-volatilization andcombustion of the released gases, char combustion and fly ashformation which are particles 10 microns in size (the low visibilityaround certain coal fired power plants is due to the fly ash).

One quarter of the worlds coal reserves are found within theUnited States, and the energy content of the US coal resourcesexceeds that of all the worlds known recoverable oil.

sub-bituminousis a younger coal and contains in addition

to the volatile matter, significant amounts of moisture

lignite is the youngest form of coal (when peat is notincluded in the broader definition of coal types) and is veryhigh in moisture content resulting in a much lower heatingvalue than the other types of coal.

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Locations of coal ore in the United States


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Coal is also the workhorse of the nations electric power

industry, supplying more than half the electricityconsumed by Americans.

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Coal Formation


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The most extensive deposits of oil shale are found in what useto be large shallow lakes and seas millions of years ago,where subtropical, stagnant conditions were favorable for thegrowth and accumulation of algae, spores and pollen. Theorganic solids in oil shale rock are a wax like material called

kerogen. The kerogen is extracted by heating in retorts in theabsence of air where the kerogen decomposes forming oil,gas, water and some carbon residue. Production of gasolineor jet fuel from the oil produced from the oil shale, howeverrequires more extensive processing than most petroleum. The

shale oil also contains more nitrogen than petroleum doeswhich if left in the fuels produced from the shale oil wouldresult in significant NOx emissions.

The U.S. has significant deposits of oil shale concentrated inColorado and Utah.

4. Oil Shale

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Oil Shale and Tar Sands


Above Ground

Conveyor

Conveyor

Spent shale

Pipeline

Retort

Mined oil shale

Aircompressors

Shale oilstorage

Impuritiesremoved

Hydrogenadded

Crude oil Refinery

Airinjection

Shale layer

Underground

Sulfur and nitrogencompounds

Shale oil pumped to surface

Shale heated to vaporized kerogen, which is condensed to provide shale oil

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The production of nuclear energy by fission involves theconversion of matter to energy in which an exceedingly largeamount of energy is released. The nuclear reactions generatean excess of neutrons which permits a chain reaction toproceed making it possible to design nuclear reactors in

which self-sustaining reactions occur with the continuousrelease of energy.

Fusion of light nuclei, like those of hydrogen, into heavierelements is also an energy producing process. However,nuclear fusion is still in the research phase and only nuclear

fission has been commercially practiced.

The heat generated in nuclear fission reactors is transferredto a working fluid, typically water and the steam thusproduced powers a steam turbine.

5. Nuclear

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Two principal reactor types are the pressurized water reactors

(PWR) and the boiling water reactors (BWR). In a PWR, heatgenerated in the nuclear core is removed heavy watercirculating at high pressure through the primary circuit andperforms both cooling and moderation of the reactor. Heat istransferred from the primary to the secondary system in a

boiler to generate steam. In the BWR the boiling takes place inthe reactor itself.

Safety of the reactors in terms of release of radioactivematerials to the environment has been a major issue. On theother hand, nuclear energy does not generate any greenhouse

gasses like the fossil fuel fired plants do. Disposal andmanagement of the radioactive spent fuel from nuclearreactors is a major challenge and has been an impediment toits wide spread use in many countries. Some countries suchas France, however, have a majority of their electricitygenerated by nuclear fission.

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Nuclear Energy

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Nuclear Energy

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NuclearExplosion

Nuclear

Power Plant

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NuclearPower Plants

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Chernobyl Disaster

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III. A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

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Thanks

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III.B Renewable Energy Resources

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III.-Renewable Energy Resources

One of the energy resources available to us is the organicwaste material generated by humans and animals andincludes paper, plastics, wood, animal dung, plant stalks andfibers, and food residues. These residues in many instancespose a disposal problem and also have a significant heatingvalue. Biomass may be combusted in specially designed

boilers, or gasified to generate a gas that could be utilized togenerate power in internal combustion engines or fuel cells.Combustion or gasification of waste streams that containchlorine compounds could, however, produce highly toxicpollutants such as dioxins and furans and proper design

measures should be taken to limit these emissions.

Biomass derived energy accounted for 3.02 quadrillion Btu (or3.19x109 Giga Joules) or 3.2% of the total energyconsumption in the U.S. in 19961.

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The term biomass means any plant derived organic matteravailable on a renewable basis, including dedicated energycrops and trees, agricultural food and feed crops,agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and

residues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes,and other waste materials.

Bioenergy technologies use renewable biomass resourcesto produce an array of energy related products includingelectricity, liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels, heat, chemicals,

and other materials. Bioenergy ranks second (tohydropower) in renewable US primary energy productionand accounts for 3% of the primary energy production inthe United States.

1. Biomass Energy

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III. Renewable Energy Resources

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Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It is cleanand sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy rangefrom the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found afew miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even

deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rockcalled magma.

Geothermal energy is the heat energy stored within the earth'scrust, hot springs and geysers providing evidence of thisstored energy. Until the beginning of this century, the

utilization of geothermal heat has been limited to the use ofwarm water as in several Roman baths in England andgeothermal hot springs began to enjoy wide use through outthe world as therapeutic treatment. More extensive use hasbeen made of geothermal energy for both power and non-

power applications in more recent times.

2. Geothermal Energy

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Typically, the useful geothermal heat for electric power

generation is available in the form of a hot brine withtemperatures ranging from 300 to 400 deg F or 150 to 200 degC.

The principle characteristics of geothermal electric generatingplants as compared to a fossil plant are that (1) significantly

larger flow of steam is required by a geothermal plant toproduce a KW of electrical power because of the significantlylower steam pressure, (2) the small output of an individualgeothermal plant which is limited by the availability of the , and(3) the number of different systems may be employed for the

extraction of steam from geothermal sources. For example, theheat contained in the hot geothermal brine may be recovered assteam by flashing the brine to a lower pressure and eitherutilizing the steam directly in a steam turbine or by transferringthe heat to a second working fluid to produce power by

expansion in a turbine.

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Geothermal energy accounted for 0.34 quadrillion Btu (or

0.36x109 Giga Joules) or 0.36% of the total energyconsumption in the U.S. in 19961.

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HowGeothermal

Energy Works?

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Geothermal Reservoirs


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Geothermal Energy in the United States

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3. Hydrogen Cells

If a hydrogen economy is to develop within the next 25 to50 years, lower cost options for producing hydrogen froma wide variety of sources must be aggressively pursued.Today, most hydrogen in the United States, and about halfof the world's hydrogen supply, is produced from natural

gas.

bl

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Extracting hydrogen efficiently Storing hydrogen Fuel cells


Coal,

nuclear,solar, wind, orgeothermal

Powerplants

Electricity,heat,

or light Decompositionof water H2

Storageand

transport

Wasteheat

Usablehigh-quality

energy

Combustion

Theenvironment

Watervapor2H2O 2H2 + O2

2H2 + O2 2H2O

III B R bl E R

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Although natural gas will likely provide the earliest

affordable feedstock for hydrogen, today's costs areprohibitively expensive. To bring down costs, currentresearch effort focuses on extracting fuel-grade hydrogenfrom natural gas and coal, as well as producing hydrogenthrough the use of nuclear energy technology.

Hydrogen fuel is produced by heating or passing electricitythrough water in the presence of a catalyst. Water breaksdown into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that could replace gaseous and liquid fuels. Itis easy to transport but is explosive. Electricity needed to

make hydrogen could be generated from solar energy,wind energy, or hydroelectric facilities. The prospects forhydrogen are questionable today because of its negativeenergy yield.

III B R bl E R

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4. Hydropower

Hydroelectric power is renewable, creates no air pollution,and is relatively inexpensive. Sediment fills in reservoirs,however, giving them an average lifespan of 50 to 100

years. The potential for hydroelectric power is limited inthe developed countries, because the best sites have

already been developed or are located far from populationcenters where the energy is needed. In the developingnations sites capable of producing large amounts ofenergy are available, but high construction costs mayimpair their development.

Hydroelectric power facilities in the United States cangenerate enough power to supply 28 million householdswith electricity, the equivalent of nearly 500 millionbarrels of oil. The total US hydropower capacity is about95,000 megawatts.

III A N R bl E R

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The harnessing of energy of flowing water by turning water

wheels for grinding of grain was practiced as early as Romantimes. This resource became important in more modern timeswith the development of efficient electric generators andtransmission technology which allowed the location ofhydroelectric plants several hundred miles from the energy

users.The energy that may be recovered from flowing waterdepends on the quantity of flow of water and the heightthrough which the water can be made to fall from thereservoir to a hydraulic turbine. The construction of diversion

and storage dams for hydroelectric power plants requiressuitable topography and other site conditions, and a steepdrop in the elevation of the river. Construction ofhydroelectric plant is capital intensive but the operating costsare low since there are no fuel costs associated with a

hydroelectric plant.

III B R bl E R

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Hydropower

III B R bl E R

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Hydropower

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HydroelectricDam

III B Renewable Energy Resources

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Researchers are working on advanced turbine technologies

that will not only help maximize the use of hydropower, butalso minimize adverse environmental effects.


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5. Solar Energy

Approximately 1.55 x 10l8 KW hours of solar energy reach theearth's outer atmosphere annually. Approximately a third of thisenergy is reflected back into space and some absorbed by theatmosphere while approximately half reaches the earth'ssurface. Actually, wind, waves, rivers and ocean thermal

gradients are all the various forms of solar energy, as they existin nature. The form that is being harnessed more and more inrecent times is the photosynthetic radiation for direct use forheating or conversion into electricity using solar cells.

Solar energy accounted for 0.07 quadrillion Btu (or 0.074 x109

Giga Joules) or .075% of the total energy consumption in theU.S. in 1996.


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Solar Energy


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Developing technologies that take advantage of the clean

abundant energy of the sun is important to reducinggreenhouse gasses. Examples of solar technologies beingdeveloped by the US Department of Energy and Industryare:

Photovoltaic cells

Concentration solar power Low-temperature solar collectors

Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricityand are made of semiconductors such as crystalline siliconor various thin-film materials. Photovoltaic cells can providetiny amounts of power for watches, large amounts for theelectric grid, and everything in between.

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Using Solar Energy to Provide Heat and Electricity

Passive solar heatingActive solar heating


PASSIVE

Stone floor and wallfor heat storage

Superwindow

Wintersun

Summersun

Heavyinsulation

Superwindow

Hot

Watertank

Pump

Heatexchanger

Super-window

Heat to house(radiators orforced air duct)

ACTIVE

Heavyinsulation


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5. Solar Energy


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5. Solar Energy


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5. Solar Energy

R bl E C t T d

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Renewable Energy Cost Trends

Levelized cents/kWh in constant $20001

Wind

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

PV

COEcents/kWh

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

40

30

20

10

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

BiomassGeothermal Solar thermal

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

COEc

ents/kWh

10

8

6

4

2

0

70

60

50

40

3020

10

0

15

12

9

6

3

0

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Concentrating solar power technologies use reflective

materials to concentrate the sun's heat energy, whichultimately drives a generator to produce electricity. Thesetechnologies include dish/engine systems, parabolictroughs, and central power towers.

Low-temperature solar collectors also absorb the sun's

heat energy, but the heat is used directly for hot water orspace heating for residential, commercial, and industrialfacilities.

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5. Wind

Wind energy uses the energy in the wind for generatingelectricity, charging batteries, pumping water, or grindinggrain. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the windinto other forms of energy. Large, modern wind turbinesoperate together in wind farms to produce electricity for

utilities. Small turbines are used by homeowners andremote villages to help meet energy needs.

A portion (approximately 25,800 KW hours annually) of thetotal solar energy falling on the earth, is converted into motionof air. A small fraction of this energy resource is currently

being harnessed. Winds only in certain speed ranges,however, may be harnessed at the current time.

The distribution of wind is not uniform over the earth, windresources are higher in polar and temperate zones than intropical zones and also higher in coastal areas than inland.

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The wind energy is harnessed by installing rotating machines

(typically propellers) that are connected to electric generators.Because of friction losses, wind power machines usually donot operate at wind velocities much lower than 10 miles/hour,while with winds of gale force the rotors of wind machines areusually feathered to prevent damage.

Wind derived energy accounted for 0.04 quadrillion Btu (or0.042x109 Giga Joules) or .043% of the total energyconsumption in the U.S. in 19961.

III -Renewable Energy Resources

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III. Renewable Energy Resources

Wind Energy

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Producing Electricity from Wind

III.-Renewable Energy Resources

Power cable

Electricalgenerator

Gearbox

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Tidal Energy

Thank you

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Thank you

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NETWORK

Mineral Resources

C Mineral Resources

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C. Mineral Resources

Types of mineral resources Formation and location of mineral resources Extraction and processing of mineral resources Increasing supplies of mineral resources

Major types, acquisition, advantages, and disadvantagesof fuel resources

Key Concepts

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Nature and Formation of Mineral Resources

Mineral resources

Metallic Non-metallic

Energy resources Magma Hydrothermal Weathering


Reserve Ore

Existence

Decreasing certainty Known

Dec

reasingcostofextraction

Otherresources

Reserves

Undiscovered Identified

Not

economical

Economical

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Mineral resources

Orerefers to useful metallic minerals thatcan be mined at a profit and in commonusage to some nonmetallic minerals such as

fluorite and sulfur To be considered of value, an element must

be concentrated above the level of itsaverage crustal abundance


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Finding Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

Satellite imageryAerial sensors (magnetometers) Gravity differences

Core sampling Seismic surveys Chemical analysis of water and plants


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Removing Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

1. Surface mining

Overburden Spoil Open-pit Dredging Strip mining

2. Subsurface mining

Room and Pillar Longwall


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Mineral resources and igneous processes

Some of the most important accumulations ofmetals are produced by igneous processes thatconcentrate the desirable materials

Examples of igneous mineral resources Magmatic segregation

Separation of heavy minerals that crystallizeearly or enrichment of rare elements in theresidual melt

Diamonds

Originate at great depths

Crystals are disseminated in ultramafic rockcalled kimberlite


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Mineral resources and igneous processes

Hydrothermal solutions

Among the best known and important oredeposits

Majority originate from hot, metal rich fluids thatare remnants of late-stage magmatic processes

Move along fractures, cools, and precipitates themetallic ions to produce vein deposits


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Hydrothermal solutions

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Mineral resources and metamorphic rocks

Many of the most important metamorphic oredeposits are produced by contact metamorphism

Sphalerite (zinc) (Zn, Fe)S

Galena (lead)

Chalcopyrite (copper) CuFeS2


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Mineral resources and metamorphic rocks Regional metamorphism can also generate useful

deposits

Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

Graphite (C )


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Weathering and ore deposits Secondary enrichment concentrating metals

into economically valuable concentrations

Bauxite

Principal ore of aluminum

Forms in rainy tropical climates from chemicalweathering and the removal of undesirableelements by leaching


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Weathering and ore deposits Other deposits, such as many copper and silver

deposits, result when weathering concentratesmetals that are deposited through a low-gradeprimary ore

Placer deposits Placers deposits formed when heavy metals are

mechanically concentrated by currents Involve heavy and durable minerals Examples include

Gold

Platinum Diamonds


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Nonmetallic mineral resources

Use of the word mineral is very broad

Two common groups

Building materials

Natural aggregate (crushed stone, sand, andgravel)

Gypsum (plaster and wallboard)

Clay (tile, bricks, and cement)

Nonmetallic mineral resources

Two common groups Industrial minerals

Fertilizers

Sulfur

Salt


C Mineral Resources

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Thanks

3. b.+ c. resources

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