2.a. kuliah (irrigationhistoryindonesia)

Jakarta, August 2004

Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures

in Collaboration with:The Indonesian National Committee of

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

A. Hafied A. GanySyaiful Mahdi

Effendi Pasandaran

FRONT COVER:

The golden scene of Irrigation based rice terrace in West

Sumatra Province, at the crop maturity stage, just before

harvesting. It represents the existence of one of the ancient

irrigation based agricultural practices in Indonesia since the

prehistoric era.

All materials contained in this book may not be copied or reproduced fully

or partly in any forms without permission.

The Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures in

collaboration with The Indonesian National Committee of International Commission on

Irrigation and Drainage – ICID

“Irrigation History of Indonesia”

ISBN: 979-96442-3-2May 10, 2004

Prepared by :

A. Hafied A.Gany, Ph.D. (Coordinator);

Syaiful Mahdi (Member);

Effendi Pasandaran, Ph.D. (Member);

Iskandar Andi Yusuf (EDP Specialist);

Budianto (Executive Secretary).

(All Right Reserved)

First Edition, 2004


Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Cover

History in Brief

MSRI and INACIDIrrigation History of Indonesia

Cover List of ContentHistory in Brief

IRRIGATION HISTORY OF INDONESIA

A. Hafied A. Gany Syaiful Mahdi

Effendi Pasandaran

Ministry of Settlement and Regional

Infrastructures in Collaboration with:

The Indonesian National Committee of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage


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LIST OF CONTENT Page


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List of Content .............................................................................................................. ii List of Table ................................................................................................................. vii List of Figure ................................................................................................................ x List of Photograph ........................................................................................................ xii Foreword from the Minister of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures .................... xvi Preface by the Editors................................................................................................... xviii Indonesia’s History in Brief ......................................................................................... xxiii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1.1. General Overview ................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Geography and Other Related Characteristics ..................................................... 4

1.2.1. Indonesia Standard Time ........................................................................... 5 1.2.2. Territorial Waters and Exclusive Economic Zone ..................................... 5

1.3. Physiography, Climate And Weather................................................................... 5 1.3.1. The Main Seasons ...................................................................................... 5 1.3.2. Annual Rainfall .......................................................................................... 6 1.3.3. Temperature and Humidity ........................................................................ 6 1.3.4. Vulcanoes................................................................................................... 6 1.3.5. Water Resources, Rivers and Lakes........................................................... 6

1.4. Agriculture ........................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1. Role of Agriculture .................................................................................... 7 1.4.2. Policy and Strategy .................................................................................... 7 1.4.3. Productivity ................................................................................................ 8 1.4.4. Forestry ...................................................................................................... 8 1.4.5. Irrigation..................................................................................................... 9 1.4.6. ICID and Indonesia .................................................................................... 9

1.5. Historical Overview of Irrigation Development .................................................. 10 1.5.1. Ancient History .......................................................................................... 10 1.5.2. The Hindu Era ............................................................................................ 10 1.5.3. The Islamic Kingdoms ............................................................................... 11 1.5.4. Traditional Agricultural Heritages ............................................................. 11 1.5.5. The Colonial Era ........................................................................................ 12 1.5.6. The Ethical Policy (Ethische Politiek) ....................................................... 14 1.5.7. The Period after Proclamation of Independence........................................ 15 1.5.8. Highlights of Irrigation and Water Resources Works after Proclamation

of Independence ......................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER II. EARLY TIME AND PRE COLONIAL ERA 2.1. The Story of Rice ................................................................................................. 25 2.2. The Javanese Hindu Folklore of Rice ................................................................... 26 2.3. The Origin of Rice ................................................................................................ 27 2.4. Upland Rice Field ................................................................................................. 28 2.5. Lowland Rice (Wetland Rice Field) ..................................................................... 29 2.6. Simple Irrigation System ...................................................................................... 30 2.7. Rainfed Rice Field ................................................................................................ 31


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2.8. Irrigation Schemes for Lowland Rice ................................................................... 31 2.9. The Gogo Rancah (Agricultural Practice) ............................................................ 33 2.10. Swamp Rice (Local Rice Variety Grown on Swamp land) ................................. 34

CHAPTER III. THE INFLUX OF INDIAN CULTURE

3.1. The Pre-Hindu Era ............................................................................................... 37 3.2. The First Technical Irrigation Structure............................................................... 38 3.3. The Oldest Irrigation Structure on Java Island .................................................... 39 3.4. The Kali Brantas River and Mount Kelud ........................................................... 40 3.5. The Birth of King Hayam Wuruk ....................................................................... 41 3.6. The First Rehabilitation Work on Irrigation ........................................................ 42 3.7. The Salient Feature of Irrigation on Java During The Hindu Era........................ 42 3.8. Ancient Irrigation Technical Staff ....................................................................... 43 3.9. Subak Ancient Irrigation Organization in Bali .................................................... 43 3.10. The Islamic and Western Influence...................................................................... 46 3.10.1. The Fall of Majapahit Hindu Emperor..................................................... 46 3.10.2. The Emergence of Islamic Kingdom ....................................................... 46 3.11. Pre Colonial Era ................................................................................................... 47 3.11.1. Arrival of Portugese People ..................................................................... 47 3.11.2. Arrival of Dutch Trade Mission............................................................... 47 3.11.3. Invasion of Sultan Agung Against The VOC Dutch Trading Company . 48 3.11.4. Confrontation of VOC with The King of Gowa ...................................... 49 3.11.5. The Struggle of Untung Surapati ............................................................. 49 3.11.6. Situation of The Outer Islands and Disbandment of VOC ...................... 50 3.11.7. Diponegoro War (The Java War)............................................................. 51

CHAPTER IV. THE BEGINNING OF DUTCH COLONIAL ERA 4.1. Compulsory Agricultural Policy ......................................................................... 53 4.2. The Period of Governor General Daendels ........................................................ 53 4.3. Governor Liutenant General Raffles (1811-1816) ............................................. 54 4.4. Major Principles of Compulsory Agricultural Policy......................................... 54 4.5. Implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy .......................................... 55 4.6. Construction of Early Irrigation Weirs on Java Island ....................................... 56 4.7. The First Sugar Factories.................................................................................... 57 4.8. Development of Sugar Factories on Java ........................................................... 59 4.9. The Impacts of Daendels’ Trans Java Road Construction.................................. 60 4.10. Early Development Growth During colonial Period .......................................... 62 4.11. Problems Associated with East Semarang and Demak Region ........................ 63

4.11.1. The Islamic Kingdom of Demak............................................................ 63 4.11.2. Condition after Arrival of the Dutch....................................................... 63 4.11.3. Reservoir Alternatif................................................................................. 64

4.12. Establishment of The Ministry of public Works ................................................ 64 4.12.1. Background Demand for Institutional Setup........................................... 64 4.12.2. Establishment of the Ministry of Public Works ..................................... 65 4.12.3. Staggered Planting System...................................................................... 68 4.12.4. Establishment of Irrigation District......................................................... 68


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CHAPTER V. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT DURING COLONIAL ERA AFTER WORLD WAR-I

5.1. Development of Irrigation System...................................................................... 71 5.2. Construction of Irrigation Schemes and Dams................................................... 72 5.2.1. Irrigation Network .................................................................................... 72 5.2.2. Discharge Measurement Devices ............................................................. 75 5.2.3. Construction of Dams ............................................................................... 76 5.3. Decentralization of Irrigation Management........................................................ 76 5.3.1. Decentralization........................................................................................ 76 5.3.2. Establishment of Irrigation Management Board (IMB) ........................... 77 5.4. Participation of Irrigation Beneficiaries in O&M............................................... 77 5.5. Irrigation During The Japanese Occupation ....................................................... 78 5.6. Land Tax System ................................................................................................ 79 5.6.1. Period From1900 to 1942 ......................................................................... 79 5.6.2. Land Tax during the Period of Japanese Occupation ............................... 80

CHAPTER VI. MODERN TIME

6.1. Societal and Agriculture Situation...................................................................... 81 6.1.1. Population ................................................................................................. 81 6.1.2. Contribution of Agriculture Development to Gross Domestic Product ... 84 6.1.3. Growth of Irrigated Agricultural Area...................................................... 85 6.1.4. Irrigation and Water Resources Policy Reform........................................ 94 6.2. Land Tenure and Management ........................................................................... 104 6.2.1. Land Tenure.............................................................................................. 104 6.2.2. Expansion and Reclamation of Irrigated Agricultural Land..................... 106 6.2.3. Classification and Unit of Irrigation System Measurement ..................... 108 6.2.4. Land Tax System ...................................................................................... 111 6.3. Development and Management of Irrigation...................................................... 114 6.3.1. Development of Irrigation Schemes ......................................................... 114 6.3.2. Management of Irrigation Schemes.......................................................... 120 6.4. Observation of Water Resources Meteorology................................................... 128 6.4.1. Early Condition of Hydro-Climatic Observation in Indonesia................. 128 6.4.2. Observation and Climate Measurement System....................................... 129 6.4.3. Rainfall Station Distribution..................................................................... 129 6.4.4. Discharge Measurement ........................................................................... 132 6.5. Development Overview of Irrigation Main Structures....................................... 134 6.5.1. Intake Structure......................................................................................... 135 6.5.2. Canal ......................................................................................................... 137 6.5.3. Water Lifting Device ................................................................................ 138 6.5.4. Flood Prevention Infrastructure................................................................ 138

CHAPTER VII. EXAMPLES WATER RESOURCES AND

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 7.1. General................................................................................................................ 141 7.2. North Sumatra Province ..................................................................................... 141 7.2.1. Overview of North Sumatra Province ...................................................... 141 7.2.2. Example of Irrigation System Development in North Sumatra................ 142


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7.3. West Sumatra Province....................................................................................... 146 7.3.1. Overview of West Sumatra Province ....................................................... 146 7.3.2. Example of Irrigation System Development in West Sumatra................. 149 7.4. Lampung Province.............................................................................................. 152 7.4.1. Overview of Lampung Province............................................................... 152 7.4.2. Example of Irrigation System Development in Lampung Province......... 153 7.5. West Java Province............................................................................................. 158 7.5.1. Overview of West Java Province.............................................................. 158 7.5.2. Example of Irrigation System Development in West Java ...................... 159 7.6. Central Java Province ......................................................................................... 162 7.6.1. Overview of Central Java ........................................................................ 162 7.6.2. Example of Irrigation Development in Central Java ................................ 163 7.7. East Java Province .............................................................................................. 169 7.7.1. Overview of East Java Province ............................................................... 169 7.7.2. Example of Irrigation Development in East Java ..................................... 169 7.8. Bali Province ...................................................................................................... 174 7.8.1. Overview of Bali Province ....................................................................... 174 7.8.2. Examples of Irrigation Development in Balis .......................................... 175 7.9. West Nusa Tenggara Province; Lombok Island ................................................. 177 7.9.1. Overview of Lombok Island..................................................................... 177 7.9.2. Examples of Irrigation Development in Lombok..................................... 178 7.10. South Kalimantan Province ................................................................................ 181 7.10.1. Overview of South Kalimantan Province ............................................... 181 7.10.2. Examples of Irrigation System Development......................................... 181 7.11. South Sulawesi Province .................................................................................... 189 7.11.1. Overview of South Sulawesi Province ................................................... 189 7.11.2. Examples of Irrigation Development in South Sulawesi Province ........ 190 7.12. Ground Water Development............................................................................... 192 7.12.1. Tube-well Management .......................................................................... 193 7.12.2. Tube-well Operation and Maintenance .................................................. 194 7.13. Flood Control Works .......................................................................................... 194 7.13.1. Semarang Flood Control......................................................................... 195 7.13.2. Demak Plain Flood Control .................................................................... 196

CHAPTER VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................... 203 8.1. General Overview............................................................................................... 203 8.1.1. Water Resources ....................................................................................... 203 8.1.2. Agriculture................................................................................................ 203 8.2. Historical Overview of Irrigation Development................................................. 204 8.2.1. Ancient History......................................................................................... 204 8.2.2. The Hindu Era........................................................................................... 205 8.2.3. Traditional Agricultural Heritages............................................................ 205 8.2.4. The Ancient Hydraulic Structures ............................................................ 206 8.2.5. The Colonial Era....................................................................................... 207 8.2.6. Establishment of Ministry of Public Works ............................................. 210

8.2.7. Decentralization of Irrigation Management.............................................. 212 8.2.8. Post Independence Period......................................................................... 215

8.2.9. Period from Independence (1945) to the First Five Year Development .. 220


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8.3. Development Overview of Irrigation Main Structures....................................... 221 8.3.1. Intake Structures ....................................................................................... 221 8.3.2. Canal ......................................................................................................... 222 8.3.3. Water Lifting Device ................................................................................ 223 8.3.4. Flood Prevension Infrastructure ............................................................... 223 8.4. Present Status of Irrigation in Indonesia............................................................. 224 8.4.1. Present Status............................................................................................ 224 8.4.2. Irrigation and Water Resources Policy Reform........................................ 225 8.5. Non Technical Aspect of Irrigation Development and Management ................. 226 8.5.1. Socio-cultural, and Economic Adaptations of Traditional Irrigation ....... 226 8.5.2. Irrigation Based Transmigration Implementation .................................... 226 8.5.3. Lawland Development.............................................................................. 227 8.6. Closing Remarks................................................................................................. 228 8.7. The Way Foreward ............................................................................................. 229

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 233

SUPLEMENT PAPER 1. The Ancient Irrigated-Agricultural Heritages in Indonesia ......................................... 243 By: A. Hafied A. Gany 2. Subak Irrigation System in Bali ................................................................................... 257 By: A. Hafied A. Gany 3. “Tudang Sipulung” As The Indigenous Irrigated Agricultural Herritage in South

Sulawesi Province ....................................................................................................... 277 By: A. Hafied A. Gany 4. Traditional Irrigation Herritages in West Sumatera .................................................... 285 By: A. Hafied A. Gany 5. Brief Review of Irrigation Water Management Studies During Colonial Period ....... 293 By: Effendi Pasandaran 6. An Outline Review of Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia ......... 301 By: A. Hafied A. Gany 7. An Outline Review of Lowland Development in Indonesia ....................................... 321 Edited And Translated By: A. Hafied A. Gany 8. Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir .............................................................................. 341 By: Syaiful Mahdi 9. Bengawan Solo River Basin Development ................................................................. 347 By: Syaiful Mahdi

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Table 5.1. Irrigation development projects completed and being implemented up to 1930 .................................................................................................................. 72

Table 5.2. Sub-systems of Kumisik Irrigation System..................................................... 74 Table 5.3. Potential areas of Banyuwangi Selatan ............................................................ 75 Table 5.4. Construction of Dam after the First World War.............................................. 76 Table 5.5. Calculation of fee to be paid by irrigation beneficiaries ................................. 77 Table 6.1. Estimated mid year population of some selected countries in Asia 1997 –

2001 .................................................................................................................. 82 Table 6.2. Population in Indonesia by province (1950 – 2002) ........................................ 95 Table 6.3. Population growth (%) by province 1971–2002 .............................................. 83 Table 6.4. Population density (capita/km2) in major islands 1971 – 2002........................ 84 Table 6.5. Population density in Indonesia by province (1950 – 2002) .......................... 96 Table 6.6. Percentage of distribution of population in Indonesia...................................... 84 Table 6.7. Percentage distribution of population of Indonesia by province (1950–2002) 97 Table 6.8. Percentage distribution of gross domestic product (%) 1994–2000, at current

market prices by industrial origin..................................................................... 85 Table 6.9. Growth rate of per capita gross domestic product of several countries at

constant prices 1999–2002 ............................................................................... 85 Table 6.10. Irrigated land and paddy production in Indonesia, (2002) ............................... 86 Table 6.11. Irrigated paddy field area and rice production (1994 and 2002) by Province.. 98 Table 6.12. Harvested area and agricultural product (1955 – 2002) ................................... 91 Table 6.13. Average increased of cropping area of paddy and secondary crops 1955 -

2002, (%/year) ................................................................................................. 92 Table 6.14. Average growth of production of paddy and secondary crops 1955 – 2002,

(%/year) ........................................................................................................... 92 Table 6.15. Average growth of yield of paddy and secondary crops 1955–2002,

(%/year) ............................................................................................................ 93 Table 6.16. Area of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002) ......................................... 99 Table 6.17. Production of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002) ............................... 99 Table 6.18. Average yield of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002) .......................... 100 Table 6.19. Cropping area, production and yield by main islands (1955 and 1968)........... 93 Table 6.20. Harvested area, production of paddy, and average yield by main islands

(1994 and 2002). .............................................................................................. 93 Table 6.21. Cropping area and average yield by main islands (1955) ............................... 100


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Table 6.22. Cropping area and average yield by main islands (1968).............................. 101 Table 6.23. Cropping area and average yield by province (1994) ................................... 102 Table 6.24. Cropping area (ha) and average yield by province (2002) ............................ 103 Table 6.25. Food crops farm household by main islands in 1983 and 2003..................... 104 Table 6.27. LHFH by area of land controlled in 1983 and 1993 ..................................... 104 Table 6.28. Average land controlled by land holding farm household by main islands

in 1993 .......................................................................................................... 105 Table 6.26. Food crops farm household by province in 1983 and 2003 .......................... 106 Table 6.29. Development of swamp area in 1995 (in ha) ................................................ 107 Table 6.30. Paddy field by classification of irrigation in Indonesia, 2002 ...................... 109 Table 6.31a. Area of paddy field in main islands by category of irrigation, 2002 ............ 110 Table 6.31b. Area of paddy field by category of irrigation in each province, (in ha),

2002................................................................................................................ 111 Table 6.32. Target and achievement of irrigation development 1969–1994 (in ha) ........ 116 Table 6.33. Construction of new weirs and rehabilitation of existing weir in Central

Java................................................................................................................. 119 Table 7.1. Irrigated Rice Field Area by Irrigation System in North Sumatra Province,

2002 ............................................................................................................... 142 Table 7.2. Irrigated Rice Field Areas by Irrigation System, 2002 .................................. 147 Table 7.3. Batang Hari Irrigation Area ........................................................................... 151 Table 7.4. Irrigated Rice Field Area by Irrigation Type, 2002 ....................................... 152 Table 7.5. Irrigated rice field area by irrigation types in 2002 ...................................... 159 Table 7.6. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation Type, 2002 ...................................... 163 Table 7.7. List of reservoirs in Central Java with the capacity of more than 40 million

m3 ................................................................................................................... 163 Table 7.8. Irrigation sub-schemes in Pemali-Comal Irrigation Scheme ......................... 165 Table 7.9. Irrigated rice field area by irrigation type, 2002 ............................................ 169 Table 7.10. Irrigation area of Bedadung-Bondoyudo ....................................................... 172 Table 7.11. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type in Bali Province, 2002 ............. 175 Table 7.12. Growth of irrigation area and additional number of Subak organizations in

Bali between 1971 and 1993.......................................................................... 176 Table 7.13. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type, 2002 ........................................ 177 Table 7.14. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type, 2002 ........................................ 181 Tabel 7.15. Potential area of Alabio Polder for agricultural development ....................... 185 Table 7.16. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type in South Sulawesi, 2002 .......... 190


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SUPLEMENT PAPER The Ancient Irrigated-Agricultural Heritages in Indonesia ......................................... 243

Table-1. Comparison of Cosmografy, Cosmology and Meteorology in the “Pranatamangsa” (Surakarta) .......................................................................... 248

Table-2. Comparison of Seasonal Characteristics of the Pranatamangsa and Meteorological Data (in surakarta) ..................................................................... 250

Subak Irrigation System in Bali....................................................................................... 257

Table-1. Irrigation Area Covered by Subak Organization in Bali, (1971, 1979 and 1993) ................................................................................................................... 262

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“Tudang Sipulung” as The Indigenous Irrigated Agricultural Heritage in South Sulawesi Province .............................................................................................................. 277

Example of planting schedule after mutual consensus on regular meeting in several Regencies of South Sulawesi Province (Bone, Soppeng, Sidrap, Pinrang, Luwu, and Wajo Regency) for Dry Season of 2003 and Rainy Season 2003/2004 ........................... 282

An Outline Review of Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia .... 301

Table 1. List of Achievement of Semi-voluntary assisted migration in Indonesia, 1950-1984 .................................................................................................................... 308

Table 2. Resettlement Distribution of Transmigration (1950-1986) ............................... 309

An Overview of Lowland Development in Indonesia .................................................... 321

Table 1. Distributions of Lowlands Development and potential ...................................... 326

Table 2. General conception of lowland development and management policy and strategy in Indonesia ........................................................................................... 331

Bengawan Solo River Basin Development ...................................................................... 347

Table 1. List of projects implemented in lieu of the Solo Vallei Werken ......................... 348

Table 2. Sediment Control Reservoirs Upstream of Wonogiri Dam................................ 349

Table 3. Existing reservois in Bengawan Solo River Basin 2004 .................................... 351

Table 4. Reservoir and barrage proposed in the study of CDMP ..................................... 352

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Figure 6.3.1. Typical organization structure of WUAF (P3A HIPPA) in East Java .......... 126

Figure 6.3.2. Typical organization structure of WUAF ..................................................... 127

Figure 6.4.1. Distribution of Rainfall Station in Indonesia................................................. 131

SUPLEMENT PAPER The Ancient Irrigated-Agricultural Heritages in Indonesia ......................................... 243

Figure 1. Basic Feature of the Pranatamangsa Agricultural Calendar............................. 245

Figure 2. Determination of Seasonal Changes in the Pranatamangsa ............................. 247

Subak Irrigation System in Bali....................................................................................... 257

Figure 1. Basic Structural Organization of Subak ........................................................... 263

Figure 2. An Example of Subak Irrigation Scheme......................................................... 268

Figure 3. Typical Irrigation Structural Networks of Subak Scheme ............................... 269

Figure 4. Typical Tek-tek Water Measurement Device .................................................. 270

Figure 5. Schematic Chart of Interagency Coordination of Subak.................................. 272

Traditional Irrigation Heritages in West Sumatra ........................................................ 285

Figure 1. Schematic sketch of the Paraku traditional control device............................... 288

Brief Review of Irrigation Water Management Studies During Colonial Period....... 293

Figure l. The Pemali Curve: Relationship between area irrigated and water supply (from Van Mannen, 1931)................................................................................ 295

Figure 2. Water allocation over time in Golongan system ......................................... 296

An Outline Review of Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia......... 301

Figure 1. Development Stages of the Transmigration Resettlement ............................... 306

Figure 2. The Flow of Transmigration Movement in Indonesia (1950-1986)................. 308

An Overview of Lowland Development in Indonesia .................................................... 321

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of lowland potential and development in Indonesia classification of swamp lands........................................................................... 322

Figure 2. Location map of coastal and estuaries with certain problems.......................... 338

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Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir.................................................................................. 341

Figure 1. Location of the three reservoirs in the Citarum River...................................... 341

Figure 2. Cross Section of Sediyatmo Pump ................................................................... 343

Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of Integrated Basin and Water Resources Management. 344


Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Bengawan Solo River Basin........................................ 347

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Ir. Soekarno, the First President of Indonesia (wearing black hat and sunglasses) at the inouguration of the construction stage of Jatiluhur Dam, early 1960’s . 16


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Example of lowland-rice harvesting by boat at the swamp area in Kalimantan ................. 20 The former Minister of Public Works, Ir. Sutami (right most, front row) on field

inspection at the Alabio (inland swamp) Polder, South Kalimantan, in1972 ............................................................................................ 21

Sabo Dam for sediment control at the Merapi Volcano in Central Java ....................... 22 Tubewel drilling for ground water exploitation, in East Java, demanding for

sophisticated and costly technologies ................................................ ........ 24 Location of the statue of Dewi Sri at the village of Simbatan, Takeran District, Magetan

Regency. It was believed to be the resourceful spring, which provides adequate water for paddies at the original site of Dewi Sri’s grave................. 27

Cross-section of a traditional weir, made of local materials, bamboo, stone, boulders etc. 30 While waiting for the rainy season, the farmers conduct land preparation for the Gogo

Rancah cultivation............................................................................................ 33 Upland Paddy cultivation .................................................................................................... 33 Swamp paddy field at the tidal swamp areas in South Kalimantan .................................... 34 Construction activity for tidal-swamp infra-structural development .................................. 35 Canal construction on the inland swamp, Alabio South Kalimantan in 1970s ................... 35 The Harinjing stone inscription near Jombang (Pare) at the village of Siman Krajan. The

original inscription is now kept at the National Museum Registered under N.D.173 ............................................................................................................ 38

A monument errected at the central alignment of the ruin of the Harinjing Dyke (Dawuan Srinjing today) .................................................................................. 39

A statuette at the Harinjing Monument, illustrating the mutual aids activity during construction of the Harinjing Dyke, by manual workers ................................. 39

The Tugu Stone inscription is now kept at the National Museum Registered at No. D.124. ............................................................................................................... 40

Sugarcane plantation ........................................................................................................... 44 Regular Subak Meeting in Bali ........................................................................................... 45 Rice terrace cultivated by Subak farmers in Bali Island ..................................................... 45 A traditional level for land surveying by the ancient Balinese, (At Subak Museum,

Tabanan, Bali) .................................................................................................. 46 Stone inscription at the Old Sampean Weir, located at the upstream site of New

Sampean Weir .................................................................................................. 56 New Sampeam weir, at the upstream site of Old Sampean Weir ...................................... 57


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The Old Lengkong Weir preserved as a monument near the new Lengkong Weir ............ 57

A sugar factory in East Java, has been producing since early Duch Time and Still producing today................................................................................................ 58

The Prauwvaart drainage canal at the present condition..................................................... 60

Batang Mimpi at the Batang Mimpi River, Dharmasraya Regency, constructed earlier in 1826 or 26 years before the construction of Glapan Weir ............................... 61

General map of North Sumatra Province ............................................................................ 141

Example of the Bah Korah intake gate, in Simalungun Regency after renovation in 1993 143

The Sipintu-pintu parallel irrigation canals, Siauga Parjolo irrigation scheme, extended along the foot of the hill of breccia rock at the sloping hill of over 200 m deepness............................................................................................................ 144

General map of West Sumatra Province ............................................................................. 146 Water wheel and Tubes on the rotating wheel .................................................................... 148 Batang Mimpi Weir (2004) ................................................................................................. 150 Inscription at Batang Mimpi weir stated of its construction completion in 1826 ............... 150 Batang Selo Weir and Sand Trap ........................................................................................ 150 Scenic view of Batang Hari weir, (2004)............................................................................ 151 General map of Lampung Province .................................................................................... 152 Headwork of Way Payung Irrigation Scheme at Kota Agung, Tenggamus Regency

constructed in 1916 during the Dutch Time (After Rehabilitated in 1990’s) .. 153 The old main intake of Argoguruh Weir, constructed in 1935, at the background is the

extended intake, constructed in 1968 ............................................................... 154 The Spillway at the Garongan Dam for Batanghari Utara Irrigation Scheme, completed

in 1953 for irrigating a total area of 5,817 ha................................................... 154 The headwork of Raman Utara Irrigation Scheme, completed in 1955 for irrigating a

total area of 5,096 ha ........................................................................................ 155 The Control Structure at the main canal of Punggur Utara Irrigation Scheme, with a

command area of 25,353 ha ............................................................................. 155 The headwork of the Way Seputih, with a command area of 25,000 ha ........................... 156 The Spillway at the Way Rarem Dam for Way Rarem Irrigation Scheme, completed in

1981 for irrigating a total command area of 22,000 ha .................................... 156 Batu Tegi Dam, at the upper reach of Way Sekampung River, providing water storage

to be diverted downstream to Argoguruh Weir, March 2004 .......................... 158 General map of West Java Province ................................................................................... 158 Scenic view of Rentang Barrage (2004) ............................................................................. 159 Bird’s eye view of the Walahar Barrage ............................................................................. 161 General map of Central Java ............................................................................................... 162


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Scenic view of Glapan Weir................................................................................................ 164 Sedadi Weir ........................................................................................................................ 164 Main Canal Intake ............................................................................................................... 164 SUPLEMENT PAPER Subak Irrigation System in Bali....................................................................................... 257

General Map of Bali Island, Indonesia ............................................................................. 258 The Subak Musium in Tabanan, Bali, where a number of historical evidences of

ancient irrigation of Bali are kept..................................................................... 259 An example of the Awig-awig regulatory instrument of Subak – it may be written on

palm leaves, bamboo or wooden stick.............................................................. 260 The tek-tek, Subak Irrigation water measurement device ................................................ 270

“Tudang Sipulung” as The Indigenous Irrigated Agricultural Heritage in South Sulawesi Province .............................................................................................................. 277

Traditional irrigation weirs made of boulder and coconut trunk in Soppeng Regency .... 278 An example traditional motto of Bugis ethnicity, about agricultural and democratic

phylosophy, written in Bugis Script ................................................................. 279 An example of traditional irrigation weir in Soppeng Regency, which had been

reconstructed into permanent structure during the Dutch Time....................... 281 Traditional Irrigation Heritages in West Sumatra ........................................................ 285

Example of plot-to-plot irrigation system for the area where plenty of water sources available (environmentally friendly irrigation practice) .................................. 286

An example of the “Paraku” water control device............................................................ 287 Water wheels erected in both sides of the Batang Lampasin River.................................. 290

Brief Review of Irrigation Water Management Studies during Colonial Period ....... 293

Pateguhan Intake Structures, East Java............................................................................. 294 Field reservoir for temporary water storage on daily........................................................ 297

An Outline Review of Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia......... 301

Way Semah-1 Weir, in Gedong Tataan is amongst the oldest irrigation infrastructures for the pioneer transmigrant settlers in Lampung Region................................ 303

An example of the established irrigated paddy field owned by the earlier transmigrant settlement in South Gedong Tataan, Lampung. The area was previously a heavy jungle and hardly accessible by appropriate inland transportation........ 318

The Batu Tegi Dam, in South Lampung, had just completed on March 2004, despite that the irrigation based human settlement in the Central Lampung had been undertaken since 1930s ................................................................................... 319


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Page

SUPLEMENT PAPER An Overview of Lowland Development in Indonesia .................................................... 321

General map of low land distribution in Indonesia ........................................................ 321

Category of hydro-topography of tidal swamps............................................................. 323

Hydro-topographical category of inland swamp ............................................................ 324

Regulatory structure of alabio Polder South Kalimantan Province................................ 325

Paddy field at tidal lowland at Puntik Terantang, South Kalimantan ............................ 325

Tertiary hydraulic structure at Rawa Seragi, Lampung Province .................................. 325

Regulatory structure at Teluk Kiawang, Riau Province ................................................. 325

Regulatory structures for lowland at Saembawalati Schemes, Central Sulawesi .......... 3288

Drainage channel for lowland development in Papua Province..................................... 3288

Diversion Water Gate for lowland at Dadahup, Central Kalimantan............................. 3299

Developed agricultural land for lowland paddy at Telang Saleh, South Sumatra.......... 3299

Tertiary canal excavation in Tarantang South Kalimantan Province............................. 332

Resin-fibre automatic flap-gate in Puntik Terantang, South Kalimantan Province ....... 332

Inland swamp area.......................................................................................................... 333

Water diversion structure at Rawa Muning, South Sumatra Province ........................... 333

Hybrid coconut plantation with “PIR” Transmigration scheme in Guntung, Riau Province............................................................................................................ 333

Palm-oil plantation with “PIR” Trans-migration scheme in Gasing Puntihan, South Sumatra Province ............................................................................................. 333

The white sandy-beach has a good prospect for encouraging tourism industry............. 334

Coastal erosion as the cause of breaching off the road embankment at the mouth of “Sungai Duri” River in West Sumatra Province .............................................. 335

Estuary sedimentation entails problem of riverbed aggradations and narrowing the river transportation channels ............................................................................ 336

Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir.................................................................................. 341

Scenic view of Jatiluhur.................................................................................................... 342

The bird’s air view of Curug Hydraulic Pumps................................................................ 343

Walahar Barrage ............................................................................................................... 345


Wonogiri ........................................................................................................................... 349

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REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA MINISTER OF SETTLEMENT AND REGIONAL INFRASTRUCTURES

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earning from the world history, we all know that many desertified regions in Asia and

African sub continents, were previously during the ancient time, under the fertile and

prosperous land areas with distinctly uninterrupted natural condition, with constant river-

flows in the course of the remarkably virgin forest vegetations, and most notably under the

well balanced natural ecosystem. Today, however, such a desirable natural condition has

become scarce and yet the escalating degradation of natural condition in general and water

ecosystem in particular, is continuously jeopardized by the hardly controllable human

interventions against our Mother Nature.

Despite that the development and management of water resources and irrigation in

Indonesia has long been practiced with centuries of existence since the ancient era, the

historical documents on water resources development in general, and irrigation practices in

particular, has yet adequately fulfilling the curiosities for information on this distinct heritage

of human life. The absence of transcriptions on such a paramount historical heritage would

bring about devastating consequences against discontinuation of information on the way we

nurture our life and environment through best available practices and sustainable irrigation

development and management, which in fact, has to be passed on to the wisdom of our future

generations. Thereby, the future generation would be able to adopt the best practices and

avoid repeating the unsustainable practices their ancestors used to conduct.

In an attempt to provide continuous linkages amongst the past and present practices on

irrigation development and management of Indonesia, in chronological sequence, this book

has been compiled by virtue of accumulating the available historical evidences following the

standardized format of irrigation histories of other countries under the coordination of the

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage-ICID. This book illustrates briefly about

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the sequential history of irrigation from the early prehistorical ancient time, during the Hindu,

the Islamic and the Colonial Era, as well during the War, Post Independent and the most

recent status of modern irrigation development and management in Indonesia.

In my capacity as the Minister of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures of the

Republic of Indonesia, and concurrently as the President of the Indonesian National

Committee of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (INACID), I would like

to express my congratulation for the publication of this book entitled “Irrigation History of

Indonesia”. At the same time, I would also like to convey my sincerest appreciation and

wholehearted gratitude to the authors and members of Editor Team: Mr. A. Hafied A. Gany,

Ph.D., Mr. Effendi Pasandaran, Ph.D., and Mr. Syaiful Mahdi, as well as other supporting

professionals from the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures, Provincial and

Local Government Irrigation Services of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of

Agriculture, Research Agencies, NGOs, Professional Organizations, Universities and

INACID members that I could not mention one by one, for their strenuous efforts to make

this publication possible.

Jakarta, 17 August 2004

Minister of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures

DR. Soenarno

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PREFACE ndonesia as one of the ten founding countries of the International Commission of Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) in 1950, has an obligation to support the activities of ICID


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as other member countries, including the provision of information about irrigation and drainage development and management as well as other relevant information with the overall scope of activities of ICID. One of the programs that had been set up by ICID is the commitment to compile and publish Irrigation and Drainage History of the World by assigning to each member country to prepare the country’s history of irrigation. This activity is entrusted to the Working Group on History of Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Control. Since early 1980’s Indonesia has been making effort to work on history of irrigation. On December 1984, the Indonesian Edition of Volume I of the Irrigation History of Indonesia by Ir. Abdullah Angoedi was managed to be published. The Indonesian National Committee intended to publish the English version of the history book upon the completion of Volume 2 and submit them thereafter to the Working Group on History of Irrigation of the Central office of ICID. Unfortunately, the publication of Volume 2 had never been possible as the author passed away before he managed to complete compiling the manuscript. Since then, the effort was terminated, with an assumption that the work would be resumed as if some-one could take over the assignment. The completed history book Volume I in Indonesian language was temporarily submitted to the Central Office in lieu of the yet prepared English version. Apparently, however, the effort to resume the work on Irrigation History of Indonesia has been encountered by the fact that peoplewho are considered able to prepare the document was very much engaged in implementing projects or preparing legal documents relating to water resources development. By 1995, the effort to continue the preparation of irrigation history of Indonesia was resumed by the late Ir. Soebandi Wirosoemarto, the former Director General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works assisted by Ir, Noertamtomo, however, the scope of work was extended to cover the Overall Water Resources Development entitled “Perkembangan Pembangunan Pengairan di Indonesia” in Indonesian language, or “The Chronological Process of Water Resources Development in Indonesia” and no longer constrained to irrigation history as previously intended by the late Ir. Abdullah Angoedi. Moreover, the manuscript was prepared in the form of report style rather than history format. The report was compiled in four volumes in Indonesian Language, and published them volume by volume from 1997 to 1999. Just before publication of the last volume, the author, Ir. Soebandi Wirosoemarto, passed away in 1999 before he could see the latest publication. To continue the INACID’s obligation for preparing the history book on Irrigation in Indonesia, an INACID Editor Team, as the same tame as the authors, has been assigned. The team consists of: Mr. A. Hafied A. Gany, Ph.D. as the Coordinator; Mr. Effendi Pasandaran Ph.D.; and Mr. Syaiful Mahdi as senior members, assisted by Mr. Iskandar Andi Yusuf as EDP specialist, and Mr. Budianto as executive secretary of the team. The manuscript has been prepared in accordance with the “Revised Guideline for Preparation of History Volume” prescribed by the Working Group on History of Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Control of the Central Office of ICID. Given the underlying circumstances of reference materials, nature of data source, and previous works, the basic approach for preparation of this book has been adapted to the analysis based on the secondary data on the previous works, project reports, and statistical data and evidences, in combination with field survey for testing and confirmation the previous

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data and analysis, as well as collecting new data, information, taking and updating photographs representing the most recent condition of irrigation infrastructures as well as other related operation and maintenance and agricultural circumstances.

Considering the available time, resources, and logistic constraints, the field survey has been conducted in ten selected provinces, which are considered to be an appropriate distributive representation of irrigation heritages in the history of Indonesia, through time. The ten selected provinces are representing the West, Central and Eastern Indonesia’s geography, which are determined based upon the following rationales:

(1) North Sumatra Province, representing the western geography of Indonesia at the northern part of Sumatra Island, further north away from the Equator, with undulating and hilly topography, directly facing west to Indian Ocean and east with the Malacca Strait, having in general an early occurrence of rainy season with high annual rainfall, relative to other regions of Indonesia. It has a long history of irrigation practices, starting with the earlier form of shifting cultivation or traditional cultivation without irrigation, followed by strong cultural and traditional irrigated agriculture practices with appropriate irrigation technology and traditional water user’s association, which are still practiced today. During the third decade of the twentieth century, the Dutch Colonial Government introduced “Irrigation-Based Transmigration Program” in Northern Sumatra by constructing a number of small to medium scale irrigation schemes in line with the plantation development for industrial crops.

(2) West Sumatra Province, representing the western geography of Indonesia with undulating and hilly topography, directly facing west to Indian Ocean with generally having high annual rainfall. It has a long history of irrigation practices, starting with earlier experience with non irrigated paddy cultivation, with subsequent strong cultural and traditional irrigated agricultural practices with appropriate irrigation technology and traditional water user’s association, which are still in existence today. West Sumatra is now considered to be amongst the ten largest irrigated-rice producing areas in Indonesia.

(3) Lampung Province in southern Sumatra, representing other specific geographical condition of western Indonesia, with all kinds of topographical conditions ranging from mountainous, undulating, rolling to flat, and swampy areas extending westward directly to Java Sea, and southern with Indian Ocean having relatively medium annual rainfall. The province has a long history on upland crops cultivation, coffee, black pepper, rubber, and palm oil plantations, previously with traditional paddy cultivation without irrigation. During the turn of the century, the Dutch Colonial Government take the province as the experimental ground for “Irrigation-Based Transmigration Program” by constructing variety of small scale to medium scale irrigation schemes in line with population resettlement from densely populated areas. The province today is considered as one of the important the rice production areas of Indonesia.

(4) West Java Province, Including the newly established Banten Province, representing the western Jawa Island geography with high-density population, inter-provincial river basins, with high intensity of annual rainfall. This province has a long history of irrigated agricultural practices during the old kingdoms, during the colonial period and after independence with the introduction of multi-purpose dams in Citarum River, as well as the introduction of integrated river basin management. Irrigation operation and maintenance under the participatory approach also has a long history in West Java Province with the distinct traditional practice of rotational irrigation water supply, which is still practiced today with some improvement following the competitive demands of water uses.


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(5) Central Java Province, representing the most densely populated area in Indonesia with low rainfall intensity relative to the West Java Province, but with high fertility soils due to frequent supplies of volcanic ash from several active volcanoes in the vicinity areas. Some inter-provincial river basins in Central Java, sharing the water for variety of purposes both with the East and West Java Provinces. Irrigated agricultural practice on this province has been well adapted since the Hindu Era, under the multi cropping patterns and efficient application of irrigation water. During the Colonial period, the Central Java Province had been regarded as the experimental laboratory for technical irrigation, especially for supporting sugar industry. Many field reservoirs were constructed during the Dutch time for facilitation of effective irrigation management, and yet still under the well operated and maintained, today. (6) East Java Province, representing the eastern part of Java with high fertility soils in the upland areas, and with fertile soil in the downstream delta of the rivers emptying north to Java Sea, apart from its characteristic as amongst the most densely populated area in Indonesia. There are a number of historical evidences to believe that the East Java Province had been the origin of irrigated agricultural civilization in Indonesia. In addition, the East Java province possesses the largest irrigation areas compared to other provinces in Indonesia, and yet still having distinct practice on efficient irrigation operation and maintenance. During the Colonial period, the East Java had also been considered as the origin of experimental laboratory for technical irrigation development, especially for supporting sugar industry. The Basin water resources management for inter-sectoral utilization has also been the distinct identity of East Java with the well-known Brantas River Basin Management under a government owned public corporation together with other agencies concerned. (7) South Kalimantan Province, representing the Kalimantan Island of the central part of Indonesia, with tidal lowlands and inland swamp areas, as well as with least densely populated area in majority. The Dutch Colonial Government only introduced irrigated agriculture in this area during the beginning of the century. In fact, the area has been taken the experimental ground for development of tidal lowlands as well as swamplands for agricultural purposes through drainage systems. Some agricultural technology and water management for tidal lowlands and swamplands were developed in the experimental grounds and adopted later with some adjustments by the same nature of works in the Eastern coast of Sumatra. At the beginning of the Five-Year Development Implementation in Indonesia, a multiple purpose dam was developed in the area, especially for generating electricity, raw water for domestic and industries as well as for agricultural and fisheries. (8) Bali Province, representing the lesser islands close to Java island as the transition between central zone to the east zone of Indonesia, with a densely populated and varying levels of rainfall as well as topographical conditions. The island has a very long history on irrigated agriculture and having a distinct Subak System (a traditional irrigation management) that has been consistently practiced since hundred of years back, and yet still practiced today in the entire part of the island, despite the modern irrigated agricultural technology. (9) West Nusa Tenggara Province, representing the central and eastern Lesser Islands, with varying topographical conditions, low rainfall duration and with semi arid conditions. This province has a distinct experience on development and management of small reservoirs by the strong traditional water user’s association, for various water utilizations including raw water supplies, irrigation for rice fields as well as pastures. Some small irrigation schemes were developed in the area during the Dutch time in 1930’s in line with irrigation development in many regions in Indonesia. Several reservoirs were developed in the area during the Five Year


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Development Period with a distinct “inter basin water transfer” in the Lombok Island, making the province as one of the major rice producing areas in Indonesia today. (10) South Sulawesi Province, representing the eastern regions of Indonesia with varying topographical and climatic conditions. The province represents the area with a long history of traditional kingdoms with various traditional irrigation practices, previously with vast shifting cultivations. During the second and the third decades of the twentieth century, the Dutch Colonial Government introduced “Irrigation-Based Transmigration Program” in South Sulawesi by constructing a number of medium scale irrigation schemes in line with a large barrage for agricultural, and power generation in Sadang River. After Independence, several reservoirs were developed in the area during the Five Year Development Period with a distinct multiple purpose dam for raw water supplies, power, agriculture, and flood protection in the Jeneberang River. The province today, is amongst the most developed areas in the eastern region, with the support of strong traditional water user’s association, making the area as one of the major rice producing areas in Indonesia. Considering general guidelines prescribed by the ICID Working Group on History, the manuscript has been prepared with a clearly defined geographical region and the technical characteristics with a complete and comprehensive picture of irrigation, drainage and flood control covering the entire parts of the country. In order to cover the countrywide history of irrigation, no detailed figures of the province has been given, except some important landmarks of irrigation history of Indonesia. It is expected that the detailed figures of irrigation history in 33 provinces in Indonesia (today), will be prepared by each provincial irrigation services following the format of national irrigation history presented in this book. The content of the volume is restricted not only to irrigation but also include drainage and flood control, emphasizing technological components. The agricultural, political, sociological, economic, geographical, historical, and climatological aspects also addressed to the extent necessary for understanding the general outline of historical development. The writing format is prepared in the form of a continuous account of development, with some particular authors written down on different aspects of irrigation in Indonesia including contributions of individual authors in terms of scientific papers, abbreviated doctoral these, country reports, personal observations, archaeological findings, project descriptions and the likes. In general, the overall volume covers technological aspects, agricultural practices, institutional aspects, legal and regulatory, socio-cultural within the general outline among others: Introductory Background – Natural characteristic, topography, rivers, climate and rainfalls; Pre-historical evidence of irrigation practices; Development of irrigated agriculture – upland areas, rain-fed, lowland rice fields, simple irrigation, semi technical irrigation, technical, upland rice fields, lowland (swamp lands) rice fields; Irrigated agricultural practices during the Hindu Era – Hindu Kingdoms; Islamic Kingdoms; During the VOC Era; Western Colonial Era; Dutch Colonial Period; Dutch Ethical Policy; Irrigation Based Transmigration Program; Establishment of Ministry of Public Works; the Period after Proclamation of Independence Era; Five-Year Development Plans; Lowlands (swamplands) development; Post Five-Year Development Plans; Chronological development of institutional and regulatory aspects; Present status and condition of irrigation in Indonesia – cropping patterns, institutional and future prospects and so on. On behalf of the editor team we would like to extend our whole hearted gratitude’s and hearty thankfulness to the Minister of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures (MSRI), DR. Soenarno, in his capacity as the incumbent President of INACID for his support and guidance to the preparation of this publication. Special thanks are addressed to Dr. Basuki Hadimuljono -- Director General of Water Resources MSRI, Dr. Roestam Sjarief – Director


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General of R&D MSRI, Ir. Iwan Noersyirwan, Dipl.H.E. – Director General of Human Resources Development, MSRI, Ir. Siswoko, Dipl.H.E – Inspector General, MSRI, Ir. Adi Sarwoko, Dipl.H.E – Special Assistant to Minister of SRI, and former Chief of Bureau of Planning and Foreign Cooperation Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures, and all the Directors within the Directorate General of Water resources and staffs for all assistances, helps and logistic arrangements during the field visits as well as during the desk studies for preparation the manuscript. We would also like to acknowledge our indebtedness to the Chief of Provincial Public Works and Irrigation Services, as well as Provincial Irrigation Project Managers and staffs for all information, assistances and supports during the field visits to their provinces. We would be indebted if we do not mention some other prominent professionals, Prof. Dr. Ir. P. K. Haryasudirja – the former Minister of Water Resources Development during the Sukarno Era, Dr. Ir. Suyono Sosrodarsono, the former Director General of Water Resources Development and subsequently as the Minister of Public Works during the Suharto Presidential Era for their endless encouragements and concerns on irrigation development and management in Indonesia including recommendation and confirmation on some important materials to be included in this history book on Irrigation in Indonesia. Our special thanks are subsequently addressed to Ir. Soekadaryanto, Dipl. H.E., former Director of Indah Karya Consulting Engineers, and Ir. Sri Hernowo Mashudi, Dipl. H.E., Technical Director of Jatiluhur Public Corporation (PJT-II) as well as all individuals and professional staffs who are not possible to mention one by one, for their supports and strenuous efforts as well as invaluable contributions making this work materialized. Without which, this important publication would not have been possible.

Jakarta, August 17th, 2004

The Editors A. Hafied A. Gany

Syaiful Mahdi Effendi Pasandaran

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Indonesia’s History in Brief 1


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ndonesia, the largest archipelago in the world consists of five main islands, Sumatra (473,606 km2), Java (132,187 km2), Kalimantan (539,460 km2), Sulawesi (189,216 km2), Papua (Irian Jaya) at 421,981 km2, and some 30 smaller archipelagoes, totaling at about

17,508 islands and isles, of which about 6,000 are inhibited. The archipelago stretches between 6o8’ north latitude and 11o65’ east longitude; and between 94o45’ and 141o65’ east longitude, having a total area of 5,193,150 km2 – of which 2,027,087 km2 of land territory and sea territory at 3,1666,163 km2. The Indonesia’s land area is mostly covered with thick tropical rain forest where fertile soils are continuously replenished by volcanic eruptions, particularly on Java Island, where 15 active volcanoes out of 112 volcanoes are located. Climate: The climate in general is characterized by equatorial tropical monsoon-type climate changes every six months. The dry season from June to September, and the rainy season from December to March. The temperatures varies in accordance with the season having the average at the coastal plains at about 28oC; inland and mountain areas at about 26oC; and at the high land territories at about 23oC. The relative humidity, like many tropical regions is generally high, between 70% and 90%, with a minimum of about 73% and a maximum of about 87%. Water Resources: The overall accessible water resources potential of Indonesia is estimated at about 2,530 km3, (about 1,847,246 m3/annum) scattered over river basins throughout the archipelago, of which about 2% (96m3/capita/year) is currently utilized for agriculture at about 76%, domestic at about 11.5%, and industries at about 13,5%. These water resources are scattered throughout the country flowing over about 5,886 rivers and tributaries with the overall length of about 18,000 km. The major rivers are also served for substantial inland 1 The manuscript has been prepared as a brief history of Indonesia for giving contextual relationship with the

Irrigation History of Indonesia. The material has been abstracted from “Indonesia 2002, an Official Handbook”, The Indonesian National Information Agency” with a number of updated figures from other sources, including some information uploaded from the website of the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs <http://www.deplu.go.id>

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transportation such as the Musi, Batanghari, Indragiri, and Kampar rivers in Sumatra; the Kapuas, Barito, Mahakam, and Rajang Rivers in Kalimantan; the Memberamo and Digul rivers in Papua. In Java Island, rivers are dominantly utilized for irrigation, such as the Bengawan Solo, Citarum, Ciliwung and Brantas Rivers. A number of islands are dotted with scenic lakes, like the Toba, Maninjau and Singkarak Lakes in Sumatra; the Tempe, Towuti, Sidenreng, Poso, Limboto, Tondano, and Matana lakes in Sulawesi; and the Paniai and Sentani lakes in Irian Jaya. Beside these, a total of 33.4 million ha of lowlands (consisted 20.1 million ha of tidal lowlands, and 13.3 million ha inland swamp) in the eastern coast of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua, as well as some 521 major natural lakes scattered over the country. People: According to the classified population of Indonesia, four basic ethnic groups have been identified. These are Malanesians (the mixture between Sub-Mongoloids with the Wajaks), the Proto-Austronesians (including the Wajaks), The Polynesians and the Micronesians. The Malanesians sub divided into the Achenese of North Sumatra, The Batak in Norteast Sumatra, The Minangkabaus in West Sumatra, the Sundanese in West Java, the Javanese in Central and East Java, the Madurese on Madura Island, the Balinese on Bali Island, the Sasak on the island of Lombok. On the island of Sulawesi the Malanesians are sub divided into the Minahasas in the North, the Torajas in the center, the Makassarrese and the Buginese in the southen Sulawesi. The Polynesians and Proto-Austronesians are sub divided into the Ambonese on the group of islands in the Maluku, and the Irianese in Papua, and the Timorese in Timor Island. The Micronesians are found on lesser islands of Indonesia’s eastern borders.

The first inhabitant of Indonesia was the Java-man who lived 500,000 years ago, named Pithecanthropus erectus by Eugene Dubois who found the fossils at several places on Java. The fossils found in 1891 and 1892 in the village of Trinil near Solo were called Homo Solonensis, while those found in Wajak were called Wajakensis. The Homo Solonensis with the same characteristics as the Austro-Melanosoid people had roamed to Sumatra in the west and to Papua in the east. In the period of 3,000-500 BC, Indonesia was inhabited by Sub-Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-marriage with the indigenous people. In 1,000 BC, inter-marriage still occurred with Indo-Arian migrants from South-Asian sub-continent of India. The influx of Indian settlers until the seventh century AD brought about the Hindu religion spread throughout the archipelago. Meanwhile, the Moslem merchants from Gujarat and Persian Gulf began visiting Indonesia in the 13th century and established trade links between this country and India and Persia. While conducting trading, the Gujarat and the Arabic people also spread the Islamic religion in this area. The first to embrace Islam religion were the kingdoms in the coastal regions, which were previously Hinduism.

A Brief History: Ancient Time: When the sea level rose as the result of the melting ice on north of Europe and the American continent, many islands emerged, including the Indonesian archipelago. During the period (3000-500 BC) Indonesia was inhabited by Sub Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous people. Later (1000 BC) inter-marriage still occurred with Indo-Arians migrants from the south Asian sub-continent of India. According to some scholars, it is believed that Indonesia must have been existed during the Pleitocene period (four million BC). This period was also closely related to the first existence of the Homonids. It was in this period, as argued by Eugence Dubois who found the fossils on the island of Java, that the “Java Man” (Pithecanthropus Erectus) must have been inhabited that part of the world so called today as Indonesia.


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The Buddhis and Hindu Kingdoms: The first indian migrants came primarily from Gujarat in Southeast India during the first Christian era. The Caka period in Indonesia witnessed the introduction of the Sanskrit language and the Pallawa script by the Indian Prince Aji Caka (78 AD). The Devanagari script of the Sanskrit Language was also used, as shown in ancient stone and copper inscriptions (paracasthies), which have been unearthed. The language and script were adopted and called the Kawi language and included words and phrases derived from Javanese. Early trade relations were established between South India and Indonesia. Sumatra was then named Swarna Dwipa of "the island of gold, " Java was called Java Dwipa or "the Rice island," and a Hindu kingdom of Crivijaya in Sumatra and Nalanda in South India were not confirmed to religious and cultural exchanges. They later developed diplomatic relations, and even covered a wide range of trades. The influx of Indian settlers continued during the period from the first to the seventh century AD. Peacefully and gradually the Hindu religion spread throughout the archipelago. It was adopted by all layers of the people of Java, but limited to the upper classes on the outer islands. During this period, many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization were ruled by indigenous kings who had adopted the Hindu or Buddhist religion. This explains why this period in history is called the Period of Hindu Kingdoms. It lasted from ancient times to the 16th Century AD. Because the culture and civilization, which emanated from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were synchronized with the local cultural elements, the period was also referred to as the Hindu-Indonesian period. Around 502 AD Chinese annals mentioned the existence of the Buddhist Kingdom, Kanto Lim in South Sumatra, presumably in the neighborhood of present-day Palembang. It was ruled by King Gautama Subhadra, and later by his son Pyrawarman of Vinyawarman who established diplomatic relations with China. Because of a spelling or pronunciation difficulty, what the Chinese called "Kanto Li" was probably Crivijaya, a mighty Buddhist kingdom. On his way to India, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I Tsing, visited Crivijaya in 671 AD to study the Sanskrit language. He returned 18 years later in 689 AD. The Crivijaya Kingdom was then the center of Buddhist learning and had many well-known philosophy scholars like Sakyakirti, Dharmapala and Vajabudhi. The kingdom had diplomatic relations with the south Indian kingdom of Nalanda. The Crivijaya mission built a school on its premises where Indians could learn the art of molding bronze statues and broaden their knowledge of the Buddhist philosophy. With the spread of Buddhism, Crivijaya’s influence reached out to many other parts of the archipelago. In West Java were the kingdoms of Galuh, Kanoman, Kuningan and Pajajaran. The latter was founded by King Purana with the Pakuan as its capital. It replaced the kingdom of Galuh. The kingdoms of Taruma Negara, Kawali and Parahyangan Sunda came later. At the end of the 13th Century, the Crivijaya Empire began to fall as a result of severance by its vassal states and frequent attacks by the south Indian kingdom of Chola and by the Majapahit Kingdom. In the end, Crivijaya was completely conquered by Majapahit with the support of King Aditiawarman of the Melayu kingdom. Earlier, Majapahit had conquered the kingdom of Jambi in East Sumatra and, by moving its expansion along the rivers, it finally annexed the kingdom of Pagar Ruyung in West Sumatra. Thus, all of Sumatra came under Majapahit’s rule. As the Majapahit grew to become a powerful empire, it conquered the kingdom of Crivijaya in South Sumatra. As mentioned earlier, this kingdom has once been attacked by the Indian Kingdom of Chola. Under King Hayam Wuruk the Majapahit Empire became the most powerful kingdom in the history of Indonesia. It had dependencies in territories beyond the


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borders of the present archipelago, such as Champa in North Vietnam, Kampuchea (Cambodia) and the Philippines (1331-1364). King Hayam Wuruk, with his able premier Gajah Mada, succeeded in gradually uniting the whole archipelago under the name of Dwipantara. During this golden period of Majapahit many literary works were produced. Among them was "Negara Kertagama," by the famous author Prapancha (1335-1380). Parts of the book described the diplomatic and economic ties between Majapahit and numerous Southeast Asian countries including Myanmar, Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea (Cambodia) and even India and China. Other works in Kawi, the old Javanese language, were "Pararaton," "Arjuna Wiwaha," "Ramayana," and "Sarasa Muschaya." These works were later translated into modern European languages for educational purposes.

Islamic Kingdoms: Moslem merchants from Gujarat and Persian Gulf began visiting Indonesia in the 13th Century and established trade links between this country and India and Ancient Persian Empire. Along with trade, they propagated Islam among the Indonesians people, particularly along the coastal areas of Java, like Demak. At a later stage they even influenced and converted Hindu kings to Islam, the first being the Sultan of Demak. This Moslem Sultan later spread Islam westwards to Cirebon and Banten, and eastward along the northern coast of Java to the kingdom of Gresik. In the end, he brought the downfall of the powerful kingdom of Majapahit (1293-1520).

After the fall of Majapahit, Islam spread further east to where the sultanates of Bone and Goa in Sulawesi were established. Also under the influence of Islam, were the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku (Moluccas Island). In the subsequent period, the Islamic religion spread to Banjarmasin in Borneo and further west to Sumatra, where Palembang, Minangkabau (West Sumatra), Pasai and Perlak were converted. Meanwhile, descendants of the Majapahit aristocracy, religious scholars and Hindu Ksatriyas retreated through the East Java peninsula of Blambangan to the island of Bali and later to West Lombok. Later on, the eastern part of Lombok converted to Islam, which entered the island from the southern Sulawesi city of Makassar.

In West Java, the capital of the West Java Kingdom of Pajajaran was Sunda Kelapa (1300 AD). It was located in the present capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta. In 1527 Sunda Kelapa conquered by Falatehan, an Islamic troop commander of the sultanate of Demak. After his conquest the city was renamed as Jaya Karta, meaning "the great city," this was the origin of the present name, Jakarta. Falatehan also defeated the Portuguese, who had also tried to seize the city.

The Colonial Period Portuguese: In their search for spices, the Portuguese arrived to Indonesia in 1511, after their conquest of the Islamic kingdom of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. Then successively followed by the Spaniards. Both began to propagate Christianity and were most successful in Maluku, also known as the Moluccas. Dutch: The Dutch had started their quest for Indonesia’s spices to sell on the European market at big profit. For the purpose of more efficient and well-organized merchant trade they established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602. To protect the merchants’ fleets from frequent pirate attacks on the high seas, Dutch warships were ordered to accompany it. After the nationalization of the VOC in 1799, the Dutch Government had a firm grip on the vital territories of the country. People in those territories were forced to surrender their


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agricultural products to the Dutch merchants. It was the beginning of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia. Sunda Kelapa was renamed after Batavia. Meanwhile, the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram converted to Islam and was ruled by the Moslem, Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo. He developed the political power of the state and was a keen patron of the arts and culture. In 1633 he introduced the Islamic Javanese calendar. Sultan Agung was a fierce enemy of the Dutch. In 1629 he sent his troops to attack Batavia, but they were repulsed by the troops of Governor General Jan Pieterszoon Coen. After the seizure of Ambon in the Moluccas in 1605 and the Banda Island in 1623, the Dutch secured the trade monopoly of the Spice Islands. A policy of ruthless exploitation by "divide and rule" tactics was carried out. In this way indigenous inter-island trade, like those between Makassar, Aceh, Mataram and Banten, as well as overseas trade, was gradually paralyzed. Indonesia was reduced to an agricultural country to supply European markets. At the some time, the Dutch adopted a so-called open-door policy toward the Chinese in order that they could serve as middlemen in their trade with Indonesian farmers. War against the Dutch: Sultan Hasanuddin of Goa Kingdom waged a war against the Dutch in 1666. But was defeated and Goa became a vassal state of the VOC under the treaty of Bungaya of 1667. Few years later, Prince Trunojoyo of Madura also fought the Dutch. He was defeated and killed in 1680. To reinforce their spice monopoly in the Moluccas, the Dutch undertook their notorious Hongi expeditions, whereby they burned down the clove gardens of the people in an effort to eliminate overproduction, which brought down the prices of cloves on the European markets. In these outrageous expeditions countless atrocities were committed against people who defended their crops. In 1740 the Dutch suppressed a rebellion in Jakarta that was sparked by dissatisfied Chinese, who were later joined by Indonesians. Ten thousand Chinese were massacred. The Kingdom of Mataram began to see its downfall after it was divided by the VOC into the Principalities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. However, mismanagement and corruption forced the VOC into bankruptcy and on December 31, 1799, all its territories in Indonesia were taken over by the Dutch Administration in Batavia. Soon the Dutch intensified their colonial rule. But this only sparked widespread revolts to seize freedom. These revolts, however, were suppressed one after the other. To mention only a few: Thomas Matulessy, alias Pattimura, staged a revolt against the Dutch in the Moluccas (1816-1818). Prince Diponegoro of Mataram led the Java War from 1825 until 1830. Again, it was fierce struggle for freedom. Tuanku Imam Bonjol led the Padri War in West Sumatra, while Teuku Umar headed the Aceh War in North Sumatra (1873-1903). King Sisingamangaraja of the Bataks revolved against the Dutch in 1907. An attempt by the Dutch troops to occupy Bali in 1908 was repelled by King Udayana. Revolts were also staged in Goa, South Sulawesi, and in South Kalimantan. The British Rule: In 1814 the British come to Indonesia and built Fort York in Bengkulu on the west coast of Sumatra. It was later renamed as Fort Marlborough. During the Napoleonic wars in Europe when Holland was occupied by France, Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816). Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor General of Java and dependencies. He was subordinated to the Governor General in Bengal, India. Raffles introduced partial self-government and abolished the slave trade. In those days slaves were captured and traded by foreigners. He also introduced the land-tenure system, replacing the hated Dutch forced-agricultural system (Compulsory Agricultural Policy), whereby crops were grown and surrendered to the Government. The Borobudur and other temples were restored and research conducted. Raffles wrote his famous book, "The History of Java," in which he described Java’s high civilization and culture.


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During the British stay in Sumatra (1814-1825), William Marsden wrote a similar book on the history of Sumatra, which was published in 1889. After the fall of Napoleon, and the end of the French occupation of Holland the British and Dutch signed a convention in London on August 13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial possessions dating from 1803 onwards should be returned to the Dutch Administration in Batavia. Thus, the Indonesian archipelago was recovered from the British in 1815. The Japanese Occupation: After the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved southwards to conquer several Southeast Asian countries. After Singapore had fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the colonial army surrendered in March 1942. Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese began their propaganda campaign for what they called "Great East Asia Co-prosperity". But Indonesians soon realized that it was a camouflage for Japanese imperialism in lieu of Dutch colonialism. To further the cause of Indonesia’s independence, Soekarno and Hatta appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities. In reality, however, Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground and masterminded insurrections in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), and in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Under the pressure of the 4th Pacific war, where their supply lines interrupted, and the increasing of Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese ultimately gave in to allow the red-and-white flag to fly as the Indonesian national flag. Recognition of "Indonesia Raya" as the National Anthem and the Bahasa Indonesia as the national language followed. After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place the civil administration of the county into Indonesian hands. This was a golden opportunity for nationalist leaders to prepare for the proclamation of Indonesia’s independence. The Birth of the Republic: The Republic of Indonesia first saw light on August 17, 1945, when its independence was proclaimed by Soekarno and Hatta just days after the Japanese surrender to the Allies. Pancasila became the ideological and philosophical basis of the Republic, and on August 18, 1945 the Constitution was adopted as the basic law of the country. Following the provisions of the Constitution, the country is headed by a President who is also the Chief Executive. He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of ministers. The sovereignty of the people rests with the People’s Consultative Assembly (MPR). Hence, the President is accountable to the MPR. The legislative power is vested in the House of Representatives (DPR). Other institutions of the state are the Supreme Court, the Supreme Advisory Council and the Supreme Audit Board. Soekarno became the first President and Chief Executive, and Mohammad Hatta, the first Vice-President of the Republic. On September 5, 1945 the first cabinet was formed. The War of Independence: The infant republic was soon faced with military threats to its very existence. British troops landed in Indonesia as a contingent of the Allied Forces to disarm the Japanese. Dutch troops also seized this opportunity to land in the country, but for a different purpose, - namely, to regain control of the former Dutch East Indies. At the beginning they were assisted by British troops under General Christison, a fact later admitted by Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia based in India. In fact, the British troops were officially only assigned to the task of repatriating Allied prisoners of war and internees. On November 10, 1945, fierce fighting broke out between British troops and Indonesian freedom fighters in which the British lost Brigadier General Mallaby. As a result, the British turned to all-out combat from the sea, air and land. The newly-recruited army of the Republic soon realized the superiority of the British forces and withdrew from urban battles. They


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subsequently formed guerrilla units and fought together with armed groups of the people. Under the pretext of representing the Allied Forces, the Dutch sent in more troops to attack Indonesian strongholds. Between 1945 and 1949 they undertook two military actions. Because fighting with Dutch troops continued, the seat of the Republican Government was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta on January 4, 1946. World Recognition and Indonesia’s Sovereignty: The Round Table conference was conducted in The Hague on August 23, 1949, under the auspices of the UN. It was concluded on November 2, 1949 with an agreement that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia.

On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist. It now became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia with a federal constitution. The constitution, inter-alia, provided for a parliamentary system in which the cabinet was responsible to Parliament. The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya (currently named Papua), formerly West New Guinea, was suspended for further negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue remained a perpetual source of conflict between the two countries for more than 13 years. On September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United Nations. (Abstracted from: “Indonesia 2002, an Official Hand Book”, with some updating from the Official Figure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, R.I. http://www.deplu.go.id).

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter I. Introduction

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION



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1.1. GENERAL OVERVIEW The name that Indonesia has chosen for itself refers to a land of oceans and seas, with a necklace of islands, islets, reefs and volcanoes, a vast garland stretching along the equator on the borders of Asia and Australia, the Indian and the Pacific oceans. No fewer than 17,500 islands fan out, covering 5,000 km from east to west and over 2,000 km from north to south, made up the largest archipelago in the world, with the total land area of 2,027,087 km2. The surrounding sea area is three times larger than the land, and Indonesians are one of the few peoples in the world who include water within the boundaries of their territory, calling their country Tanah Air Kita, literally “Our Lands and Waters”. The overall population is estimated at about 228 million people (2002) with the growth rate at 1.5%, consisted of 356 ethnics and tribal groups, 583 local languages; 87% Moslem, 9% Christian, 2% Hindu and Buddhist.

The population policy is directed toward development of the population as human resources in order that the national development can be effective and valuable, while the quality of life is gradually improving. Meanwhile, the control of population growth is carried out through efforts to lower the birth and mortality rates, especially that of infants and children. These efforts in particular have been implemented through family planning program, which also has the purpose of improving the welfare of mother and child, and at the same time create a small, happy, and prosperous family.

“Unity in Diversity” is the national motto for Indonesians, which points to one of the greatest attractions of Indonesia. There are 356 ethnics and tribal groups, 583 local languages, as a result of the country’s unique geography, as well as history. Many Indonesians may see themselves first by their ethnic and cultural group, and secondly as Indonesians.

Indonesia’s population in 2002 is approximately 228 million, making Indonesia as the fourth most populous nation in the world after China, India and the United States. Over two thirds of the population resides in the island of Java which is only 6% of the whole area of Indonesia. About 88% of the population is Moslem. Roughly 10% is Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and approximately 2% is Hindu and Buddhist. All the five of these religions are formally recognized in Indonesia and have official national holidays commemorating events of importance to their followers. Although the country is predominantly Moslem, the government is not based on a single religion.

1) Birth Rate: The crude birth rate declined drastically from 27.3 per 1000 people in 1990 to 24.5 per 1000 in 1993. In the meantime, the fertility rate also declined from 3.3 per 1000 women of childbearing age in 1990 to 2.87 in 1993.

Several factors including a rising living standard, higher educational level and improved health services, contributed to the birth rate decline. But the greatest proportion is attributable to the increasing number of people participating in family planning especially the new eligible couples. Moreover, contraception has become more widespread and effective, making it easier to plan families; and sterilization of men and women has also become more common.


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Postponement of conception in marriages, and a trend towards later marriage has also become more popular. The available data shows that the average age for marriage rose from 20.0 in 1980, to 21.9 years in 1990. 2) Mortality Rate: According to the statistics the expectation of life at birth for a man was 45.7 years representing a rise of about 15 years since the late 1960s, compared to 60.7 years for 1988 and 62.7 for 1990. The crude death rate in 1988 was 7.9 per 1,000 people against 19.1 per 1,000 in 1993. The infant mortality rate declined from 67 per 1,000 live births in 1988 to 58 in 1993. Furthermore, the crude death rate had decreased about 45.1% for the period of 1971-1990, meaning 2.3% per year. Causes for the decline in the mortality rate include better nutrition, a rising standard of living, advances in medical science, growth of medical facilities, improved health measures, better working conditions, education in personal hygiene, and small nucleus families. 3) Migration: In 1992 the number of Indonesian citizens living abroad was 261,416 persons. Of these, 190,586 went to Asian countries, 1,477 to African countries, 24,397 to European countries, 21,612 to American countries and 23,344 to Australian and other Pacific’s countries. At the same time the number of foreigners living in Indonesia was 221,461. Of these some 220,129 were Asians, 2 Africans, 107 Australians, 961 Europeans, and 262 Americans. Some 79,537 chose to live in Sumatra, 96,800 in Java, 9,553 in Nusa Tenggara, 9,582 in Kalimantan, 18,858 in Sulawesi, 5,799 in Maluku and Irian Jaya. There were also 71,058 temporary immigrants throughout the country. 4) Urbanization: Like in many countries, particularly those in the developing world, the city is always the major attraction for the rural population. This is especially true where the land no longer offers an effective means to earn a living. Indonesia is no exception. Over the years, particularly after World War-II, cities have grown rapidly in population so much that municipal governments have not been very successful in dealing with the impact of urbanization. Prevalent are the pressing needs for employment, housing, transportation and other social requirements. 5) Languages & Dialects: There are 583 languages and dialects spoken in the archipelago. They normally belong to different ethnic groups of the population. Some of the distinctly different local languages are: Acehnese, Batak, Sundanese, Javanese, Sasak, Tetum of Timor, Dayak, Minahasa, Toraja, Buginese, Halmahera, Ambonese, Ceramese, and several Irianese languages. To make the picture even more colorful, these languages are also spoken in different dialects. The national language of Indonesia is "Bahasa Indonesia". Originally, it was the Malay language mainly spoken in the Riau Islands. In its spread throughout the country, its vocabulary and idioms have been enriched by a great number of local languages. To keep pace with religious, social and cultural progress, many words and terms have been derived from foreign languages, including Dutch, Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic and Portuguese. Although Bahasa Indonesia has become the lingua franca, local languages and dialects continue to be spoken and will not be abolished; fortunately we have the Bahasa Indonesia is a strong unifying factor in the country indeed. 6) Culture: The modern Republic of Indonesia, born on August 17, 1945, may be relatively young among the world's roster of nations. But it embraces a people whose roots stretch deep into antiquity. Indeed, one of the earliest archaeological discoveries of human life named


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"Java Man" The majority of Indonesia's people are of Malay stock (similar to the original inhabitants of the neighboring countries of Malaysia, Brunei Darusalam and the Philippines). Historically, the Malay people split into dozens of smaller subgroups, dispersing throughout the archipelago in widely varying family structures and language groups. Of these, the most numerous and culturally influential within Indonesia today are the Javanese, inhabitant of Central Java. But equally enduring cultural traditions are to be found among the Sundanese of West Java, the Minahasan people of North Sulawesi. The Bugis and Makassars of South Sulawesi, the Minangkabau of West Sumatra and of course, the people of Bali, famed for their changeless ways. Indonesia also is home to a rich tapestry of other ethnically distinct indigenous people. The Dani, Asmat, and dozens of other tribes of Irian Jaya (the Indonesian province on the island of New Guinea) are of Melanesian stock. The people of Nusa Tenggara (Lesser Sunda) islands, the Dayaks of Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo), and the Batak of North Sumatra, each represent groups of distinct ethnic origins and customs. Indonesia even has one large ethnic subgroup -- the Minangkabau of West Sumatra -- whose matrilineal society is ruled by women, with property passed from mother to daughter, rather from father to son. With diverse traditions of social organization and cultural development in place for hundreds of years, Indonesia's people naturally provide a rich and varied mosaic of artistic and cultural activities in all forms an expressions. Many of Indonesia's smaller ethnic groups -- particularly the Batak, Dayak, Nias and Asmat peoples -- have developed a strongly characteristic form of artistic expression, rendered prolifically in ceremonial objects, fashioned in unique design ornamentation from wood and stone. In the face of such ethnic diversity, the newly formed republic decided following independence that a single, standard, nationwide language was essential as a means of uniting Indonesia's people. To this day, local dialects can still be heard in villages throughout the archipelago. But "Bahasa Indonesia" (which was declared by the Indonesian people in the 1920s, founded on the traditional Malay Language) has met with almost universal acceptance -- making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. The patterns characterizing Indonesia's ethnic history can also be seen in the country's religious development. In successive phases, Indonesia was influenced by the spread of Animism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity. Today, the country's dominant religion is Islam. Indeed, with over 80 percent of the population following the Islamic faith, Indonesia has more Moslem adherents than the entire Arab world together. In spite of this, all major religions continue to be practiced throughout the country, a freedom guaranteed by National Law. Each of the country's four major religions is honored with at least one national holiday every year. Today, the world's most magnificent Buddhist temple, Borobudur, can be found only a few miles from one of Hinduism's most important historic shrines -- Prambanan -- in Central Java. Meanwhile, in modern downtown Jakarta, the city's Roman Catholic cathedral as well as an old protestant church and Istiqlal, the largest of its Islamic mosques, stand only a few hundred meters apart. Because Indonesia achieved national independence through revolution, the early years of the new republic were focused on forging a consensus of national unity and basic political orientation under the leadership of Soekarno, the nation's founding president. The first two decades following independence were marked by political and economic turbulence not uncommon among countries in the initial stages of nation building. By the late 1960's,


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however, following several years of "growing pains" -- characterized by intense liberating internal struggles -- Indonesia succeeded in resolving its early difficulties, including a period of severe political volatility in 1965-1966.



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1.2. GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER RELATED CHARACTERISTICS Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. It consists of five major islands and about 30 smaller groups. The figure for the total number of islands is 17,508 according to the Indonesian Naval Hydro-Oceanographic office. The archipelagos on a crossroads between two oceans, the Pacific and the Indian, and bridges two continents, Asia and Australia. This strategic position has always influenced he cultural, social, political and economic life of the country.

The territory of the Republic of Indonesia stretches from 6°8' North Latitude to 11°65' South Latitude, and from 94°45' East Longitude. The Indonesian sea area is four times greater than its land area, which is about 1,904 millions km2. The sea area is about 7.9 million km2; (including an exclusive economic zone) and constitutes about 81% of the total area of the country. There are five main islands: Sumatra, which is about 473,606 km2. In size; the most fertile and densely populated islands, Java/Madura, 132,107 km2; Kalimantan, which comprises two-thirds of the island of Borneo and measures 539,460 km2; Sulawesi, 189,216 km2; and Papua, 421,981 km2, which is part of the world's second largest island, New Guinea. Indonesia's other islands are smaller in size. The archipelago is divided into three groups. The island of Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan, and the small islands in-between, lie on the Sunda Shelf which begin on the coasts of Malaysia and Indo China, where the sea depth does not exceed 700 feet (213 m), Papua which is part of the island of New Guinea, and the Aru Islands lie on the Sahul Shelf, which stretches northwards from the Australian coast. Here the sea depth is similar to that of the Sunda Shelf. Located between these two shelves is the island group of Nusatenggara, Maluku and Sulawesi, where the sea depth reaches 15,000 feet (4.57 km). Coastal plains have been developed around the islands of Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Papua. The land area is generally covered by thick tropical rain forests, where fertile soils are continuously replenished by volcanic eruptions like those on the island of Java.

Geography plays distinct role in the remarkable diversity of Indonesia's abundant plant and animal life. The 19th Century British botanist Alfred Russell Wallace, who is credited, together with Darwin, with the theory of evolution, determined a precise line of demarcation between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok -- the "Wallace Line" -- which separates the flora and fauna found throughout Asia from those unique to Australasia. This distinct characteristic sometimes called the "Ring of Fire" (referring to the chain of active volcanoes that form its spine) Indonesia also is the sole habitat for several of the world's most unusual living species -- ranging from the menacing Komodo Dragon, a 10-foot carnivorous lizard, to a bizarre flower known as Rafflesia, with damp and tropical petals opening more than a meter in diameter. Just as the forces of geography and climate strongly influenced these islands in the past, they continue to play a critical role in shaping the evolving nature of Indonesia today.

Beginning as a loosely structured amalgam of autonomous regions and races, Indonesia has worked intensely to develop a common national language and a shared political ideology. Together, these have played a crucial role in forging former fiefdoms into today's proud


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unified nation. It was with good reason that the new country adopted as its motto the slogan Bhinneka Tunggal Ika. Taken from the ancient Sanskrit means "Unity in Diversity" - aptly expressing the rich complexity of the people of Indonesia and their nation.

1.2.1. INDONESIA STANDARD TIME
As of January 1, 1988, Indonesia's three time zones have been changed as below: (1) Western Indonesia Standard Time equals GMT plus 7 hours (meridian 10.50E), covering all provinces in Sumatra and Java, and the provinces of West and Central Kalimantan; (2) Central Indonesia Standard Time equals GMT plus 8 hours (meridian 12.00E), covering the provinces of East and South Kalimantan, all provinces in Sulawesi, and the provinces of Bali, West and East Nusatenggara and East Timor; (3) Eastern Indonesia Standard Time equals GMT plus 9 hours (meridian 13.50E, covering the provinces of Maluku and Papua.
1.2.2. TERRITORIAL WATERS AND EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE When independence was proclaimed and sovereignty gained, Indonesia had to enact laws to govern the seas in accordance with the geographic structure of an archipelago state. This, however, did not mean that the country would bar international passage. The laws were necessary instruments for the unity and national resilience of the country, with a territory that embraces all the islands, the islets and the seas in between.
In view of the country’s susceptibility to foreign intervention from the sea and for domestic security reasons, on December 13, 1957, the Indonesian Government issued a declaration on the territorial waters of the Republic. It stated that all the waters surrounding and between the islands in the territory came within Indonesia’s sovereignty. It also determined that the country’s territorial water limit was 12 miles, measured from a straight baseline drawn from the outermost points of the islands. In the past, archipelago states like Indonesia have unilaterally determined their 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones. Today such economic zones are confirmed by the International Convention on the Law of the Sea, which was ratified by the Indonesian Government on October 18, 1983, by Act No. 5 of the same year. This is the legal basis of Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone.
1.3. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND WEATHER The climate and weather of Indonesia is characterized by two tropical seasons, which vary with the equatorial air circulation (The Walker Circulation) and the meridian air circulation (The Hardley Circulation). The displacement of the latter follows the north-south movement
of the sun and its relative position from the earth, in particular from the continents of Asia and Australia, at certain periods of the year. These factors contribute to the displacement and intensity of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is an equatorial trough the low pressure that produces rain. Thus, the west and east monsoons, or the rainy and dry seasons, are a prevalent feature of the tropical climate.
1.3.1. THE MAIN SEASONS In general, the climate changes every six months. The dry season (June to September) is influenced by the Australian continental air masses; while the rainy season (December to



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March) is the result of the Asian and Pacific Ocean air masses. The air contains vapor, which


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precipitates and produces rain in the country. Tropical areas have rains almost the whole year round. However, the climate of Central Maluku and the East Coast of South Sulawesi is an exception. The rainy season is from June to September and the dry season from December to March. The transitional periods between the two seasons are April to May and October to November.

1.3.2. ANNUAL RAINFALL
The rainfall is fairly and evenly distributed throughout the year in other parts of the country with somewhat heavier rain in the wet season. The wet and dry seasons are distinguished with monsoons. The driest regions of Indonesia receive 500 to 1,000 mm yearly; the lowlands in the country receive 1,800 to 3,200 mm, while Kalimantan and Sumatra have 3,000 to 3,700 mm of rainfall. Sumatra has higher rainfall on the highlands. Some mountainous areas in Irian Java receive about 6,400 mm a year. Rain forests flourish in Indonesia's hot and humid climate.
1.3.3. TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY Average local temperatures vary little throughout the year resulting in the determination of the seasons on the rainfall differences. Java and lesser Sunda have distinct dry season with little rainfall. Due to the large number of islands and mountains in the country, average
temperatures may be classified as follows: coastal plains: 28°C inland and mountain areas: 26°C higher mountain areas: 23°C, varying with the altitude. Being in a tropical zone, Indonesia has an average relative humidity between 70% and 90%, with a minimum of 73% and a maximum of 87%.
1.3.4. VOLCANOES The country is predominantly mountainous with some 400 volcanoes, of which 100 are active. Mountains higher than 9,000 feet (2.75 km) are found on the islands of Sumatra (Mt.
Leuser and Mt. Kerinci), Java (Mt. Gede, Mt. Tangkubanperahu, Mt. Ciremai, Mt. Kawi, Mt. Kelud, Mt. Semeru and Mt. Raung), Sulawesi (Mt. Lompobatang and Mt. Rantekombala), Bali (Mt. Batur and Mt. Agung), Lombok (Mt. Rinjani) and Sumbawa (Mt. Tambora). The highest mountain is the perpetually snow-capped Mandala Top (15,300 feet or about 4.7 km) in the Jaya Wijaya mountain range of Irian Jaya (Papua). The recorded eruptions of volcanoes so far over the last two decades are: Sumatra - Dempo 1973, and 1974, Merapi 1978, Sorik Merapi 1989, Kerinci 1990; Sunda Strait Anak Krakatau 1978 and 1979; Java - Bromo 1972, Merapi 1972 and 1976, Raung 1978, Semeru 1978 and 1979, Butak Petarangan (Sinila and Sigludar) 1979; Paluweh - Rokatenda 1978, Galunggung 1982, Slamet 1988, Kelud 1990; Sulawesi - Lokon 1978, 1979 and 1991, Siau - Karangetang 1978 and 1979, Colo 1983, Soputan 1989; Maluku - Dukono 1978, Gamalama Kie Besi 1987, Banda Api 1988; East Nusa Tenggara - Lewotobi Laki-laki 1990.
1.3.5. WATER RESOURCES, RIVERS AND LAKES The overall accessible water resources potential of Indonesia is estimated at about 2,530 km3, (about 1,847,246 m3/annum) scattered over river basins throughout the archipelago, of which about 2% (96m3/capita/year) is currently utilized for agriculture at about 76%, domestic at



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about 11.5%, and industries at about 13,5%. These water resources are scattered throughout the country at about 5,886 rivers and tributaries with the overall length of about 18,000 km. The major rivers are also served for substantial inland transportation such as the Musi,


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Batanghari, Indragiri, and Kampar rivers in Sumatra; the Kapuas, Barito, Mahakam, and Rajang Rivers in Kalimantan; the Memberamo and Digul rivers in Papua. In Java Island, rivers are dominantly utilized for irrigation, such as the Bengawan Solo, Citarum, Ciliwung and Brantas Rivers. A number of islands are dotted with scenic lakes, like the Toba, Maninjau and Singkarak lakes on Sumatra; the Tempe, Towuti, Sidenreng, Poso, Limboto, Tondano, and Matana lakes on Sulawesi; and the Paniai and Sentani lakes on Irian Jaya. Beside these, a total of 33.4 million ha of lowlands (consisted 20.1 million ha of tidal lowlands, and 13.3 million ha inland swamps) in the eastern coast of Sumatra and Papua, as well as some 521 major natural lakes scattered over the country have also been identified.

1.4. AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is Indonesia's major economic activity. The farms are large plantations where coffee, palm oil, rubber, sugarcane, tea and tobacco are raised for export. Indonesia is a large producer of rice which is the main crop grown on small farms. Bananas, cassava, coconuts, maize, peanuts, spices and sweet potatoes are also grown. Major cash crop in Indonesia is rubber, which is exported. The total land area suitable for agriculture in Indonesia is 181.17 Mha of which arable and permanently cropped area is 30.2 Mha, while non-arable lands contribute 150.98 Mha. Forests and woodlands enable Indonesia to produce large amounts of valuable hardwoods like teak and ebony. Bamboo is also produced in abundance. Estate management and agriculture is widely practiced in Java and Sumatra whereas on other islands the estates are fewer. Soils in Kalimantan, Sulaweri and Sumatra are poor because of excessive leaching by heavy rains and irrigation is needed where rainfall is less than 1,000 mm while the extensive swampy soils of the alluvial plains of Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Irian require drainage before being put to useful cultivation.
1.4.1. ROLE OF AGRICULTURE In 2000 some 73.22% of the total land area is devoted to agriculture. Land area for estates accounted the largest of around 16.7 million hectares, arable dry land approximately 12.9 million hectares, woods around 8.8 million hectares and wet land around 7.8 million hectares.
The smallest was land used for brackish and fresh-water pond, which covered only 0.5 million hectares and 0.2 million hectares respectively. The rest of 17.2 million hectares constituted of temporarily fallow land (9.7 million hectares), house compound and surrounding (5.2 million hectares) and grassland (2.2 million hectares). Despite that the country is an agricultural one, agriculture’s contribution to the country GDP’s, in 2000, accounted for only 16.39% against 26.11% of manufacturing industry.
1.4.2. Policy and Strategy Early in 1970s, agricultural policy in Indonesia has been primarily concerned with implementing production-based policies designed to pursue food self-sufficiency. Since 1967, Indonesian agricultural development policies have been focused on achieving food self-



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sufficiency in rice. This goal was reached in 1984, when, for the first time, domestic rice production exceeded domestic rice consumption. The agricultural development is carried out through a strategy that is aimed at increasing optimum benefit of domestic resources, extending agricultural development spectrum through technology diversification, resources, production and consumption, improving the application of local and applicable technology, engineering, and improving agricultural productivities.


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In order to increase rice output, the Indonesian government was forced to expand cultivated land area. This expansion was accomplished by investing large amounts of government funds into infrastructure projects, such as the building of roads and processing facilities, and the development of new irrigation networks. The strategy to expand cultivated land area also relied on Indonesia's Transmigration Program. This program involved moving farmer from over populated areas and resettling them on irrigation developed land.

1.4.3. PRODUCTIVITY
Production of rice in Indonesia showed a concentration on Java Island, where rice was produced around 56.11% or 28.3 million tons of total production of the country. The harvest area of rice on Java reached 49.57% of the whole harvest area in Indonesia with a productivity of 49.7 quintals per hectare in 2001. Meanwhile, production of second crops such as maize, cassava and sweet potato showed an increase of 2.89%, 3.20% and 3.19% in 2001 compared to that of the year 2000’s productivity. Meanwhile, the productivity of soybean decreased around 1.30% compared to that of the year 2000’s productivity. More than 50% of second crops namely maize, cassava, peanuts and soybeans grow in Java, except the sweet potato is less than 50% in Java. This means that the soil of Java Island is the right kind for the second crops. Therefore, it should be maintained carefully in order to increase the harvest area and the productivity of the food crops in terms of quantity and quality. Java Island has been also dominant in producing vegetables. It was estimated that in 2001 the percentage of all vegetable productions on Java would be about the same as production in 2000. The highest yield per hectare was cabbage (20.0 tons per hectare), followed by carrots (16.4 tons per hectare). In 2001, most of yield per hectare of vegetables predicted to decrease, except potatoes and cabbage. Yield per hectare of potatoes and cabbages were estimated to increase to 13.5 tons per hectare and 21.6 tons per hectare respectively. The main objective of the government policy are to increase agricultural productivity and thereby to ensure that farmers have better standard of living, to stabilize the agricultural market, to guarantee regular supplies of food and to provide these supplies at reasonable prices. In the recent reformation era, focus of agricultural development is placed on transforming the comparative advantage in agricultural and marine resources into a strong competitive advantage. In this way Indonesian economy has a strong domestic resource base, has a competitive strength and consistently developed for the well being of the people. The policy also aimed for empowering the farmers and the rural communities, by providing capital assistance for them to buy seeds, fertilizer and pesticide, carries out the development of agricultural industry including animal husbandry and plantation. Also by giving assistance for pest control and combat plant diseases, improve the marketing system especially on market channels and production processing, improving services for guidance and information. In 2001 the number of people engaged in agriculture was nearly 39.7 million. The development of agriculture covers food crops, estate crops, forestry, animal husbandry and fisheries.
1.4.4. FORESTRY Development policy in the field of forestry is aimed at improving the efficiency of logging and forestry industries. It is designed to complement the conservative forest processing system that supports the interest of local population, develop conservation and protection of



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forest resources. It is also meant to speed up the process of conflict resolution in the area and


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forest, which is community based, and develops social forests, agro-forestry and community owned forest. It also concerns in the formation of social institutions that can manage the area integrally and improve control of forest clearing and forest fire, accompanied by law enforcement towards violations against forest resources, productive forest, and park and reservation forest. The total area of protection forest until March 2001 was estimated at 32.33 million hectares, or about 28.62% of the total area of forest. Production forest reached 57.4 million hectares, consisting of 35.8 million hectares of limited production forest, 21.6 million hectares of non-convertible forest and 13.7 million hectares of convertible production forest. The total area of park and reservation forest was 23.3 million hectares. In an effort to conserve the availability of forest in Indonesia, the Government has been carrying out reforestation programs. The realization of reforested areas covered around 11.6 thousand hectares during the fiscal year of 1999-2000, and 9.6 thousand hectares during the year of 2000. It means that the program of reforestation reached 85.85% in the fiscal year of 1999-2000 and 93.25% during the year of 2000. The critical land areas were recorded to be around 23.7 million hectares at the beginning of 1999-2000 with approximately 65% of it was located outside of the forest area and the rest was inside forest area. The critical land area that would be restored during the period of 1999- 2000 to 2003 was 3.97 million hectares,
comprising of 68% outside forest area and the rest within the forest area. These figures showed that the target of rehabilitation program only accomplished 16.72% of all critical land areas.
(Source: Indonesia 2003, An Official Handbook, National Information Agency, Republic of Indonesia)

1.4.5. IRRIGATION Irrigation has been practiced in Indonesia especially on Java Island and Bali for rice since the ancient time with the simple and least sophisticated networks. Indonesia has several river streams in the large islands of Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Irian. The important rivers are Brantas, Solo, Ciliwung, and Citarum on Java Java, Asahan and Musi on Sumatra. Barito,
Kapuas, Mahakam, Rajau and Kahajan lie in Kalimantan. It also has rich ground water resources particularly the aquifers in the vicinity of the lava streams. The total internal water resources of the country stood at 2,530 BCM (1987) of which a quantity of 16.6 BCM was being withdrawn with an allocation of 76% to agriculture, whereas the irrigated area in 1995 was 4.58 Mha. Irrigation in Indonesia has been developed through the five year development plan and a number of projects have been implemented which include Brantas river basin development, regional plan in West Java, Sempor dam and irrigation project and Bali irrigation project. Drainage needs have been developed in several islands of Indonesia particularly in Kalimantan and Sumatra Islands. The implementation of irrigation and drainage has been conducted in Indonesia since the Dutch Colonial Period. Large rice fields on lowland areas were connected by excavating channels and connecting them to tidal rivers which inundate the fields during the high tide and drain off during low-tides, thus converting a marsh land into a fertile agricultural lands in about two years time. During one of the five-year plans (1974-1979), almost 272,000 ha of tidal areas and swamplands were reclaimed. Indonesia has also promulgated a number of laws for governing water resources.
1.4.6. ICID AND INDONESIA Indonesia joined the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage – ICID, in 1950 as a founder member country. The Indonesian National Committee of ICID has been actively



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participated in the ICID activities. Currently, Indonesian National Committee is represented


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on three work bodies of ICID while it has also a Vice President Hon, Dr. Suyono Sosrodarsono (1972-1975). The National Committee's publication of Sejarah Irigasi di Indonesia or History of Irrigation in Indonesia, in the Indonesian Language, by the late Ir. Abdullah Angoedi, published in 1984 gives an account of historical development of irrigated agriculture in Indonesia and a list of dams and irrigation systems constructed prior to 1969. The National Committee has hosted the 49th meeting of the ICID's International Executive Council and the 10th (the last) Afro-Asian Regional Conference in July 1998. From this point in time, the Afro-Asian Regional Conference divided into two regions namely, African Region and Asian Region of ICID respectively – Indonesia belongs to Asian Region.

1.5. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

1.5.1. ANCIENT HISTORY Irrigation history in Indonesia has been significantly related with rice production in lowland areas as the staple diet of the people since the ancient time. In this regards, no evidence had been indicating the exact time when irrigated rice fields was initially practiced in Indonesia, except some stone inscriptions indicating that lowland rice fields had long been known in Indonesia. Similarly, no exact evidence that could explain the origin of lowland rice fields as the folk-plant of people in most Asian countries, today. A number of scholars argued that in Southeast Asia in particular, the traditional communities with distinct civilization had already existed, which believed to be much comparable with other civilizations in Asia, even with ancient Indian. Another scholar argues that the ancient migrants of Don-Sun Civilization from Asian continent during the decades of BC stranded in the Brantas Delta of the Eastern Java Island and ever-since decided to settle in the Kediri Area (as known today). During that period, they mutually practiced their livelihood based on civilization they brought along from their place of origin, including upland rice cultivation. As the fertile land resources became more and more scarce, in addition to occasional volcanic disasters from the eruption of Mount Kelud, they begun to make adaptation with natural conditions, including construction of dykes along the bank of Brantas River to protect themselves from occasional floods and sand drifts due to volcanic eruptions. Learning from experiences, they gradually expanded irrigated agricultural techniques by inventing simple irrigation for lowland rice fields, having the fact that upland rice fields are nor longer sustainable. Having experienced the prospective livelihood in the
newly invented destination, they then decided to settle in this area for good. This ancient civilization is evidently believed to be the origin of irrigated agricultural practices in Indonesian Archipelago (Angoedi A., 1984. p.p.3-4.).
1.5.2. THE HINDU ERA According to the existing folklore as well as some ancient inscriptions, there are adequate reasons to believe that irrigation development in Indonesia must had been practiced longer before the Hindu people came to the area. Much of the traditional legends in the community



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elucidate that at the time of the fist Hindu generation came to Indonesia, they came across that the ancient inhabitant had already widely practiced lowland rice fields on Java Island. In fact, they named the Java Island after the Jawa-Dwipa Island, which derives from the compound words “jawawut” means rice and ”dwipa” means island, or Rice Island. The Jawa-Dwipa is strongly believed to be the origin of the term “Pulau Jawa”, known today in English as the Java Island. Since rice is an aquatic plant and rice cultivation was discovered by the first Hindu migrant to be widely cultivated by the local people in the lowlands areas of Java, there


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must had been intervention or involvement of irrigation technique since that time, disregarding however simple it was. Based on a number of stone inscriptions on Java Island, it is strongly argued that during the Hindu Era, the Hindu Emperors for fulfilling adequate food supplies of the peoples had widely practiced irrigation for rice fields. For illustration, the stone inscription from Dharmawangsa Emperor dated 958 Caka-Year or 1037 AD stated that a series of dyke construction works were undertaken by the emperor at the Waringin Sapta, next to the
Brantas river banks for protecting human settlement as well as agricultural areas in the vicinity of the middle reach of the Brantas River (located in the East Java Province, today). In addition, another stone inscription of the Tulodong Kingdom mentions about the tax exemption for Bari (a Hindu priest, and his descendants), for constructing the Harinjing and Srinjing irrigation infrastructures at the western lowland basin of Kediri and Daha Kingdoms of the eastern part on Java Island (Wirosumarto, S., 1997, pp. 3-4).
1.5.3. THE ISLAMIC KINGDOMS As the Hindu Emperor fading away from Java, the Islamic Era came to Indonesia at about the 13th Century. The first Islamic Kingdom in Indonesia was Perlak-Pasai in Sumatra (Aceh), which was established in 1290. The historical records indicate that the initial Islamic Religion
in Java was introduced by Maulana Malik Ibrahim in Gersik, East Java in 1419, and the establishment of the first Islamic Kingdom in Java, the “Demak Kingdom”, in 1513 ruled by the first king Raden Patah (1513-1546). In 1521, the Pasai Kingdom in Sumatra was conquered by Portuguese, and in 1527, Falatehan invaded the Banten Kingdom in Western Java, and became the first Islamic Kingdom in Western Java. The Islamic religion was peacefully spread throughout the archipelago by traders and gradually embraced all layers of the society in Java as well as the upper classes in the Outer Islands. During these periods, the irrigated agricultural implementation played strategic roles for the Islamic kingdoms, and hence, a number of adjustments as well as improvements were made against the previous irrigated agricultural practices. As a matter of facts, there are some evidences to believe that the Islamic Kingdom of Demak in the Central Java was known to be the major rice-exporting source to supply the entire part of the Nusantara (ancient term of Indonesia) archipelago (Wirosoemarto, S., 1997, p.3). This matter with some other evidences indicate that irrigated agriculture for rice has already been implemented with appropriate water management on almost the entire lowland plains of the northern parts of Java Island. Despite the fact that the successful extent of irrigated rice fields in this area is due to appropriate natural soil properties as well as the advantage of adequate rainfall in the area. Whatever water management, and however simple it was, must had been practiced, eventhough the areas were mainly provided for rainfed agriculture.
1.5.4. TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL HERITAGES With regards of the historical evidences on irrigation, however, it must be acknowledged that the overview presented for ancient history of irrigation has yet come to its ultimate extent. In fact, there are a number of traditional irrigated agricultural practices that had been descended



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from ancient Indonesian civilizations such as -- the “Subak” System in Bali Province, “Dawur Pranatamangsa” in Central and East Java Provinces, “Tuo Banda” or “Siak Bandar” in West Sumatra Province, “Tudang Sipulung” in South Sulawesi, “Panriahan Pamokahan” and “Siauga Parjolo” in North Sumatra, “Panitia Siring” in South Sumatra and Bengkulu Provinces, including some institutional based traditional agriculture such as


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“Ulu-ulu Desa”, and “Ulu-ulu Vak” in Central Java, “Raksa Bumi” in West Java, “Ili-ili” in East Java, “Malar” or “Ponggawa” in Sumbawa Island, and “Kejrueng Blang” in Aceh Province -- and yet still currently being implemented in many of today’s irrigated agricultural communities in the respective areas (For more information, see the Supplement Papers including: “The Ancient Irrigated Agricultural Heritages in Indonesia”, illustrating the detailed information about some of these traditional agricultural heritages). These in themselves are the concrete explanation of the past existence of irrigation based agricultural practices, though they do not give indication of the exact date of the initial inventions. Whoever might be the inventors of the ancient irrigation agricultural techniques, they must had been based on systematical observations and long-term trials and errors to meet and adjust with the existing demands and constrains from generation to generations. Above all, the implementation of ancient techniques must have been based on appropriate and long-term educational extensions, given the presumption of the absence of formal education and appropriate training techniques in those days. To this extent, further studies and evidences are
required in order to be able to improve the factual deliberations of this historical manuscript. In this regard, therefore, all of information outlined in these sessions are opened for future corrections or improvement.
1.5.5. THE COLONIAL ERA The Dutch started their venture to Indonesian Archipelago in 1596 by Cornelis de Houtman to seek spices, which they sold in European markets (Lisboa, Portuguese) to gain big profit. For



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facilitating the spice trade activities, the Dutch Government established the so called the “Vereenigde Oost Indiche Compagnie -- VOC” or the Dutch East India Company in 1602 with the aim as to exploit the spice islands in the Indonesian Archipelago for European market. As the VOC’s merchant fleets were often not free from pirate attacks, therefore, their sailings to East were later on accompanied by Dutch warship escorts. Following the nationalization of the Dutch East Indie Trading Company by the Dutch Government in 1799, the exploitation of Indonesian commodities for Europe developed into Dutch suzerainty over Indonesian territories where the people on such territories were levied by force or monopolistic to make agricultural tributes to the Dutch. In fact, the Dutch colonialism in Indonesia was officially pronounced previously in 1605. The Capital Sunda Kelapa was replaced by the Dutch name “Batavia” (or Jakarta today), (IIN, 2002, p.21, and Badrika, I.W., et.al., 1993, p.184).

Early at the beginning of the Dutch Colonial Era in Indonesia (referred to by the Dutch Colonial Government as the “Netherlands Indie”) not much effort were addressed to irrigation development due to their special attention on spice trade. This was the case because the Dutch still give concentration of spice products rather than irrigated agriculture, which by nature, considered as public services oriented undertaking. Apart from that, traditional irrigation infrastructures were still available to provide adequate food supplies for the people. There were a number of irrigation works and expansion of rice cultivations in Bali Island and in Java as well as on the Other Islands through mutual aid (gotong royong) system. Irrigation for private lands were also constructed in the Tangerang Plain, Bekasi and Cikarang, as well as in the vicinity of Batavia and Bogor for land-lords by virtue of “heerendienst” or obligatory labor force for the Land Lord. Among the irrigation system, the Ciliwung Katulampa, Cisedane Empang and Cibalok are still in operation today after more that 250 years, though their physical conditions are increasingly deteriorated.


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a) Approaching the Early 20th Century: By the year of 1800, the Dutch Colonial Government suffered from severe financial insolvency as the result of the debt of VOC, at an amount of about 120 million Netherlands Guilders. This financial depression worsen by the broke up of the prolong war in Europe and later with several wars with nationalist movements in Indonesia. In an attempt to resolve the prolong financial crises, immediately after the end of Diponegoro War in 1830, the Dutch Colonial Government assigned the Governor General Van Den Bosh to enforce compulsory agricultural policy, so called as ”Cultuur Stelsel” or “Verplichte Cultuur” or mandatory agricultural policy. The Cultuur Stelsel imposed the farmers to cultivate 20% of agricultural lands they have with commercial plantation and cash crops such as rubber, coffee, tea, and pepper for upland areas and for lowland areas with “nila (genus corchorus)” and sugar cane, as the highly market potential agricultural products in Europe those days. The agricultural product for the 20% farmland should be fully surrendered to the Dutch Colonial Authority, and the products received to be regarded as the payment of land tax in lieu of the “Land Rente” tax obligation that had been prescribed by the Colonial Government since 1813. b) The Impacts of Compulsory Agricultural Policy: To support the colonial policy, several irrigation schemes were constructed, including the Sampean Irrigation Scheme in East Java, Delta Brantas Scheme and the Pekalen Scheme in East Java, as well as the Pemali Comal Irrigation Scheme in Central Java. The Colonial government considered the program as highly successful implementation as the economic crisis had been recovered within not too long. In practice, however, from the stand point of local people, the Cutuur Stelsel policy was not only forced the farmer to surrender the 20% of their land products but also insisted to undertake forced-labor works (heerendienst) at the colonial estate farms. Despite the permit for farmers to use the remaining irrigation water for food crops, during the off seasons of cash crops, this policy implementation was almost used up all of the productive capacity of the farmer to earn income for him and the family members. As a result, a slight climate change from normal pattern would make the farmers suffered from severe devastation and starvation. During the “Cultuur Stelsel” enforcement, frequent incidents of hunger were recorded to make hundred of thousand of deaths due to starvation on Java Island alone. c) Pioneering Period for Irrigation Technique: From the irrigation engineering point of view, provision of irrigation for supporting the Cultuur Stelsel Policy considered as the pioneering period, as irrigation planning and construction implementation were undertaken almost without any basic technical and agro-climatological data. At that time, practically no data on hydrology, hydrometry, geology, topographical maps as well as laboratories to back up the planning and technical design were available. Due to the fact that most Dutch engineers had no experience to work for irrigation, especially in tropical regions, the technical designs were merely conducted based on subjective assumptions and by means of trial and error. Not surprisingly, that many irrigation schemes were failure to meet the objective previously intended in the design. For example, the Sampean Weir in Situbondo, which was constructed in 1832, was totally collapsed before it could be fully utilized. It was only in 1887 when the weir reconstructed with permanent structure that made it strong enough to perform water diversion till today. d) Establishment of the Colonial Ministry of Public Works: As the public infrastructures became more and more demanding, the Colonial Government established the Ministry of Public Works in 1855, dealing with the provision of public infrastructures, including water


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resources and irrigation. Given the special importance of water resources and irrigation, later in 1885 the Special Department for Water Resources and Irrigation Development was established. At the same year, a Special Irrigation Division was established under the Department of Water Resources to deal with the construction of special irrigation projects. In 1889 the Irrigation Division was transformed into a formal structural institution termed as Water Resources Services or Algemene Waterstaatdienst in Dutch. With the establishment of the Water Resources Services, the systematic and comprehensive implementation of water resources as well as irrigation development and management had gradually become more effective. This institution has been developed and managed consistently, and later after the country’s independence, it became the Directorate General of Water Resources, which
responsible for water resources and irrigation development and management under the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures (Public Works) till present.
1.5.6. THE ETHICAL POLICY (ETHISCHE POLITIEK) Approaching the end of the 19th Century, due to a number of internal and external political considerations – the Dutch Colonial Government eventually put an end to the Cultuur Stelsel or Compalsory Agricultural Policy. Instead, they transform the colonial policy into “goodwill



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strategy” referred to as the Ethische Politiek or Ethical Policy. The slogan of Ethical Policy comprised of three major endeavors: (1) Irrigation; (2) Emigration; and (3) Education.

As the follow up of the Ethical Policy, the Dutch Colonial Government commissioned a study in 1902, to examine the possibility of resolving the problem of over–population and land fragmentation on Java where the large local population surplus was regarded by the Dutch as a potential source of political tension and unrest. This study recommended for moving people from the densely populated areas in Java to the sparsely populated areas in other parts of Indonesia.

In response to this recommendation, the first resettlement experiment was carried out three years later by moving 155 families from Java to Lampung, Southern Sumatra under the Irrigation Based Approach. The objective of the resettlement program was not only to reduce the population pressure on Java but also to contribute to the development of sparsely populated "Outer Islands" (Geertz, 1963) by providing more manpower for agricultural development (Gany, A. H.A.; 1993.)

Subsequently, the first stage of migration started in October 19th 1905, initiated by H.G. Heytings who, with the help of two assistants and two irrigation water masters, moved 155 families from Java to Gedong Tataan in South Lampung District of Southern Sumatra. This was recorded in the history as the birth of irrigation based human resettlement program termed as colonisatie or transmigration program in Indonesia, the impacts of which were subsequently documented as the historical momentum of the spread of technical irrigation development and management throughout the archipelago. a) Pre Independence Period: Despite the obvious advantages, one of the immediate consequences of the widespread of irrigation development and management implementation is the gradual declining of land-water resources potentials, especially on Java and other densely populated islands. In line with this, the rapid escalation of population also brought about demands for intensification of irrigation on the “Inner Islands” on the one hand and extensification of irrigation on the “Outer Islands”, on the other. Being the case, irrigation development policy addressed the water conservation program on Java Island and the


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program of irrigation expansion on the Outer Islands. For determining the priority, the underlying constrains of continuous declining of resource potentials and population demands are regarded as the determinant parameters that dictate the extent of development priority. At the initial follow up stage, after a sound analysis the development priorities were set up for the eastern coast of Sumatra, then, set up for South Sulawesi. Subsequently, the irrigation development priorities were directed toward other Outer Islands, with special focus on the transmigrant destination areas. Unfortunately, the development was practically terminated in 1930’s due to severe economic crisis. In the mean time, the follow up effort to recommence the development effort in the middle of the following decade was again hampered by the break up of the Second World War. For the Inner Islands, intensification program was directed toward construction of reservoirs at the upper part of the river basins on the highland areas, which intended to improve the retention capacity of the river basin during the dry seasons. During the period before the War, several reservoirs ranging from small to large size were constructed in West Java, Central Java and East Java Provinces. For instance, the constructed reservoirs with the storage capacity of more than 30 MCM among others were the Malahayu Dam in Central Java, and the Pacal Reservoir in East Java Province. While the medium sized reservoirs with the storage capacity between 10 and 30 MCM among others were the Prijetan Reservoir in East Java, the Gembong reservoir in Central Java, and the Situpatok Reservoir in West Java Province. Parallel with the development of the medium sized to large sized reservoirs, some 50 small reservoirs were also constructed on the Inner Islands aiming for improving the water storage capacity to serve irrigation demands during the dry seasons on the densely populated areas. During the pre-independence period, till the time before the Second World War, several large irrigation schemes in the northern coast of Java Island as well as in the other parts of the country were also completed. These were the Ciujung, Cisadane, Citarum-Walahar irrigation schemes in North Coast of Java, the Setail Scheme in Banyuwangi, the South Jember plain, the Bagelen, and Southern Banyumas Areas. In addition, the constructed Irrigation schemes on the Outer Islands among others were Simalungun Scheme in North Sumatra, Klingi and Blitang in South Sumatra, Way Sekampung in Lampung, Saddang, Lamasi and Jeneberang schemes in South Sulawesi. For the latter case, the irrigation schemes had not been fully completed, because the construction terminated as the 2nd World War break up. Following the development period in the 1940’s there were practically no irrigation development undertaken at all due to the subsequent break up of the Pacific War. During the 2nd World War up until the Indonesian Independence, irrigation development was completely terminated, except some minor repairs on compulsory basis, during the Japanese Occupation for supporting food supplies of the Japanese Armed forces. During which, 50% irrigated agricultural products had to be surrendered to the Japanese authority for supporting their food supplies. As a result, millions of Indonesian people suffered from hunger and starvation in a matter of a couple of years’ invasion. In addition, a number of construction projects for irrigation infrastructures under the compulsory labor forces (referred to as romusha), such as

weir in Citanduy River for the North Labok area and the South Tulung Agung Tunnel (Neyama) in Tulung Agung were only partially utilized, shortly before the structures completely collapsed.

1.5.7. THE PERIOD AFTER PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE Irrigation development and management in Indonesia after the proclamation (especially during the strugle for independence) of independence encountered by severe economic



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and political uncertainties, and hence, no significant achievement was recorded during this period. Meanwhile, the capacity of the newly established goverment to provide financial support for irrigation development and management was almost paralyzed. Apart from the severe economic condition, the human resources capacity to undertake irrigation development was practically unreliable. After the handing over of the country’s sovereignity from the Dutch Colonial Government, irrigation development in Indonesia, at the same time, recruitment of new engineers was not possible to meet the development demand due to the lack of university graduate engineers. a) Development Programs: At the earlier stage after the recognition of the Republic of Indonesia, the Government made a series of irrigation development planning both for short term, medium term as well as long term, with a special priority on the short term objective, which was the “three-year” development plan from 1951 up until 1953. However, under the limited potentential of financial as well as human resources, the short-term development plan had never been materialized, till the new plan (Five-year Development Plan of 1956-1960) launched. As time passed by, the new five-year development plan came up with the same position as the previous development plan. The subsequent developmen plan of 1961-1968 also faced the same problems and constraints, which unable it to be fully implemented. Political and economic uncertainties of Indonesia was then became more crucial with the emerging issues of integration of West Irian (West Papua) into the Republic of Indonesia, followed by confrontation with British and Malaysia, and culminated wih the attempted coup of the Communist Party on September 30, 1965. During this period, practically no irrigation development was undertaken till the political situation under the New Order Government had been stabilized.
b) The Five-Year Development Plan: Under the New Order Government, the socio-political condition gradually became stablized, and the confrontation policy was replaced with the closer economic and political relationship with the neighbouring countries.
During which, the stabilized political condition brought about new opportunity for the country to conduct new economic development policy. In addition, the development policy had been undertaken



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remarkably progessive with the benefit of the oil boom. From this poin of time, the New Order Government lounched the Long-term development Plan with subsequent commitment on the initial implementation of the first five-year development plan in 1969.

Ir. Soekarno, the First President of Indonesia (wearing black hat and sunglasses) at the inouguration of the construction stage of Jatiluhur Dam, early 1960’s.


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At the first five-year development plan, water resources development had been prioritized by the Government of Indonesia. Despite the special priority, the budgetary allocation for water resources and irrigation development had been lower than the actual requirement. Beside, the budgetary allocation had only been possible for large projects, and hence, the distribution of irrigation development has not been possible to reach the entire parts of the country. The large projects that had been undertaken during the first five year development implementation including: The Cacaban Reservoir in Central Java Province, The Darma Reservoir in West Java Province (which was previously started before PELITA-1), Selorejo and Karangkates Reservoirs in East Java Province, the continuation of the notable Jatiluhur Reservoir with a total irrigation service area of about 240,000 ha, and the Lakbok Irrigation Scheme in West Java Province. At the same period the flood control project of the south Tulung Agung (Phase-I) in East Java Province, in addition to raw water supplies for urban and industries, as well as flood control, power generation, and water based recreation in the Jatiluhur Reservoir. Beside the multipurposes functions of the latter water resources, which cover almost the overall aspects of water resources development, the Jatiluhur Project also considered as the pioneer project on integrated water resources development in Indonesia. This particularly the case for integrating the water resources in the north coast of West Java, which are the Ciliwung River in the western part and Cilalanang River in the East. Most encouraging above all, that the Jatiluhur Multipurpose Project had been conducted under the full capacity of Indonesian engineer from the planning stage, design up to the constuction implementation as well as construction supervision. It is admitted however, that later on, during the operation and maintenence stage in the first long-term development program, like other irrigation
schemes, a number of repairs and improvements had been pursued to the maximum extent of the development objectives.
1.5.8. HIGHLIGHTS OF IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES WORKS AFTER PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE

a) Scope of Water Resources Development: Following the First Five-Year Development Plan, the role of water resources development became increasingly more significant. During the follow up stage, the government gave more attention on the development of water



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resources, particularly irrigation in terms of magnitude, distribution as well as scope of activities. In addition to the past water resources policy by the Dutch government, the scope of water resources development, which was divided into two major program -- irigation (bevloeiing en afwatering) and river works (rivierwerken) – since immediately before the war, two other programs had been included. These were city flushing and, hydraulic power generation (waterkracht). Under the Five Year Development Program, the scope of activities had been included to cover other multifunctionalities of water resources infrastructures including flood control, water transportation, environment conservation and water based recreation. These programs have been initiated in two major river basins, namely the Jatiluhur in West Java Province and the Brantas River Basin in East Java Province. The two river basin projects have extended their activities, not only for irrigation, hydropower and flood control, but also for raw water supplies for drinking water, urban flushing, aquaculture development, as well as water based recreation and sport. In connection with the five year development program, the scope of activities of water resources development were divided into three categories namely: First, arrangement of


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water consumption and utilization consists of: Provision of clean water as well as raw water for domestic and industries; Provision of water for irrigation; Hydropower generation; Provision of water for cooling of thermal and industrial machineries; Water for urban flushing; River and lake transportation; and Water based recreation; Second, prevention of disastrous impacts of water resources consists of: Flood prevention and flood control; Sediment and erosion control, as well as “sabo” (volcanic debris) control from volcanic erruption; and Drainage as well as reclamation works; and Third, prevention as well as preservation of water resources and water ecosystem consists of: Water resources conservation; and Pollution control as well as Water quality management and Upper watershed management. b) Multiple purposes water resources and river basin development: In an attempt to make the optimum advantage of water resources development andmanagement, the project implementations in general has been based upon integrated river basin approach as far as possible. This approach is especially implemented for river basins that are interdependent or having the same impacts, or belongs to the shared water ecosystem or environmental impacts from each other for being served the same areas. Given the integrated and multiple purposes natures of these projects, the construction implementation had been undertaken through appropriate coordination amongst the related agencies. The projects acitivities were based on participatory approach by involving the stakeholders throughout the development phases of the project with the basic principle of “One-river, One-plan, and One- Integrated-Management”. In the long run, however, the large river basins development was based on comprehensive Master Plans by means of integrated basin water resources planning, toward future integrated basin water resources management under one institution or one water resources operator. During the first 25 years long term development program (1969-1994) there were seven multiple purposes and river-basin development projects namely: the Brantas River Basin Project; the Jratunseluna (Jragung, Tuntang, Serang, Lusi, Juana); Bengawan Solo; Serayu; Citanduy; Citarum; and Jenebrang River Basin Projects. Following the river basin development projects, the management of Brantas and Citarum River Basins have been transformed into state owned corporations, the Jasa Tirta-I for Brantas River, and Jasa Tirata-II for the Citarum River Basin. Both state owned companies have been intended for undertaking the sustainable water resources management as the Operating Institutions. c) Irrigation Works: Approaching the first long-term development program, in 1969 the physical condition of irrigation networks in Indonesia had been under highly deteoriorating condition. Irrigation infrastructures including canals and structures were practically suffered from severe damages due to the lack of maintenance within the last few years. It was estimated that the remaining service function of irrigation system was between 40% and 60% of the overall capacity. Meanwhile, the new irrigation development had been completely stopped since before the War. And hence, the cropping intensity as well as agricultural productivity declined significantly, during which, Indonesia had suffered from severe deficit of rice production as the staple food of the people. Under such condition, the effort was concentrated on the implementation of Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of the existing facilities while pursuing the immediately affordable repairs to increase the serviceability of the irrigation infrastuctures. In the mean time, the development of new scheme had been concentrated on quick yielding projects, while extending irrigation areas through improvement, rehabilitation and


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upgrading of the already existing schemes. Due to long time requirement for provision of new irrigation schemes, then construction of new irrigation schemes were only based on the most urgent priority such as large schemes particularly for the project that had been terminated during the War. With this development policy, within 15 years, Indonesia had been managed to attain self sufficiency on rice production since 1984 after previously known as the largest importing country for rice at the early stage of the five-year development in 1969.

For sustaining self sufficiency on rice, while keeping pace with the new irrigation development, the policy of irrigation development in the remaining period of the First Long Term Development Program was set up for irrigation development by means of appropriate economic planning as well as feasible technical consideration. The development stage directed toward systematical planning sequences from project identification, reconnaissance study, pre-feasibility study, economic and technical feasibility study identifying social and other non technical aspects, then technical design prior to physical implementation.

In line with the above policy, and for supporting agricultural extensification program, a spacial irrigation development program was set up for supporting the mass development of small-scale irrigation schemes, referred to as the “simple irrigation-scheme” having the general criteria as follows: (1) The service area limited to the maximum of 500 ha for each individual scheme, with some exceptions depending upon local circumstances; (2) The topographical condition allows construction of simple irrigation scheme in that particular location; (3) The construction implementation through stages, such that each stage should directly having productive function to support irrigated agricultural activities of the rural community; (3) To meet the immediate support for rural agricultural community, and to avoid problems on land compensation and other non-technical aspects, special priority also given to the previously rainfed land for rice as far as possible.

d) Irrigation development strategy during the First Long-Term Development: Given all the technical as well as the non-technical problems and constraints on irrigation development implementation, the overall policy and strategy for irrigation development and management had been adjusted as the following: (1) Irrigation development priority should address rehabilitation works of the already existing irrigation schemes, that had been abandoned due to the absence of timely operation and maintenance endeavors; (2) Under the special condition, either due to the magnitude or due the accessibility for the scattered location, rehabilitation works should be divided into phases. The first phase addresses the major botle-necks, then the following phases targeted to full operation of the scheme to meeting appropriate operation; (3) Whenever possible, rehabilitation works must be incorporated with other upgreading, reconstruction as well as re-modeling and extension works, to meet the optimum possible extent of the irrigation scheme referred to; (4) For the large new-schemes, all of the development activities must be conducted through adequate and systematical preparatory works, planning and technical design. Both the technical and non-technical aspects associated with the development, such as social, economic, cultural, as well as environment must be considered soundly.

Following the irrigation develoment strategy, right at the beginning of the First Five Year Development, mass rehabilitation program had been conducted for almost the


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entire irrigation schemes in Indonesia, that had been suffered from severe degradation interms of physical as well as serviceability.

e) Lowlands (swamps) Development: Parallel with conventional irrigation schemes, Indonesia posess a huge lowlands potentials scattered over the country, in particular on Sumatra Island, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya (West Papua). According to the physical as well as water water management, the swamplands divided into three major categories namely: inland swamps, tidal swamps and barakish water or saline water swamps.

Inland swamps caterory is generally located in the upper middle reach of the river basin, and not affected by tydal movement or direct inflows or outflows from the sea. This category has long been recognized as the higly potential area for agricultural development. On Java Island, the lowlands Swamp for agriculture usually refers to as the “Bono-rowo”, which are commonly planted with paddy at the low water tide, and harvested at the time when the water level begin to rise at the beginning of rainy season, followed by the upland crop cultivation while waiting the haversting of the crops just before the water level inundate the area at the rainy season.

The development of inland swamps had long been practiced in Indonesia with mostly paddy cultivation, and occasionally with inland fisheries. So far as the water availability is still accessible, the water control for agriculture conducted by means of regulating the water level at the drainage channels. In practice, however, the drainage control is not adequate, rather, additional water supply from external sources occasionally reguired for maintaining the soil moisture content at appropriate level of the plant growth.

The tidal swamps also posess a huge potential for agricultural development in Indonesia. Out of the overall of about 30 million ha of lowland potential Indonesia has, about 15% suitable for agricultural development. Out of about five million hectares, part which has already been developed for agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, including the majority of tidal lowlands development in the vicinity of the coastal areas.

At the initial stage of lowland development, a number of projects had been introduced in

Example of lowland-rice harvestingby boat at the swamp area in Kalimantan



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South Kalimantan, including the polder system introduced by Ir. H.J. Schophuys in South Kalimantan in 1929. The project actually initiated under the initiative of the Ministry of Agriculture with technical assiatance from the Dutch engineers following the polder system as had been practiced in the Netherlands. Two experimental projects for polder development were introduced in Kalimantan in 1930s, namely the Mentaren Scheme in Central Kalimantan, and the Alabio Polder Scheme in South Kalimantan. The projects were terminated due to the war, and later the Indonesian Government attempted


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to continue the project but not have been possible till today because of the lack of budget and human resources capacities. Owing to the fact that the swamps lowlands are usually extended to the coverage of large areas at the flat plains, then swamps development has to be developed in large scale to serve human settlement as well as aricultural development, rather than on the small scattered areas. Learning from experince on lowland development, one of the most challenging problems is the accessibility of the area, which mostly consists of remote and heavy tropical joungle. To give the best optimum lowland swamp development with the lowest possible risk of uncertainties, the following policy and strategy had been set up for sustainable swamps development: (1) Development of lowland with tidal swamps should be implemented through staging processes. At the initial stage followed by second stage, simple technology must be adopted, so as to avoid too costly implementation; (2) The process of drainage control utilizes the drainage channels aiming for soil leaching so as to make the land-clearing and land-

development more practical, and yet the provision of other public infrastructures for human settlement could be undertaken simultaneously. Meanwhile, the soil leaching process would be accelerated by continuously maintaining the interchangeable inflow and ouflow of water streams to adjust with dynamic of tidal movements; (3) Upon the completion of the first phase, the land surveying, obser-vations and data collections in more details have to be under-taken. Parallel with other physical The former Minister of Public Works, Ir. Sutami (right



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development, consistent monitoring of the phenomena of natural characteristic,

physical as well as chemical transformation in nature should also be observed and considered in the design; (4) The second phase development, in principle, is directed toward improvement and provision of additional facilities in such a way that the water conveyance function, distribution, storage and disposal as well as other functions of irrigation infrastructures could be accommodated. All the existing structures and facilities are equipped with regulatory as well as control structures, so to assure the optimum implementation of operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities in line with irrigated-agricultural requirement; (5) In the long run, as the existing facilities are performing well, further efforts should be considered gradually for upgreading the system, provision of facilities for full operation of the polder with complete appurtenant facilities as required, aiming for improving the overall system and fulfilling the requirements of the technical lowland swamp development. (Fore more information, see the Supplement Paper, “An Overview of Lowland Development in Indonesia”)

most, front row) on field inspection at the Alabio (inland swamp) Polder, South Kalimantan, in1972


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f) River Improvement and Flood Control: River improvement as well as flood control in Indonesia poses variety of categories ranging from regular repairs to the very urgent works that must be undertaken as soon as possible, such as river improvement works due to natural disasters, and prevention works for protecting certain objects from severe river degradations. Particularly for the young geological river formation, degradation occurs quite frequently along the river channels due to unstable river-bed materials.

Other category of river improvement works associated with the routine maintenance and river protections, as well as prevention from periodical flood strikes also conducted. Early in 1930’s a number of river maintenance and improvement works were conducted at Citanduy River at the boundary between West Java and Central Java Provinces, such as stabilization of river flows at the meandering parts of the river.

On the other hand, flood control works usually directed toward specific localities, either for human settlement in the rural or urban areas or for protecting agricultural areas that are frequently suffered from flood disasters. Under the special case for protecting irrigation area, the flood control works usually included as an integral part of the irrigation area referred to. However, flood protection works in Indonesia are generally lacking of adequate attention due to financial constraints. Therefore, only selective river basins had been treated for comprehensive flood control works. These among others were Kali Serang River in Central Java, and Brantas River in East Java. For the latter case, the southern parts of Tulungagung District, which frequently hampers by flood incidents from the Ngasinanan river (a tributary of Brantas) had been kept as an effective retarding basin with a total area of about 6,000 ha, and the total retention capacity of about 100,000,000 m3. At the same time, the retarding basin also improves the basic flow of the Brantas River Basin during the dry season.

g) Volcanic Debris Control: In general, the impact of volcanic eruption is categorized into two, the primary impact, which produces immediate consequence at the time of eruption, while the secondary impact produces follow up consequence a while after the primary strike of the volcanic eruption. The disastrous impacts become more significant

as the volcanic eruption came up simultaneously with sub-sequent uncontrollable current of hot gas cloud as well as lava and volcanic debris.

After the volcanic debris ceased from movement, it would settle temporarily and filled the bottom part of the lowland or valley in the vicinity area at the foot of the volcano. The volcanic debris consists of loose materials, which highly susceptible to erosion due to high intensity rainfall. Under such condition, a slight penetration of rainwater would trig the mass

Sabo Dam for sediment control at the Merapi Volcano in Central Java



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movement of accummulated deposit of debris, and eventually become catastropic current of volcanic debris flow.

To prevent the primary and secondary strikes of volcanic eruptions from disastrous incidents against human settlement and agricultural areas, a number of sabo dams have been constructed on Java Island along the volcanic ring of fire, where volcacic erruptions frequently occured. To tackle with this problem, the Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures established special implementing agencies that are responsible for project implementation. These special agencies, among others were: The Galunggung Volcano in West Java Province, The Merapi Volcano in Centra Java, The Kelud and the Semeru Volcanoes in East Java,and the Gunung Agung volcano in Bali Province.

h) Reservoir and Weir: Initially, people suspected that the provision of irrigation infrastructures would resolve all problems concerning water allocation and distribution for agricultural purposes. With the availability of irrigation networks, provision of irrigation water would no longer become problematic to meet the farming demands at appropriate time and quantity. In fact, this presumption would never fully meet their expectations, owing to the nature of irrigation facilities that also dictated by the dependable river runoff, that had been determined on the basis of stocastic probability concept. With the spread of irrigation infrastructural development in Indonesia, the water demands without persistent dependency on climatic pattern, become increasingly the case during the first decades of the 20th Century. The escalating water demand was initially apparent from the sugarcane plantation during the full development stage of growth till few weeks before harvesting. To meet this escalating demand, especially during the dry season, a large number of field reservoirs were constructed in the scattered areas adjacent with the sugarcane plantation on Java Island. Early at the beginning of the 1920’s development of reservoirs became more and more demanding, particularly for supporting sugarcane plantation on Java Island. Among the reservoirs that previously intended to support water supplies for sugar crop plantation the Gunung Rowo, Gembong, Penjalin, Malahayu, and Situ Patok were the most popular ones during that period. Later, the provision of reservoirs for stabilizing irrigation water supplies in non sugarcane areas were becoming increasingly demanding. At the initial stage, priority was given to irrigation areas at the water scarcity areas such as Pacal and Prijetan reservoirs in South Bojonegoro District, as well as Tempuran Reservoir in Blora District. A while before the break up of the Pacific War, a comprehensive plan had been prepared for construction of major reservoirs such as the Cacaban, Darma, and Cipanas. The Cacaban and Darma Reservoirs in Central Java were only completed few years after Indonesian independence in 1950’s. Following this pioneering period, many scattered reservoirs, ranging from small, medium to large categories have been constructed in Indonesia, not only for irrigation water supplies, but also for other multifunctionalities of sustainable water resources development and management. i) Conservation and Protection of Coastal and River Estuaries: Given the facts that the rivers in Indonesian archipelago are mostly consisted of small categories with limited capacities, and yet directly emptying to the sea, much of the river mouths at the estuaries are utilized by the fishermen as the gateway off to the sea and vice versa for fishing. As a result, the fisherman utilizes the riverbanks at the coastal estuaries as the wharf for their boats.


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With the absense of appropriate river basin management and conservation at upper and middle reaches of the river catchment, however, sedimentation at the bottom of the river mouth at downstream end of river estuary mostly hampers river transportation by sediment blockages. During the dry season, the river outlet often completely blocked with sand dune along the coastal areas.

This phenomena had been apparent since early period during the colonial era and became the high concern of Dutch Engineer at that time. For illustration, the development of the Bagelen Plain, which was later on referred to as Kedu Selatan area, bodered on the east with the foot of Menoreh Montain and Karang Bolong Mountain on the west, had to be incorporated with a series of coastal protection and improvement works of river estuary before the complete establishment of the area for human settlement and recidential purposes.

During the first longterm development program (1969-1994), only limited coastal protection and river improvement works had been undertaken due to budget limitation. The selection criteria was strictly based on the developed estuary area with the densely populated area that occasionally encountered by severe estuary problems. Therefore, the development activities had not addressed the rural settlement of the traditional fishermen’s villages.

j) Groundwater Development: Despite the comparative advantage of the utilization of groundwater relative to the surface water – i.e. easily accessible, without too complicated infrastructures, and less conveyance required – however, the development alternative was not feasible. During the time before the longterm development program, the groundwater exploitation considered to be highly demanding for sophis-ticated and costly technologies.

The development of groundwater resources began to conduct at the followup stage of the first five year development program by initiating experimental pilot projects at the water scarce areas such as at Gunung Kidul in Yogyakarta Special Province and on Madura Island. During which, the groundwater development was not only limited to agricultural purposes, but also extended to a number of utilizations for the livelihood of the people – for domestic, livestock, and house-yard gardening.

Tubewel drilling for ground water exploitation, in East Java, demanding for sophisticated and costly



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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter II. Early Time and Pre-Historic Era

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CHAPTER II EARLY TIME AND PRE COLONIAL ERA

2.1. THE STORY OF RICE The origin of irrigation in Indonesia is something that cannot be alienated with the beginning of rice cultivation as the staple diet of the country’s population in majority. As the evolution



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of the livelihood of the ancient (nomadic) people began when they were introduced with cultivated sources of food rather than merely dependent upon the wild nature, for instance for fishing and hunting, as well as consuming wild vegetation, they gradually became adapted to certain sources of staple food such as roots, banana, corn, and rice. Agricultural practices in Indonesia started with shifting cultivation, where tropical rain as the mainly source of water to maintain the plant’s growth. When the land resources became scarce, the ancient people began to seek new land for sustaining their agricultural way of life in the lower land plains. They were mostly started to settle down at the area where water sources available, such as at the riverbanks, springs of inland swamps. Through time, they learned that the permanent agricultural practices must be supported with artificial application of water to the plant, apart from their water demands for day-to-day life. From some archeological evidences, there are reasons to believe that rice had been used as the staple diet since the hardly traced back period. No exact date or indications that could explain about the beginning of rice cultivation, nor the artificial application of water for rice production. So far, the archeological evidences could only explain that the irrigated-rice cultivation has been practiced since the unknown ancient period. With regards to the origin of rice in Indonesia, at least two arguments were currently renowned. On the one side, a school of thought believed that rice was originated from Yunnan Province in the mainland of China, while others argued that rice was originated from the northwest part of Thailand, however, both arguments have not had support with clear evidences. In the same way, there also no clear evidence about the time when lowland rice cultivation practiced for the first time in the Southeast Asian archipelago. Another theory argues, without evidence, that the lowland rice cultivation must have been practiced locally by indigenous people in some parts of Southeast Asian archipelago such as in North Luzon (Philippines), West Sumatra, Java Island, South Sulawesi and also in some parts of Srilanka, or Madagascar, despite the historical indication that during the ancient time, the Southeast Asian archipelagoes had already had quite evolved civilization, even not least advanced than the ancient civilization of India. Other scholars believed that the beginning of agricultural civilization in Indonesia were initiated by a group of ancient migrants from Don-Sun Civilization in the Central Asian Continent landed at the the Brantas Delta, eastern Java Island, about centuries BC, at the site renown today as the Kediri Regency. They settled down there making livelihood and conduct agricultural practice with upland rice as they previously had in the civilization they belonged in Central Asian Continent. The upland rice cultivation was highly productive due to the fertile volcanic soils they came across in the new destination. Nevertheless, the agricultural lands suffered from frequent floods from the Kali Brantas River with high degree of sediment transport from the Mount Kelud Volcano in the upper vicinity area. Learning from experience with the frequent flood incidents, these people became gradually adapted with the risks by preventing their settlement and agricultural areas with the construction of levees and embankments at the lower parts of the river banks. They even


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initiated the construction of water intakes from the near-by rivers or tributaries. From this early experience, they build up the new irrigation based agricultural practices with more sustainable that just with upland rice or rainfed agriculture. In fact, shifting the upland rice into lowland rice fields or irrigated rice fields is still currently practiced in many parts of the country today referred to as ”padi gogo” cultivation. With the successful experience they had for years in the volcanic of Brantas River Basin, these migrants from Central Asia Continent eventually decided to settle permanently in the area, having irrigated rice fields as the basis of their livelihood. Rice as the origin of the term of Java: Learning from the ancient book of Ramayana Indian civilization, dated back to the period BC’s, there written a term of Jawadwipa, which is the original name of Java Island as given by early visitors to this area (Jawadwipa stands for ”jewawut” or rice and ”dwipa” means island, or the island of rice). This term was made-up when the first “Brahmin” Civilization arrived to Indonesia they were quite amazed to come across the large extent of “Jawawut” (similar variety of rice the Brahmin people had in their place of origin) cultivations grown by the local people on Java Island, they named the island after “Jawadwipa”, the origin of the name Java Island as popularly known today. Being attracted by the jewawut plant on Java Island, the Brahmin Civilization decided to return back and settle down on this area. The above illustration indicates that rice cultivation had already been grown on Java long before the Brahmin Civilization came to the Indonesian Archipelago. Other rationale had been supportive to this evidence, that the term lowland rice fields, “sawah” in Indonesian lingua franca is not known or available in the Sanskrit language at all. Other school of thought argued that the lowland rice fields was not transformed from upland rice fields, rather, it originated from aquatic variety of rice that was previously transplanted in swampland, then
gradually transformed into artificial lowland rice fields or referred to as sawah in Indonesian term. Again these arguments were not based on evidences, nor historical analyses, but merely based on local legends as were told by local people from generations to generations.
2.2.THE JAVANESE HINDU FOLKLORE OF RICE The origin of rice, as narrated by the Javanese Hindu legend, was bestowed from heaven by the Goddess of Batara Guru, who created a beautiful young lady, so beautiful that the Creator himself fallen in love with her. The created lady (Dewi Sri) agreed to become the Batara Guru’s wife as if the Goddess could bestowed her with three wishes: (1) Creation of a kind of



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food stuff that would not make us fed up; (2) Creation of a kind of dress or clothing that would not be weary; and (3) Creation of a kind of musical instrument that could act upon by itself. Batara Guru then sent his messenger, Kala Gumbara, down to earth searching for the three requests. However, before Kala Gumbara managed to complete his mission, he incidentally fallen in love with Dewi Sri, the wife of Batara Wisnu, and Kala Gumbara was transformed by Batara Wisnu into a wild pig, to prevent him from articulating his love to Dewi Sri. Meanwhile, the Batara Guru who cannot wait any longer went down to Earth to meet with his created young lady. But it happened that the lady could not stand the forceful love of the Batara Guru and eventually died in the forceful hug of the Goddess. To give respect to her, Batara Guru changed her name into Tisna Wati and her body buried on the Earth. Forty days later, it happened that the bright light come out from her grave followed by the growth of some unfamiliar variety of plants in the vicinity of the graveyard. Right at the head site of the


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grave of Tisnah Wati, grew a coconut tree, rice stems and palm tree at the body site, while fruit trees and root plants grew at the foot site of the grave. Despite that the Kala Gumbara had been transformed into a wild pig, he vowed himself to irritate Dewi Sri, till eventually Dewi Sri proposed to the Deytis to make her body vanished from the Earth. Her proposal accepted, and as she disappeared, similar variety of plants as the ones at the grave of Tisna Wati grew. It was told that the rice variety that grew at the grave of Tisna Wati was the origin of upland rice, while the ones grew at the grave site of Dewi Sri was the origin of lowland rice cultivation. Many people at the rural area today still recognize rice as the sacral transformation of Dewi Sri as bestowed by the Goddess for the prosperity of human on Earth.

Meanwhile, knowing the misconduct of Kala Gumbala, Batara Wisnu became extremely furious and killed the wild pig, which irritated his wife, and eventually, Kala Gumbala

consumes as the staple diet on daily basis. Unfortunately, the other two wishes of Tisna Wati never had been articulated in the follow up of this legend.

2.3.THE ORIGIN OF RICE Disregarding the legend of rice, the respect of people on rice in most Asian regions is always placed at the prominent existence. However, from the food research perspective, the carbohydrate content of rice is more nutritious relative to other carbohydrate sources such as

transformed by Batara Wisnu into varieties of pests and plant diseases. Ever-since then, rice (or paddi in Indonesian) as bestowed by the Goddess Batara Gurufrom Heaven, consider by the farmer as the sacred plant that’s should be treated with full of respects. Every time the farmer wants to plant rice, he should conduct a series of ritual ceremonies, also at the time during the growing and maturity stages as well as a while before harvesting an post harvesting storage. Later on, Dewi Sri and Batara Wisnu transformed themselves into a couple of king and queen, who consistently giving

guidance to human being about planting and cultivating the rice plantation as well as maintaining the processed rice as a kind of food stuff that would not make us fed-up although

Location of the statue of Dewi Sri at the village of Simbatan, Takeran District, Magetan Regency. It was believed to be the resourceful spring, which provides adequate water for ricefields at the original site of

Dewi Sri’s grave



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potato, cassava, sweet potato, root plants, and sago. To give the prominent status for rice, the Hindu people gives special terms for rice as “dhanya”, which stands for as “the nurture of human being“. Being the case, it is not surprising that more than a half of the people on Earth consume rice as the major staple food today.


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A wide variety of wild rice grow in Africa and the Asian continent, however, it is hard to tell whether the wild rice were originated from imported rice or otherwise grow as indigenous plants belong to the continent. Therefore, the origin of rice was not known for a long time till agricultural biologists discovered through research that in the Northern of Bangalore, India, many indigenous rice plants were found. Therefore, some researchers believe that the Northern Bengalore of India is likely to be the place of origin of rice plants. The present rice varieties that are renown today were resulted from inter-pollinated technology amongst the local rice plants and the improved varieties. Since after the Second World War, the International Rice Research Institute in Los Banos, Philippines and the Rice Research Institute of the Republic of Indonesia in Bogor have been involved in many research efforts to develop local varieties into improved rice varieties, including some field experiments for
Indonesian rice varieties. For most application of irrigated lowland rice fields in Indonesia, broadcast seeding and transplant scedling has been preferred by the farmers, rather than direct seeding.
2.4. UPLAND RICE FIELD In Indonesia, cultivation of both lowland and upland rice are commonly practiced. In addition, deepwater rice are also grown in lowland swamps, both on tidal as well as on inland swamps. This local rice variety usually takes longer time to grow with less productivity, and it grows



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with longer stem to follow the raise of water level. Swamp rice fields are mostly found in Kalimantan and at the eastern coast of Sumatra, both in tidal (Coastal swamps) and inland swamps. However, in comparison with each other, lowland rice is mostly the dominant crop in Indonesia. Particularly for the remote areas, rural farming communities still grow upland rice, even sometimes by means of shifting cultivation on the newly opened forest areas. The shifting cultivation is also known in terms of slashed and burn due to the nature of the planting technique, which merely cutting the forest vegetation at the initial stage, keep them for a few weeks till dry, then followed by land clearing by means of burning off the remaining tree branches and twigs. The rice seeds then buried in the small holes at the topsoil with regular distance using some kind wooden peg. Under such condition, the loose topsoil usually suffers from severe erosion as well as potential landslides during the following rainy seasons. As the crops harvested, the lands left abandoned till several years later when the land fertility has been recovered. The upland rice cultivation of such, without proper attention on land conservation is hardly expected to give significant production. Otherwise, the following prerequisites should be met: (1) Soil condition should be rich enough in soil nutrition that the plant could absorb easily; (2) Adequate soil microorganisms that could support generation of adequate soil nutrition; (3) The soil structure is good enough to enable the land cultivation with minimum land preparation; (4) Adequate soil moisture contents with appropriate capillary water movement and air circulation at the root zone; (5) Without too much potential for weeds competition during the growth of the plant; and (6) Under the absence of potential pests and plant diseases. For the newly broken forest, such prerequisites are easily met due to the following conditions: (1) Accumulation of branches, twigs, leaves and organic materials are long enough to allow oxidation and natural generation of organic fertilizer; (2) The sun shine rarely penetrate the forest shade directly to the topsoil, so the soil fertility is always under its natural state; (3) The rain drops rarely hit the top soil directly, so the physical state soil condition is always


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maintain for better plant growth; (4) The natural condition of microorganism always under the appropriate balance to support the plant growth. After the first season rice plants had been harvested, the remaining straws are spread over the topsoil, and later on became organic fertilizer, as they become decaying, however, the quantity is not adequate to restore the soil fertility back to the original condition. Subsequently, the occurrence of regular solar radiation would transform the topsoil structure from organic state into granular soil particles. As the soil transformation continuously to take part, the approaching rainy season would jeopardize the loose topsoil through erosion process, resulting soil leaching in addition to potential landslides, particularly at the sloping land surface. For the subsequent planting season, the crop production usually decreasing significantly, and at the third cropping season, practically almost no crop production will be produced. Under such a decaying soil condition, most of time the land would be abandoned, and the farmer will be shifting to the next available land. As a result, the shifting cultivation, under no circumstances, would come up with sustainable agricultural practices, instead it would accelerate the significant damages of soil properties from time to time and hence jeopardizing the balanced of natural ecosystem. The land condition might become worse if after being abandoned, then replaced by the new “alang-alang” (toll grass), as the soil structure would completely deteriorated and hardly cultivated. However, for the scarcely populated area with small-scattered farming, the traditional shifting cultivation practice may improved or adjusted to sustainable environment with some extra efforts, and with continuous monitoring and technical surveillance. Therefore, the government has been preventing the shifting cultivation from continuous practice. In the long run, such an inappropriate agricultural practice would gradually bring about hazardous impacts to sustainable environment. For the upland area that had been registered under the permanent status of land cadastral administration, cultivation of upland rice (referred to as padi gogo in local term) is still
practiced with intensive land conservation as well as appropriate application of organic as well as chemical fertilizers.
2.5. LOWLAND RICE (WETLAND RICE FIELD) After a long time experience on upland rice cultivation having occasional mixture with lowland rice cultivation, wherever possible, the farmer became aware that the lowland rice cultivation supported with adequate water supply, is far trustworthier for guaranteeing



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sustainable production of long-term agricultural practices. Subsequently, with abundant rainfall in Indonesia, the farmer takes the advantage of it to give water supply for inundating the lowland rice fields. This land cultivation practice refers to in Indonesia as “sawah tadah hujan” or “rainfed” lowland rice field. From the point of view of water requirement for lowland rice cultivation the annual amount of effective rainfall in Indonesia is still more than adequate to meet the water demand for plant growth. However, the rainfall distributions throughout the year do not meet the crop water requirement from time to time during the plant growth. During the rainy season, for instance, most frequently the rainfalls do not occur in a matter of weeks. Most often, during rainy seasons the rainfalls do not occur at the time the rainfed rice field almost completely suffered from drought. Meanwhile, excessive rainfall may come at the time the rice fields are not expecting much water at all. If such a case comes about repeatedly during the plant growth,


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the rainfed rice field hardly reliable to bring about adequate crop production. In most cases, the average yield of rainfed rice field is only about one third of the average yield of irrigated lowland rice fields. Other constraint associates with lowland rice field is the continuous occurrence of weed competition, with subsequent effect that the lowland rice would suffer from nutrient deficiency. Meanwhile, the application of manual weeding requires much labor works as well as budget resources. If the rainfalls do not come till the soil become cracking, or the soil moisture content dropped to the magnitude below the wilting point of the crop, then the lowland rice cultivation becomes totally a failure. In an attempt to resolve the problem of uncertain water supply for rainfed lowland rice fields, gradual application of artificial irrigation water supply become more and more demanding. Since the water distribution for rice only conduct during the rainy season, then irrigation water supply only addresses the water deficit during the absence of rainfalls within the rainy seasons. Later on, parallel with the need for providing adequate food supplies for the escalating population growth, implementation of irrigation during the dry season became
more and more important. However, due to the limitation of available water during the dry season, only about 20% to 30% of lowland rice fields could be cultivated, except about 10% of irrigation areas that are supported by reservoirs.
2.6. SIMPLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM Learning from the past experience of irrigation implementation in Indonesia, the simple irrigation systems constructed at the highland plains have been recognized as the origin of technical irrigation in Indonesia. Today, the ancient works on simple irrigation system are still found under full operation in many parts of the archipelago. Most rice field terraces on Java,
Bali, Sumatra, and Lesser Islands are served by simple irrigation systems by means of plot-to-plot water distribution approach. As the land resources for simple irrigation system at the highland plain became scarce, the farmer began to seek for flatter lands suitable for irrigation implementation by diverting water from the springs, tributaries or small rivers. At the inception stage, the traditional farmers carried out canal excavation without considering longitudinal slope of the channel, but only
followed gravity flow of the water as far as the water is still flowing. If during the canal excavation they encountered by deep excavation or high embankment, then they stopped the excavation works from then, followed by initiating new land reclamation for rice field in the sloping side of the hill or valley. So far as the water is still available at the downstream site of the previous river diversion,

the farmers keep going to seek other potential sites for constructing irrigation canals and other

Cross-section of a traditional weir, made of local materials, bamboo, stone, boulders etc.



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related structures with the same procedure as stated previously. For maintaining the constant availability of water for their agricultural lands, in some location where possible and


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affordable, the weirs constructed with more permanent construction materials as well as with improved appropriate technicalities.

Given the simplicity of construction techniques the farmers applied, in most cases such a simple scheme would not be able to resist the striking floods. As a result, farmers frequently undertake repair works for the head-works or main canals by means of gotong-royong or mutual aids approach. If such emergency repairs should be taken part frequently, the farmers
must surrender their efforts in lieu of their time and efforts to perform routine operation and management of the simple irrigation system as well as crop maintenance, but this is considered as contribution in labour.
2.7. RAINFED RICE FIELD From previous explanation, it is apparent that for initial land reclamation of rice field either for irrigated lands or rainfed must be supported with adequate amount of water for puddling, as the medium for sedling transplantation. For lowland rice cultivation under the rainfed condition, the initial land reclamation usually performs during the abundant water availability in the middle of the rainy season.
If the rainfalls do not allow adequate water for puddling, the land reclamation works usually shift to construction of levees around the land plots to keep the water pounding at an average depth of 10 cm to 15 cm within the bounded rice plot. As the rainfall continuous, the excess water allows to overflow from one plot to another plot till the tail end of the field, and eventually toward downstream tributaries. In practice, however, the first crop of the new broken land for rice usually yields very low productivity if any at all. This due to the impacts of the new soil condition that has yet matured enough for supporting appropriate nutrient demands of the plant growth. The stable land condition for lowland rice is usually taken part at the third cropping season. Under such condition, the average rice yield ranging between 0.9 and 1.2 ton/ ha of unhusked dry rice, relative to the average rice production of irrigated rice at about 5.4 ton/ha unhusked dry rice.
2.8. IRRIGATION SCHEMES FOR LOWLAND RICE The term “irigasi” in Indonesian language for irrigation, derives from the Dutch term “irigatie” with the translated definition from official reports as follows:

“The technical measure for transporting water through conveyance canals to agricultural lands, channeling the water to drainage channels after the optimum



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possible agricultural utilization, and eventually return back to the rivers” (Angoedi A., 1984, p.14)

The above definition as stated in a number of official Dutch Colonial documents prescribes that for the purposeful provision of water on agricultural land, the water diverts from the point of the optimum possible level at the water sources that allows water flow through conveyance channels to reach the lower level of farm lands, subsequently convey the excess water to the drainage channels and eventually to the river. With regards to the origin of irrigated rice, no historical records that could explain whether the upland rice cultivation was previously practiced followed by the subsequent application of irrigation, or the other way round. In facts, both methods of rice cultivations are still currently being practiced in Indonesia today.


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Based on some historical evidences, there are some indications that the ancient Indonesians had long recognized the application of lowland rice cultivation to meet the securer demands of rice as the major staple food. They also recognize that the lowland rice cultivation to be effective must be supported with artificial application of water from the water sources such as rivers, lakes, springs and the likes. Since the rainfed rice only relies the water supply from natural climatic condition, therefore, it cannot guarantee regular application of water to meet crop water requirement, then the demand for artificial intervention is required to resolve the problems. The most substantial constraint of irrigated lowland rice is that the field water requirement should adequate to inundate the soil, to minimize the weed competition and also to prevent the pest attack. Therefore, irrigation water requirement must be designed at the best optimum level in such a way to be economically feasible. At the same time, the follow up operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes should also be conducted at the best optimum extent to meet the sustainable level of agricultural productivity. Taking into consideration of the nature of irrigation based lowland rice cultivation, traditional irrigation system in Indonesia has long been practiced since before the Hindu Era. At that time, irrigated rice was merely based on traditional variety with low productivity and also with longer period of plant growth. The application of agricultural inputs at that time was also based on traditional practices such as the usage of organic compost, natural fertilizer and so on. Since early 1970’s the introduction of post war Green Revolution in Indonesia brought about a lot of transformation in irrigated lowland rice cultivation technology. Despite the production adverse impacts of the Green Revolution, the mass irrigation development and management in Indonesia between the 1970’s and 1980’s brought about unprecedented success for obtaining self-sufficiency of rice in 1984, or fifteen years after Indonesia being recognized as the world leading rice importing country in 1969. Prior to the above success, the government of Indonesia launched the mass production of rice through the Five Year Development Program in 1969. In this program the government insisted to multiply rice productivities by means of irrigation extensification and intensification of water management on the one hand, and the use of advanced agricultural technology, optimum application of agricultural inputs such as improved rice variety, fertilizer, insecticides and pesticides, on the other. The local governments responded to the mass intensification program by encouraging the farmer to participate actively in the program. The entire potential of rice based agricultural development within the country must be mobilized, including the rainfed areas. However, in some rainfed areas the application of artificial fertilizer in the non-irrigated area had, in fact, resulted with contra-productive results. Much of rice crops were found to be severely deteriorated by the inappropriate application of chemical fertilizer in non- irrigated lands. From that point in time, the implementation of irrigation based agricultural practice for rice production has been based on the so called “panca usaha tani” or five principle efforts for agricultural productivity. The five principles are as follows: (1) Application of appropriate agricultural technique; (2) Improvement of irrigation infrastructures and irrigation management implementation; (3) Balanced application of compost and chemical fertilizer; (4) Environmentally friendly insecticides as well as pest control, and (5) Application of improved rice varieties.


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2.9. THE GOGO RANCAH (AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE) The Gogo Rancah is a system of agricultural practice characterized by dry and wet-land practices during a season. It is used to be exercised in the irrigated area particularly in the downstream part of irrigation system where the supply of water is not quite ensured or in the
rainfed area. The main principle is that the gogo variety initially planted to grow for six to 10 weeks without irrigation water supply. At the subsequent stage either irrigation or rainfall is available to provide adequate water for wet cultural practice. At the time the climatic condition allows supplementary irrigation water supply, the gogo rancah rice field could then be irrigated as the normal lowland rice does, then, treated subsequently as the normal irrigated rice-crop till the flowering stage and subsequent harvesting time. However, should irrigation water might not possible to apply at the specific demand, the plant allows to grow without irrigation, then the plant will stay as “padi gogo” or upland rice, and subsequently, the yield slightly lower as compared with the late irrigated gogo-rancah.
Under the gogo rancah-growing mode of upland rice, the rooting pattern of the plant would automatically adjust with the normal lowland rice. Nevertheless, should irrigation water supply intervened for one reason or another before the flowering stage of the rice plant, the then gogo rancah could no longer possible to readjust itself into upland rice. In most cases, under such condition, the gogo rancah would lose its entire producing capacity at all. Given the above condition, the decision to apply for gogo

While waiting for the rainy season, the farmers conduct land preparation of rainfed (so called the Gogo Rancah

rancah mode of rice cultivation should previously consider the options to stick to upland pattern or otherwise transform the upland rice into irrigated land in condition that irrigation should not be interrupted until the flowering stage of the plant. If the climatic condition allows irrigation water supply till the flowering stage, then the choice is gogo rancah. Otherwise, if the water avail-ability is uncertain, then decision should based on traditional “padi gogo” or upland rice without irrigation. Being the case, the gogo rancah

system). After Angoedi, 1984, p.17.

Upland rice cultivation (after Angoedi, 1984, p.18)



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demonstrates its flexibility to make adjustment with the availability of irrigation water supplies. Therefore, the gogo rancah paddy variety is suitable to cultivate on the area where the nature of climatic condition often under the irregular pattern of water availability potential at the river or other water sources. In some areas such as East Java Province and Lombok Island in NTB Province the farmers have been accustomed to application of gogo rancah system of rice cultivation.

2.10. SWAMP RICE (LOCAL RICE VARIETY GROWS ON SWAMP LAND)
Since the ancient time, swamp rice has already been recognized by local farmers in the swamp areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and other tidal lowland areas on the river deltas or coastal plains of the Outer Islands. However, due to difficulties to access and to regulate the crop cultivation, yet with low productivity, the farmers tended to ignore this rice variety and cultivate other varieties instead, except when other alternatives are not available. The first organized human settlement on swamp areas in Indonesia actually took place centuries ago. The Bugisnese and the Banjarnese ethnicities settled in the coastal lowlands and gradually reclaimed the swamplands at the manageable size for rice cultivation. The early settlements on the swamplands include the following: (1) The Sisir Gunting, North Sumatra 1924 (coastal land development by employing polder approach); (2) The Alabio Polder in South Kalimantan in 1929; and (3) The Serapat in Central Kalimantan and South Kalimantan 1890-1920 (located between Kapuas and Barito Rivers). In most cases, the swamp rice only cultivates by indigenous people in remote tidal areas, for alternative sources of food. For this reason, the swamp rice remains unpopular even-though its existence had long been recognized by local people who settled on the tidal swamp areas. Only in 1957 an engineer named Ir. Pangeran Mohamad Noor (who happened to be the Minister of Public Works at that time), originated from a South Kalimantan ethnicity, recognized the high potential of swamp rice for supporting the national rice production program of Indonesia. Through a number of experimental plots in South Kalimantan as well as on the eastern coast of Sumatra, the tidal lowland development has become more and more important in the national rice production program, today.
Following the pilot models, some major programs commenced in Kalimantan and South Sumatra around 1960’s. These swamp settlement among others; Puntik, Besarang and Marabahan in Central Kalimantan; Kelampan, Tamban and Gambut in South Kalimantan; Batuil, Mentaren, Belanden, Milono (Besarang), Songsang, Rantau Rasau in Jambi Province; and Muara Sabak as well as Lambur in Riau Province. Delta Upang and others in South Sumatera and Rana Seragi (inland swamps) in Lampung. (DGWRD, MPW, 2000 p.43).

Swamp rice field at the tidal swamp areas in South Kalimantan



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Disregarding the specific nature of the swamp rice, it becomes evident to day that the potential role of swamp rice has become increasingly significant on agricultural development in Indonesia.

The nature of water management for swamp rice field is quite distinct from the non-swamp agricultural land. Especially for the tidal swamps, water mana-gement take place by means of interchanging the supply and drainage in accordance with tidal fluctuations. The supply canal

Construction activity for tidal-swamp infra-structural development

will function as irrigation infrastructure during the high tide, while during the low tide, the channel facilitate the drainage, at the same time for soil leaching against acidity and other hazardous materials. However, appropriate water management techniques for both irrigation and drainage functions are still being developed.

Canal construction on the inland swamp, Alabio South



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Kalimantan in 1970s


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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter III. The Influx of Indian Culture

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CHAPTER III THE INFLUX OF INDIAN CULTURE

3.1. THE PRE HINDU ERA With a presupposition of the null hypothesis that the lowland paddy cultivation in Indonesia


Cover List of ContentHistory in Brief 37

originally came from within and developed by indigenous people without external intervention, then it explains that the Indonesian ancestor must have been ancient post nomadic farmers and previous livelihood from hunting. During the transition from pre-nomadic civilization to initial stage of shifting cultivation, the ancient Indonesian cultivated upland paddy at the slashed and burnt forest areas. This traditional agricultural civilization forced them to shift from one place to another soon after the land became no longer productive. At that time, shifting cultivation method was still allowable due to the abundance of land resources with scarce population. As population became highly escalated from time to time, the nomadic agricultural practices gradually transformed into more and more settled or permanent agricultural way of life followed by subsequent development of permanent population settlement. For inception choice, determination of area for human settlement dependent upon the prospect of the land for producing adequate food supplies as well as future expectations for prosperous livelihood in the area. Through experience, the potential capacity for producing upland paddy soon becomes exhausted as the agricultural lands do not have consistent water supplies. Hence the lowland paddies with sustainable water supply facilities become increasingly important. In this regards, the area for human settlement would become rural community center with gradual expansion toward permanent agricultural lands in the near by vicinity, till the entire area become fully developed with adequate support of sustainable irrigation infrastructures. According to some historical evidences, at about few decades AD, the Indian explorer who came for the first time to Indonesian Archipelago found a large extent of lowland paddy fields on Java Island. The first Indian generation who arrived to Indonesia brought with them Hinduism and Buddhism influence. The subsequent influxes of Indian culture to Indonesia, was recorded in the history to be the era with full of dynamic transformation for ancient Indonesian civilization, especially on Java Island. As the Indian civilization becomes adapted to the way of life of local inhabitants, much of the social, economic as well as political system were gradually become internalized. Even the government system became political modes of the ancient kingdoms, particularly the kingdoms on Java Island as well as Sumatra and Kalimantan Islands. For example, the oldest kingdom in Indonesia with Indian influence was the Kutai Kingdom in East Kalimantan established in 400 AD. The subsequent kingdom was Tarumanegara on West Java, established between the Fourth and the Fifth Century AD with its famous king Purnawarman, and the capital center of the kingdom was in Jasinga. From this era on, historical evidences about Indonesia became more obtainable upon the growing of civilization’s awareness on preservation of historical records. Among the historical evidences, for instance, it was recorded in a Chinese document that in 664 AD, a delegation from Mo-lo-you (Melayu or Malay) Kingdom, ancient Indonesian visited China for trade promotion on agricultural products. This indicates that trades on agricultural commodities had already become a major concern of the ancient kingdom of Indonesia at the middle of the Seventh Century.


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Another record also states that I-Tsing, a Chinese Priest, departed from Canton, China in 671 AD, and stopover in Srivijaya Kingdom of Sumatra for six months to learn Sanskrit Language on his journey to India. This historical record also explains that the ancient Indonesian Kingdom of Srivijaya on Sumatra Island already had intercultural link with ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations in the mid of the Seventh Century. In fact, the same source of record subsequently discovered that in the year of 692 AD, I-Tsing revisited the Srivijaya Kingdom several years later, however, no further news whatsoever mentioned about the Srivijaya Kingdom till the year 1275 AD. Ever-since, from this point in time, no clear evidence about significant indication on irrigated agricultural development in the context of Pre-Hindu Era in
the ancient Indonesian Archipelago.
3.2. THE FIRST TECHNICAL IRRIGATION STRUCTURE As far as irrigation history of Indonesia’s concerned, there are currently three major milestones that could provide comprehensible evidences to uncover the historical background of the early irrigation development and management practices in Indonesia. These are the Harinjing stone inscriptions to be found at the Kepung village, Pare District, within the Brantas River Basin, East Java Province. The first and the earlier stone inscription dated back to the year of 726 of Caka Calendar, or 808 AD. The second inscription dated back to the year
of 843 Caka Calendar, or 921 AD. The third stone inscription dated back to the year of 849 Caka Calendar, or 727 AD (Angoedi, 1984., p.25).
The three stone inscriptions mention that a community leader named Bhogawanta Bori from the village of Culunggi had been bestowed by the King Warok Dyah Manarah with a special privilege in terms of exemption of property taxes for his outstanding accomplishment to build the Harinjing River Dyke for water diversion, and flood prevention for agriculture as well as human settlement in the a tributary of the Brantas River Basin.

The Harinjing stone inscriptions are presently kept at the National Museum in Jakarta, while the Kali Harinjing Tributary as mentioned in the inscription is now recognized as the Kali

Serinjing Tributary, located at the junction of three river tributaries of the Brantas Basin, namely, Kali Konto, Kali Besowo, and Kali Nambang river tributaries. Given the facts that the three river tributaries regularly encounter with volcanic debris’ flood from the Mount Kelud, the Harinjing Dyke had occasionally breached, and at present, only two big boulders of the dyke foundation left at the Kali Serinjing tributary. Close to the boulders, an inspection bridge constructed by one of irrigation projects in East Java Province to allow for irrigation staff to conduct routine

The Harinjing stone inscription near Jombang (Pare) at the village of Siman Krajan. The original inscription is

now kept at the National Museum Registered under N. D.173




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inspections, even-though during the flood occurrence. Another more recent stone inscription contains the more or less similar information is the Batu Gurit, written with the old Javanese Sandibojo (Sanskrit) Language, also found in the vicinity area.

the center of kingdom administration from Central Java to East Java. Since the two

significant as the Majapahit mutual aids activity during construction of the Harinjing Dyke, by manual workers.

ruin of the Harinjing Dyke (Dawuan Srinjing today)

Kingdom for irrigation history of the country.

3.3. THE OLDEST IRRIGATION STRUCTURE ON JAVA ISLAND The oldest inscriptions on irrigation works in Indonesia indicate that the first irrigation infrastructure in Indonesia was constructed at the TuguVillage near the Cilincing River on the Fifth Century AD. The Tugu stone inscription placed at the Tugu Village near Cilincing

From a stone inscription dated back to the year of 907 AD, it was said that at the year of 823 AD, the Ancient Mataram Kingdom ruled by Raja Pikatan Emperor with an administrative territory covers the Central and East Java Province. From this inscription it revealed that the ancestry of Ancient Mataram Kingdom, as a major irrigation based kingdom in Central Java, was descended from the Raja Sanjaya Emperor. Later on, the Ancient Mataram Kingdom of Tulodong (924-929 AD) moved A monument errected at the central alignment of the

regions were administered under the Ancient Mataram Kingdom, the irrigated agriculture in these two regions (currently as two autonomous provinces), remain as among the most advance in Indonesia today.

From a number of historical evidences, the Majapahit Kingdom (1293-1520 AD) had the most significant influence on the history of irrigation in Indonesia. Other kingdoms also had their respective contribution to other site of the country’s development, but not as A statuette at the Harinjing Monument, illustrating the




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River, Northern Jakarta, however, for preservation, the original inscription has been kept at

short cut channel of Cakung River at National Museum Registered at No. D.124.

Chandra Bhaga (the Fifth Century AD).

3.4. THE KALI BRANTAS RIVER AND MOUNT KELUD

The role of Kali Brantas River on the irrigation history of East Java is something that cannot be separated from each other. The downstream part of the Brantas River had long been regarded as the most important river on East Java, for it had been utilized as the major river transportation during the Javanese Hindu Era referred to as the Bengawan (king of the river).

(After Angoedi, 1984, p.28)

the National Museum under the registration number D.124 (Angoedi, 1984., p.28).

Another historical evidence translated by Prof. Dr. R Ng. Purbatjaraka reveals that the King of Purnawaman declared his executive order to excavate a short-cut channel at River Candrabhaga for allowing the river flown directly to the sea, along the downstream site of the palace of Candara Bhaga (Some people suggest that the river site is known today as the Bekasi River). While a study based on geo-morphological analysis suggests that the Candra Bhaga site is currently at Cakung River. This stone inscription indicates that since the Fifth Century AD, flood and drainage problems have already been encountered the ancient city of Jakarta.

Since the discovery of Purbacaraka stated above, the Harinjing Dyke (Katon, East Java) that had been previously renown as the oldest hydraulic structure in Indonesia (804 AD) has now kept aside by the evidences indicated the earlier construction period of The Tugu Stone inscription is now kept at the



In fact, the Brantas River had been utilized to provide water supply for agricultural purposes along the delta of the vicinity of Surabaya City since the prehistoric era.

Following the continuous expansion of agricultural lands to the middle and to upper reach of the river basin, the role of tributaries of the Brantas Rivers for irrigation water supply also increasing significantly. As a matter of fact, the kali Brantas River has been contributing remarkably to the prosperity of the farmers in East Java in particular, and for the people of Indonesia in general. Particularly for irrigated paddies, the exceptionally fertile volcanic soil in this area from Mount Kelud is the most important asset for supporting rice production.

However, it is undeniable that the Kali Brantas River occasionally suffers from flood disaster as the result of blockages of sediment and volcanic debris that produces by the Mount Kelud Volcano. With appropriate sediment control and sustainable river management, this problem could be minimized without scarifying the river environment.


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For centuries the excessive amount of sediment and volcanic debris from Mount Kelud Volcano had been accumulated at the mouth of the river and blocked the river stream, especially at the sharp edged meandering alighnment of the river. Depending on the extent of maintenance works for the river, the flood may strike the vulnerable part of the dykes or riverbanks and jeopardizing the agricultural as well as human settlement in the vicinity areas. For the case of the downstream site of Kali Brantas River, the most vulnerable site is located at the Karangrejo and Kertosono in Kediri Regency as well as the further downstream end of the river across Surabaya City at the Serbo Village. The Kali Brantas River at the downstream near the Kemiri point branching northward, then from the Gedek site, the river stream turns back to Serbo site along the side of the hills, then from this point, the river channel turns sharply southward. It was reported that in the year of 1037 the river stream at this particular site suffered from severe damage due to flood incident, and reportedly to causing substantial problems to agricultural and economic as well as the routine livelihood of the people in the vicinity of the Brantas Delta. The disastrous incident was reported to be the cumulative impacts of sediment and volcanic debris from Mount Kelud, deposited at the Serbo site, blocked the river stream and eventually overflowed to strike the susceptible bank at the Kali Mas then turn at the present site of Wringinanom bridge. Eventually, the Brantas River moved westward parallel with the river flow direction of the currently known Kali Porong River at the vicinity of Surabaya City of Eastern Java Province. Upon the completion of the repair works – by constructing barrages at the Waringin Sapta and Kelangen sites -- under the executive order of the King Airlangga, the direction of river flow turned back toward northward direction. However, Kali Brantas River transformed back to the new channel alignment in the year of 1294 AD. This was reported to be the impacts of volcanic debris of the Mount Welirang that
penetrate the Kali Brantas River along the Kali Pikatan and its tributaries. This incident brought about significant physical change of the bifurcation point of Kali Brantas and Serbo Rivers toward the Mojokerto site, such as the present physical condition.
3.5. THE BIRTH OF KING HAYAM WURUK The continued existence of Kali Brantas River and Mount Kelud Volcano for East Java Province has long been contributing for centuries to the prosperity of the people, apart from occasional floods along the river and the striking volcanic eruptions against the people in the vicinity areas. Despite the advantage of fertile volcanic ashes from Mount Kelud, sediment



and debris are continuously become the approaching threat against the Kali Brantas River and tributaries, due to accumulation of huge volume of sediment and cold volcanic debris at the top cauldron of the mount, and potentially transform itself into disastrous debris flow at any time. According to the Pararaton manuscript (Angoedi, 1984, p. 31), it was recorded that during the period of 170 years (between 1310 and 1481) nine eruptions of the Mount Kelud had been taken place. The most notable eruption of Mount Kelud was in 1334, for which the blow-up followed by simultaneous earthquake. The catastrophic earthquake was simultaneously worsened by the striking volcanic ash and terrified thunderstorms. The hot magma of the volcanic eruption shattered several villages and killed hundreds of peoples. It was said that at the same time with the notorious catastrophe, there born a new king named Pangeran Hayam Wuruk from the kingdom of Majapahit. Being born co-inside with such a terrible natural phenomenon, the King Hayam Wuruk was believed by local people to be a sacred person


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descended for governing the kingdom. From this point in time, the historical record stated that the King Hayam Wuruk ruled the Majapahit Kingdom from the year of 1350 to 1389. During which, the wise Hayam Wuruk King was said to be assisted by the famous Prime Minister Gajah Mada, which eventually reported to be the flourishing moment of the Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit with all the remarkable agricultural and economic development till the death of Gajah Mada in 1364. King Hayam Wuruk passed away 25 years later in the year of 1389.

3.6. THE FIRST REHABILITATION WORK ON IRRIGATION According to other stone inscription unearthed from the ruin of the Harinjing Weir of Brantas
River, it was recorded that the Harinjing Weir, which was errected in the year of 804 AD, had undertaken an unprecedented rehabilitation work on irrigation structure in 1350 AD. The construction work for the weir was said to implement permanently for unlimited time horizon, however, the weir had been reportedly flushed away several times due to catastrophic occurrences. From the ancient experience on irrigation rehabilitation, it becomes obvious that the hydraulic infrastructures for irrigation and other related purposes would need rehabilitative works on top of the routine operation and maintenance. No matter how feasible and robust the construction had been commenced, the rehabilitation works, even at this modern day, is not unavoidable. This especially the case when the construction works took part at the volcanic disaster-prone area. As a matter of fact, it is quite admiring that the ancient work of Harinjing irrigation weir of the Kali Brantas River had evidently been long lasted for at least 546 years before the first rehabilitation works.
3.7. THE SALIENT FEATURE OF IRRIGATION ON JAVA DURING THE HINDU ERA

According to series of historical evidences there are a number of reasons to believe that since the fist few decades AD (even presumably the decades before) the Javanese farmers had already been familiar with the basic technique of irrigation development and management,



which later on gradually become more advanced as the result of the transfer of technology during the Hindu Era. For illustration, at the Fifth Century AD, the King Purnawarman instructed to excavate a diversion channel for discharging off the Kali Cakung stream, near Jakarta Metropolitan as known today, toward northern coast of Java. This was evidently the flood control structure for preventing the ancient Jakarta and its agricultural vicinities from occasional flooding. In some parts of Central and East Java, there had been discoveries of ancient weirs, canals and tunnels that had no longer performing. So far as the current study on the underlying historical evidences, it is apparent that the ancient agricultural civilization of Indonesia had long been inventing variety of irrigation development and management techniques ranging from the most simple structures (weirs, and dykes) at small rivers made of bamboo pegs, stone, boulder, logs, by the farmers themselves, while the large and permanent structures, such as weirs, bridges, aquaducts and water diversion gates belong to the responsibility of the government and their technical staffs to provide for. In general, the nature of small scheme irrigation structures, which constructed by the farmers themselves, and had to be operated and maintained by irrigation organization at the village level, usually so simple that it easily breaches or flushed away by occasional floods. For such


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irrigation structures, the farmers operate and maintain as well as repair the schemes themselves on mutual basis. While the large structures are operated and maintained as well as repaired and upgraded, should if necessary, by the government authority with their highly experienced technical staffs. This role-sharing approach had apparently been adopted by the ancient irrigated agricultural civilization in Indonesia from generation to generation. It is not impossible, though, that such a role-sharing approach will continuously to be the case for farming circumstances that convertible to small land holding agricultural practices.

3.8. ANCIENT IRRIGATION TECHNICAL STAFF
During the Hindu Era, construction implementation for medium and large irrigation schemes constructed through the executive order of the King. The irrigation infrastructure, which would be constructed under the executive order of the king refers to as the “dawuhan” from the Javanese word, or directly translated as the “commandment” (of the King). For implementing the construction execution of the “dawuhan”, the King authorizes irrigation technical staffs to act for, or on behalf of the King. According to information obtained from ancient stone inscription, it was stated that the assigned technician in practice, did not involved directly with construction execution. Instead, the royal irrigation technicians authorized the local technical staff from the village to conduct the construction execution, and subsequently responsible for conducting irrigation operation as well as water allocation from the constructed weirs down to the farmlands. In spite of this, there is no information, what so ever stated the physical dimensions of irrigation structures referred to. It was stated by an anonymous historian, however, that the physical configuration of a field reservoir area in the Pikatan village had an estimated dimension of about 175 m by 350 m with the total storage capacity of about 350,000 m3. The reservoir was also utilized for military fortification during the Era of Majapahit Kingdom. This evidence explained that, apart from the advanced irrigation technique, the Kingdom of Majapahit had, its capital town also equipped with military defense system to prevent the kingdom from potential attack of the enemy.
3.9. SUBAK ANCIENT IRRIGATION ORGANIZATION IN BALI Despite the absence of information about the exact date of the first establishment of Subak as an ancient organization for managing irrigation system in Bali Island, yet, the local people had been implementing this distinct irrigation based agricultural practices from generation to



generation for centuries till present. Meanwhile, it is quite worthy to note that in Madagascar and Central Luzon of the Philippines also existed the similar kind of ancient irrigation based agricultural organization without any clear information about the exact historical date of their first existence, nor any clear information on the relationship between them, one after another. With regards to the curiosity about the direct interaction between Subak organization and other ancient irrigation based organizations, many researchers were in puzzled due to the fact that as far as the irrigation history is concerned, no single evidence indicating about the ever existence of any kind of organization similar with Subak’s. Regardless of the absence of definitive information, some scholars yet argue that the existence of irrigation based agricultural organization like Subak in Bali used to be practiced by the ancient farming civilization on Java Island. To the extent of this argument, the pro side could at least give obvious rationale of similar platform of democratic principle they all have for irrigation management implementation. So do the similarities of those organizations with the way they


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organized themselves in role sharing, organizational set up with more or less similar usage of irrigation based agricultural tools and facilities. Again, this postulation is still highly arguable having had no direct indication of past interrelationship amongst them. On the basis of the similar democratic principle of role sharing and organizational set up, it is believed that this principle well explained the sustainability of this organization for hundred of years, yet still relevant with the underlying irrigation based agricultural practices in those areas today. In accordance with the the context of subak and arrival of the pioneer Dutch explorer in Indonesia, followed by the enactment of obligatory cropping pattern for supporting the provision of adequate raw materials (sugarcane) of the early sugar factory on Java. This sugarcane based cropping pattern brought about conflicting of interests for providing irrigation water during the cropping seasons on the one hand, and allocation of extra water for sugarcane during the dry season on the other. During the mandated sugarcane plantation, farmers continuously suffered from severe economic hardship having the fact that the food crops could only be planted within the limited land the farmers have. Together with their limited financial capacity, 20% of their lands should be planted with sugarcane and surrender the overall products to the Dutch Authority in lieu of the land tax they used to pay. Given this devastating matter, the already limited farmer’s income became increasingly discouraging. The traditional agricultural practices the farmer learned through generations has been attached to paddy to paddy with occasional upland cropping pattern, and yet no experience at all on cash crops such as sugarcane plantation.

In the mean time, the sugar factory, which belongs to the colonial authority, could easily provide large agricultural lands for sugarcane plantation on the basis of compulsory principle. Moreover, the colonial trading company had every privilege to conduct the manufacturing process of sugar and subsequently marketing the products to the world market with exceptionally large profit for the colonial government. As a result, the farmer became increasingly impoverished, and the sugar factory gained multiple folded

profits, yet without adequate financial supports for operating and maintaining the existing irrigation schemes, if any at all.

Sugarcane plantation



The two types of water users cannot be incorporated into one single democratic association like Subak System in Bali. Thus, presumably if the Subak organization used to be existed on Java, they must had been ignored since the Dutch Colonial Ruler introduced sugarcane plantation by means of compulsory implementation. For the case of Subak in Bali, there are some reasons to believe that this irrigation based organization had at least been existed since three centuries before the Era of Majapahit Kingdom on Java Island. The Subak in Bali refers to as a group of paddy fields owned by


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many individual farmers, the land of which, served by one independent irrigation-scheme. Thus the Subak system is an autonomous organization that has no formal relationship with local government.

For the day to day activities, the rural community have obligation to take care their village on mutual basis, however, all activities related with agricultural implementation such as land preparation, irrigation water distribution, crop maintenance, harvesting, repairs as well as maintenance of irrigation facilities, agricultural related financial management, and religious

affairs belong to the management responsibility of Subak Organi-zation. The Subak members are not only having associated with agricultural activities but also strongly related with socio-religious circumstances. One single Subak organization normally consists of about 100 members, with a special focus on strengthening of socio-cultural relationship amongst the community members, which is not only in terms of intimate working relationship, but also through routine meeting at the

Regular Subak Meeting in Bali

Subak gatherings. The basic
principle adheres to the Subak organization since the ancient time, is always tightly concern with appropriate land and water related management and utilizations. This is one of the reasons why the Subak organization, which originated from the Bali’s own civilization, is still consistently practiced and followed by its members from generation to generation. In fact, all the developed regulatory instruments, through mutual consensus and on democratic principles, are continuously Rice field terrace cultivated by Subak farmers in Bali


respected and obeyed by all the Subak members.

All the Subak members are mutually agreed to maintain harmonious livelihood amongst the community members, including the neighboring Subak organization that utilize water from the same source under the judicious coordination with the Subak traditional leaders. Meanwhile, the Subak members, referred to as the Klian Subak, have the responsibility to maintain harmonious relation-ship with the formal leader of the village. All of the concerns as

Island


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subsequent fines for disobedient members and the annual obligations for religious offerings and other such matters. However, the Subak system has nothing to do with matters, beyond the internal membership concerns.

(For further details please see supplement paper, “Subak Irrigation System in Bali, An Ancient Heritage of Participatory Irrigation Management in Modern Indonesia”).

3.10. THE ISLAMIC AND WESTERN INFLUENCE

3.10.1. THE FALL OF MAJAPAHIT HINDU EMPEROR Since after the declining of the power of Majapahit Emperor in 1429 AD, many civil wars took part, and eventually weakened the influence of the kingdom from within the internal system. The members of the united rulers gradually separate themselves from the supremacy of Majapahit Emperor. At the same time of the collapsed of the emperor, the power of Hindu Emperor in Indonesia gradually fading away and eventually intervened by the arrival of

well as, opinions, proposals and requests by the Subak members must be put into special consideration on equal, trans-parent and democratic principles, including the members’ obligation to prepare for routine religious offerings, which is regarded as one of the determinant factors of the failure or success of agricultural productivities.

Under the Subak regulation (Awig-awig) the water distri-bution mechanism, irrigation service fees, as well as the

A traditional level for land surveying by the ancient Balinese, (At Subak Museum, Tabanan, Bali)



Islamic influence.

3.10.2. THE EMERGENCE OF ISLAMIC KINGDOM

The influx of Arab traders moved toward Indonesian Archipelago through Malacca Strait, between Sumatra Island and the Malacca Peninsula. During which, the geographic position of Malacca became increasingly strategic due to the convergence of trade streams among other: Arab, Gujarat, India from west, and China, Majapahit, Srivijaya, and the eastern and northern regions of Southeast Asian Countries. Owing to the fact that the voyage that day merely relied traditional sailing vessel, then Malacca became the stopover point of the trade vessels along their journey to Indonesian archipelago and vice versa. Soon, Malacca grew into one of the most strategic harbors and trade centers in the region those days, and hence brought about remarkable accomplishment of economic prosperity. In the year 1400, the Islamic Kingdom of Malacca (in the Malaysian Peninsula as known today) was established.

While conducting trade activities, the Arab merchants also took opportunity to spread out the Islamic religion, which was happened to be growing remarkably in lieu of the influence of the Hindu Religion which was faded away from Indonesian Archipelago. In fact, the collapsed of


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the Majapahit Emperor was part of the cause for the accelerating spread of Islamic faith in the archipelago. For example, the new Islamic Kingdoms were established in the north coast of Java, which frequently visited by Arab traders, such as the Islamic Kingdom of Banten, Cirebon, and Demak. The latter, was then flourishing remarkably since 1478 under leadership of the Islamic King Raden Patah who took over the governance after fading of the Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit.

With regards to the subsequent development and management of irrigated agriculture during
the Islamic Kingdoms, no significant historical records had yet been discovered till the Western adventurers arrived to Indonesian Archipelago.
3.11. PRE COLONIAL ERA

3.11.1. ARRIVAL OF PORTUGUESE PEOPLE As far as the historical evidence is concerned, the first Western People came to Indonesian Archipelago was the Portuguese explorer. The first Portuguese mission came to Indonesia for the main purpose of buying spices as the most important trade commodity in Europe those
days. Despite the trade objective they initially intended for, their sailing vessels also equipped with military and navy facilities as well as other such a warfare equipments for self defense against the pirate attacks along their ocean adventures to the Spices’ Archipelago and vice versa.
With the high motivation for gaining enormous profits, the Portuguese invaded Melacca in 1511, and intended to get into monopoly for spice trade. However the trade missions from other countries prefer to set up free trade implementation instead. And hence, most of the free trade supporters avoided to stopover in Melacca and established free trade options in other trade destination harbors.

The new alternative trade routes then established along the western coast of Sumatra Island, through the Sunda Strait in the south most of Sumatra Island to Java Sea. The new trade
destination ports then established along the coasts routes such as Bengkulu and Pariaman in Western Sumatra, as well as Banten, Cirebon, Jepara, and Tuban along the northern coast of Java Island.
3.11.2. ARRIVAL OF DUTCH TRADE MISSION Following the route of the former Portuguese Trade Mission, the first Dutch people stepped foot to Java was Cornelis de Houtman in 1596. Like the Portuguese predecessor, the Dutch pioneer traders also intended to seek for spices to sell them at the European market.



At that time, the most outstanding spice producers in Indonesia, which were the Moluccas Islands, suddenly came up to be the most popular destination for European spice traders, particularly with the historical relationship, later on, between The Netherlands and Indonesia.

In the year of 1600, the Dutch Trade Mission initiated a new trade representative at Banda for managing its spice trade activities. Two years later in 1602, the Dutch Trade Mission established a new trading company referred to as “Verenigde Oost indische Compagnie – VOC”, or East India Trading Company, to deal with free trade competition against other countries’ trade missions that had been around in Indonesia for the same purposes. Later on, the Dutch took over the governance of Indonesia as its new colony. In 1618, Jan Pieterszoon


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Coen became the Governor General of VOC and founded Batavia (Jakarta today) as the capital center of VOC in 1619.

For fully protecting the monopoly on spice trade, the Dutch undertook trade blockade against Banten, and eventually gave rise to prolong confrontation between the Dutch and the Banten Sultanate. The Sultanate of Banten under the leadership of Sultan Ageng, continued to promote improvement of economic development by establishing closer trade relationship with England and France, and encouraged them to set up trade representatives in Banten.

To the event that it did, unfortunately, Sultan Ageng had unavoidable dissolution with his own son Sultan Haji, who wanted to take over the power of the Banten Sultanate from his father. For this purpose, Sultan Haji conducted underground movement by seeking political support from the East India Trading Company (VOC). In 1680 Sultan Haji managed to take over the power of Banten Sultanate from his father. However, Sultan Haji had to pay a very expensive cost in lieu of the political support he obtained from the VOC Trading Company. As the matter of fact, the VOC insisted Sultan Haji to provide for special facilities and other
privileges in return. Eventually, the VOC Trading Company took full control over the Banten Sultanate.
3.11.3. INVASION OF SULTAN AGUNG AGAINST THE VOC DUTCH TRADING COMPANY With the persistent of VOC intervention on Java Island the Mataram Kingdom, under the rule of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, became annoyed, because at that time, the entire Java Island except West Java was under the control of Mataram Kingdom.



In 1628 the navy squad of Mataram Kingdom, without prior notice, attacked Batavia from the sea. However, the Mataram military team was not managed to invade the Fort of VOC in Batavia, because VOC had previously aware about the potential invasion from Mataram Kingdom and had themselves prepared. He decided to get retreat and prepared another attack shortly.

In the following year (1929) a military troop of Mataram Kingdom resumed subsequent attack against Batavia with a complete military team as well as warfare equipment. However, the military convoy had already been quite exhausted after three months travel on foot before arrived to Batavia. Meanwhile, the construction of barn for food-stock of the Mataram military troops in Cirebon and Tegal along the route to Batavia destroyed by continuous cannon bombards from the Dutch Sailing vessels till the food storages completely burnt out on fire.

Despite the lack of food stocks, the military troop of Mataram Kingdom keep attacked the forts of VOC in Batavia. The fort Bommel was not managed to invade, however, under the massive surrounding of the fort, the Governor General of VOC, Jan Pieterszoon Coen was dead due to Cholera epidemic disease. Eventually, the second attack against Batavia was again unsuccessful due to the lack of food stocks for the troops to keep moving.

Learning from the two consecutive experiences to attack Batavia, Sultan Agung King became aware that the availability of adequate food stock is a most important determinant factor for the success or failure of such a massive military intervention. For this purpose, Sultan Agung decided to mobilize his troops to settle down in Karawang and Sumedang areas and make the necessary preparation for pursuing adequate food production by means of irrigation based rice producton while preparing for future attack to Batavia.


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It was reported though, that the subsequent attack to Batavia had never been materialized due to the death of Sultan Agung King in 1645. The successor of Sultan Agung, who is his own son, had not had adequate personal integrity as well as leadership capacity to go on with his fathers’ plan and commitment.

3.11.4. CONFRONTATION OF VOC WITH THE KING OF GOWA In the eastern region of Indonesian archipelago, the monopolistic trade policy of VOC for
spices commodity had continuously to encounter opposition from the concerned trade communities. For spice and rice trade, the Sombaopu Harbor (Makassar) of the Gowa Kingdom, Southern Sulawesi was the most important center in the central and eastern regions of Indonesian Archipelago during those days. At the initial stage, the arrival of VOC Trading Company in Makassar, was well accepted for the Gowa Kingdom, however, after disclosing the actual objective of the spice trading policy in Makassar, the authority of the Gowa Kingdom became confronted to the policy.
Since 1616 the VOC Trading Company had frequently encountered with opposition from the people of Gowa Kingdom but they still seeking for the best strategy to cope with the problems. In 1634, as the VOC Trading Company became confident enough to confront with Gowa Emperor, and for the sake of its monopolistic policy, VOC mobilized its specially trained troop to invade the harbor of the capital town of Gowa, Makassar. At that time, all of the incoming and the outgoing vessels from Makassar Harbor were going to be arrested by the VOC Authority disregarding of the owner and the country of origin. Meanwhile, a lot of sailing vessels from Portuguese, India, China, as well as other European countries anchored in the harbor of Sombaupu, Makassar.

As the officers of the Gowa Kingdom obtained information about the VOC from the sailors from Jepara, Centra Java, all of the boat and vessels were instructed to leave the Sombaupu Harbor, in such a way that at the time the VOC troops arrived to Makassar, not any single vessels left at the harbor. After several attempts without success, the VOC Dutch Company appealed the King to make mutual peace treaty. However, in 1638 confrontation resumed again, and eventually VOC make another mutual peace treaty, and the King of Gowa gave acknowledgement to the limited trade right of VOC Dutch Trading Company. Despite the peace treaty, the escalation of black market for spice trade amongst the Gowa, Portuguese, English, Danish and French trading companies become hardly controllable. This mostly due to the extent of the large marine territories, that was beyond the capacity of VOC to control. Being the case, unavoidable warfare incidents often took part within the mutually agreed peace treaty.

After the end of the open war between the Dutch VOC and Gowa Kingdom, in 1655 and
1667, in which the Gowa Kingdom was defeated, the Dutch VOC insisted the King of Gowa through a bilateral peace treaty to recognize the monopolistic right of the VOC Dutch Trading Company on spice trade.
3.11.5. THE STRUGGLE OF UNTUNG SURAPATI During the emperor of Amangkurat-II of the Mataram Kingdom, which was known to be the weak governance period, a rebellion undertook by Trunojoyo who came from Madura Island, due to dissatisfaction with the political and economic condition of Mataram Kingdom at that



time. Trunojoyo managed to occupy the Mataram Palace at Kertasura and took control over the assets and properties of the Mataram emperor. In an attempt to take control over the


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insurgent, the Amangkurat-II Emperor seek out military support from the VOC Trading Company, and eventually managed to overthrow the supremacy of Trunojoyo rebellion. In return to the military support, as was the case for previous military seeker from VOC, the Amangkurat-II Emperor insisted to be of assistance to VOC for expanding control over the entire Java Island including the southern coast. In this regard, Untung Surapati, a native origin from Bali, with the emperor’s recommendation, recruited by VOC to be an army officer. Later on, Untung Surapati, who considered having a strong personality, promoted to be the first lieutenant of the Dutch army from native Indonesian people. In one occasion, Untung Surapati affronted by his subordinate of the Dutch origin, for a certain policy he determined to implement by his subordinates. Being insulted by the Dutch officer, he decided to quit his service from the Dutch Army and subsequently confronted and beat the Dutch ruler from his basic frontier of Priangan and later on retreat to Kartasura. The Dutch officers led by Captain Tack, assigned to Kartasura to capture Untung Surapati, were defeated and during which, all of them were killed by Untung Surapati’s supporters. From this point in time, Untung Surapat moved to East Java and spent his time to rule his followers in a small kingdom. As the King Amangkurat-II passed away in 1703, his son Amangkurat-III or Sunan Mas succeeded him. Nevertheless, Sunan Mas dismissed by force from his position by the Dutch Authority, and replaced him by King Pakubuwono-I. For which, the King Pakubuwono I gave reward to VOC Dutch Trading Company to occupy the remaining jurisdiction areas of Mataram Kingdom in West Java. After having dismissed from his ruling position by the Dutch Authority, Sunan Mas went to East Java to give support to Untung Surapati’s followers. To this point, the Dutch ruler
dispatched a strong military troop to East Java in 1706 to combat Untung Surapati. On this incident, Surapati was killed in his effort to defend Fort Bangil. At the end, the Dutch Ruler occupied the entire Java Island and Lampung District, Southern Sumatra in 1752.
3.11.6. SITUATION OF THE OUTER ISLANDS AND DISBANDMENT OF VOC In spite of the strong opposition the Dutch ruler encompassed on Java Island, the Aceh Sultanate in Northern Sumatra remained undefeated. Most of the kingdoms were occupied by the Dutch Ruler, though the full ruler’s control only limited to the coastal regions. The inland regions were still hardly controllable by the Dutch ruler. In Kalimantan Island, for instance, in



1750, the Dutch Colonial Ruler still obtained newly occupied territory for subsequent control of trade in Banjarmasin Kingdom of southern Kalimantan. For the east region of the archipelago, Moluccas, Ternate and Tidore, the local kingdoms had previously had no more privilege but determined by the Dutch Colonial ruler. The local kingdoms were not allowed to undertake spice trade as well as control over spice plantations. For compensation, the kings paid by the Dutch Ruler in terms of annual salary. The spice plantations concentrated on the island of Banda and Ambon, which conducted by the local people in terms of compulsory labor forces with practically closed to the slavery practice. In the mean time, the Netherlands occupied by the French revolutionary movement in 1795 with special enforcement to combat Feudalism. At that time, after Louis XVI ruler guillotined to death, the government structure of the Netherlands transformed into the Republic of Bavaria under the immediate control of the French Government. Being the case, the king Willem V of the Netherlands decided to move out to England and gave executive order to the


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Governor General of VOC to retain all of the treasures of VOC to the British Ruler on temporary basis. The British ruler agreed to hand over the property treasures to VOC again after the French Ruler leaved the Netherlands. In this regards the VOC Ruler in Indonesia requested by Willem V to momentarily handing over the Dutch Colonial Governance of West Sumatra, Ambon and Banda to the British Ruler.
In response to the executive order, the Governor General of VOC in Batavia refused to comply with Willem-V and prepared to defend the colony from the British invasion against Batavia. However, it was recorded that the British invasion had never been materialized. Meanwhile, the political reform of the Netherlands also brought about significant impacts to the Dutch Policy on the existence of VOC Trading Company. In 1798 the Dutch Colonial Government decided to disband the VOC, and took over the entire financial debts and liabilities of VOC as due of the 31st December 1799.
3.11.7. DIPONEGORO WAR (THE JAVA WAR) With the persistent intervention of the Dutch Colonial Rule on Indonesian Archipelago, particularly in Java, Diponogoro, a prince of Java, got aggravated with the strong penetration



of western culture as well as the way of life against the local tradition and cultures. Given the frustrating circumstances, Diponegoro, as a strong Moslem follower, decided to leave the palace and retreated to the rural area of the Western Capital of Yogyakarta to isolate himself from the western influence while consistently contemplating as well as devoting himself to the Moslem Religion. In 1825, Diponegoro confronted with the Dutch Colonial Ruler having his land property in Tegalrejo District trespassed by the road construction alignment without prior notice from the Dutch Colonial Authority. The alignment of the road plan happened to superimpose with the cemetery of Diponegoro’s ancestors. Responding to this matter, Diponegoro insisted his followers to pull off the entire road alignment posts that trespassed his private land property. For this response, the Dutch Colonial Government Officer, Resident Smissaert, ordered Mangkubumi (Diponegoro’s uncle) to arrest Prince Diponegoro, but Mangkubumi refused to act upon, and in fact, evidently decided to go along with Diponegoro to confront the Dutch Colonial Ruler. On July 20th 1825 the Dutch troop went to Tegalrejo to open fire on Diponegoro’s residence with cannon bombards. This incident signified the break up of Diponegoro War (Java War). The Dutch Colonial Ruler supported by Surakarta, Mangkunegaran, and Yogyakarta Sultanates to go into battle against Diponegoro and his followers. On the contrary, many Regents, Javanese aristocrats, Islamic priests and farmers came to join Diponegoro to combat the Dutch Colonial ruler. Kyai Mojo, a highly influential Islamic scholar, also decided to join Prince Diponegoro, so did Sentot Ali Basah Prawirodirdjo, a young Javanese aristocrat entrusted to be the warlord of Diponegoro troops. Within the short time, Diponegoro war spread out to the entire parts of Yogyakarta, Central and East Java territories. With the strong cavalry, directly led by Diponegoro, the strategic regions of Pacitan and Purwodadi, were soon taken over, and the open wars took part simultaneously in many regions of the Central and East Java such as in Banyumas, Pekalongan, Semarang, Rembang, Madiun and Kertosono. Dring the venomous battle of Lengkong (1825-1826), a Dutch officer and two Sultanate Princes were killed, at the same time the Delanggu region took over by Diponegoro followers. However, since 1827, under the strategic warfare policy of the General Commander De Kock, the combating position of Diponegoro became declining. The Dutch Ruler mobilized auxiliary troops from West Sumatra, and South Sulawesi, and applied for the warfare strategy


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so called “Fort System”. Under the fort system of General De Cock, the Dutch Ruler immediately erected warfare forts at the strategic location of the regions that had been defeated. The errected forts connected to each other with access road for facilitating the quick mobility of the Dutch Army controller. The implementation of this strategy had been successful to isolate the mobility of Diponogoro troops from one particular location to another. In 1828 Kyai Mojo arrested by the Dutch after unfair deals, he was then jailed in isolated detention of Minahasa, northern Sulawesi, in which he passed away under the Dutch custody, and buried in Tondano, Northern Sulawesi in 1849. Followed by the arrest of Kiai Mojo, Prince Mangkubumi surrendered to the Dutch ruler in 1829, but the son of Diponegoro, Prince Dipokusumo refused to surrender. The Dutch Ruler promised to give award of 20,000 Dutch Ringgit for the ones who managed to arrest Diponegoro dead or alive. In fact, the local people paid the wholehearted respects to Diponogoro and no one wished to betray him by taking the Dutch offer. Under the frustrating moment, the Dutch Ruler arrested Diponegoro injudiciously at a ceasefire negotiation in Magelang Regency, Central Java, and subsequently denoted the end of Diponegoro War (Java War) in 1830. The Dormant Period of Irrigation in Indonesia: Since after the arrivals of the foreign trade missions, including the Dutch Adventures, irrigation development and management in the entire Indonesian Archipelago, with the exceptions of indigenous based irrigation schemes, had almost been ignored. During which, both the Dutch Authority and the Local Kingdoms were fully occupied with trading activities, and occasionally encountered by ruling military interventions to perpetuate the monopolistic trade policy. The prolong wars against the Dutch Trading Ruler, taken part both on Java and the other Islands of the Indonesian Archipelago. Under these circumstances, the development and management of agriculture and other welfare activities by the local kingdoms on Java as well as on the Outer Islands remained untouchable. As a matter of fact, the Dutch Ruler gradually expanding their control over the archipelago, till the moment when several leaders started to confront the Dutch Policy, with occasional warfare incidents such as the Java War. In spite of the non-active development and management activities on irrigated agriculture for many years during the crucial periods sated previously, the physical confrontation against the Dutch Ruler brought about significant lessons learned. This particularly the case for the subsequent Colonial Policy Reform on the need to pursue welfare development for the local people such as the famous Ethical Policy (irrigation, emmigration and education), which later on, proved to be the land mark of sustainable development for the entire Dutch Colonies, including Indonesia.

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter IV. The Beginning of Dutch Colonial Era

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CHAPTER IV THE BEGINNING OF DUTCH COLONIAL ERA

4.1. COMPULSORY AGRICULTURAL POLICY Upon the disbandment of the Verenigde Oost-Indsche Compagnie (VOC) or The East India Trading Company on the 31st December 1799, the Dutch Government took over the formal Dutch Colonial Governance in Indonesia on the 1st January 1800, having a total debt from
VOC Trading Company at about F.120 million (120 million Dutch Guilders). Apart from the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Dutch Government also suffered from severe financial depressions due to the broke up of the prolong war in Europe and later on with several wars with nationalist movements in Indonesia. In an attempt to resolve the prolong financial crises, immediately after the end of Diponegoro War in 1830, the Dutch Colonial Government assigned the Governor General Van Den Bosh to enforce compulsory agricultural policy, so called the “Cultuur Stelsel” or “Verplichte Cultuur” or mandatory agricultural policy. The Cultuur Stelsel imposed the farmers to cultivate 20% of agricultural lands they have with commercial plantation and cash crops such as rubber, coffee, tea, and pepper for upland areas and for lowland areas with “nila (genus corchorus)” and sugarcane, as the highly market potential agricultural products in Europe those days. The agricultural product for the 20% farmland should be fully surrendered to the Dutch Colonial Authority, and products received to be regarded as the payment of land tax in lieu of the “Land Rente” (land tax) tax obligation that had been prescribed by the British (temporary) Colonial Government since 1813.
4.2. THE PERIOD OF GOVERNOR GENERAL DAENDELS In the period between 1809 and 1811 Governor General Daendels conducted construction of harbor port for sailing vessels at the Anyer Beach and Ujung Kulon, West Java by employing the compulsory work forces of the people of Banten. Because of the lack of health facilities



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and food stock, many people suffered from contagious diseases, and deaths to starvation. Having this devastating matter, Sultan Banten and his Prime Minister protested Daendels in order to stop the compulsory labor force, but Daendels arrested Sultan Banten instead, and evacuated him at isolated jail in Ambon. The Prime Minister of Banten Sultanate even sentenced to death as he was considered by Dandels to be against the Dutch Colonial Policy. Prior to the completion of the Anyer and Ujung Kulon docks, Daendels launched his controversial policy to construct the Northern Trans-Java Highway extended from West to East of Java Island (from Anyer to Panarukan) via Serang-Tangerang-Batavia-Bogor-Bandung-Sumedang-Cirebon in West Java through to Brebes-Tegal Pekalongan-Semarang-Demak-Kudus-Pati-Rembang in Central Java, then to Surabaya-Penarukan in East Java with a total distance of more than 1,000 km. The notorious highway project caused hundred of thousands of deaths and epidemic casualties due to the lack of food stocks and medical facilities. Despite the intolerable sufferings, the ambitious colonial project had undoubtedly given unprecedented and remarkable impacts to the development of Java Island in particular, and Indonesia in general. Till today, the highway route is still performing well, although some of its alignments had already been reallocated. From the point of view of micro hydrological aspects, the road construction had caused significant blockage of the natural drainage function of the area between Semarang-Demak


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and Kudus. This area regularly suffered from flooding due to the absence of natural drainage capacities. During the early time before the road construction, the East Semarang and Demak areas used to be the well-known rice producing areas.

4.3. GOVERNOR LIEUTENANT GENERAL RAFFLES (1811-1816) Representing The British Colonial Government, Lieutenant General Raffles posted in Indonesia from 1811 to 1816. Being influenced by the new political approach prescribed by
the French Revolution (freedom, equality, and friendship) Raffles intended to abolish the maltreatment that had been undertaken by the VOC and subsequently by the Dutch Colonial Government.
As a matter of fact, the new political approach had previously been introduced at the end of the 18th Century by a Dutch idealist named after Dirk van Hongedorp, who stated that the Javanese farmers had been encountered by enormous sufferings resulted from the way of VOC treated them beyond the normal humanity norms.

In the mind of Raffles, the farmer should determine the copping pattern himself, then sell the agricultural products to whoever he would wish at the free competitive based market principles.

Basically, the farmers have obligation to pay for tax in terms of “land rent” to the government. In reality, however, the goodwill of Raffles was not managed to implement due to a number of reasons: (1) The fixed amount of land rent that must be paid by the farmers are hardly determined due to the absence of data about the land ownership, in addition to the uncertainty of diversified conditions of the soil fertilities; (2) The farmers had been accustomed to cultivate traditional crops, such as paddy and upland crops, so they had almost no more capacity to maximize agricultural productivity by cultivating their lands with cash crops that have inter-market potential; (3) If they do have capacity to cultivate crops that have
international market potentials, they had no capacity to have the crops marketed at the foreign market, and hence, the farmers eventually surrender the crops to the Village Head or to the local government authority the way they used to do during the VOC.
4.4. MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF COMPULSORY AGRICULTURAL POLICY In 1830 the Dutch Colonial Government enforced a new land tax policy. The new taxation policy was principally adopted the obligatory principles the way it was implemented during the VOC era in complementary with the compulsory agricultural policy.



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Commissioner General Johnnes Van den Bosh, who was considered by the Dutch People those days as the Dutch hero, but regarded by the local people as the cruelest ever known Dutch Officer, initiated the compulsory agricultural policy. Through the compulsory agricultural policy, Van den Bosh wished to obtain as much money as possible to compensate financial deficits of the Dutch Colonial Government due to the bankruptcy of the VOC.

The main principle built into the compulsory agricultural policy are as follows: (1) The Colonial government make consensus with the local population, in order to share part of his land for cultivating agricultural crops that posess international market potential; (2) The total land area that must be planted by obligatory types of crops must not exceed 20% of the land owned by the people; (3) The labor works be required for production of obligatory types of crops must not exceed the labor works that are required for conducting rice production from


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the farmer’s land; (4) Land tax for production of obligatory types of crops must be exempted from land rent; (5) In case the total price of agricultural products paid to Colonial Government exceed the amount of land rent that have to be paid by the farmer, the Government shall
return the balance to the farmer; (6) The Colonial Government shall be responsible to the risks of agricultural failure due to unusual climatic conditions, except if the failures were due to the faulty of the farmers themselves.
4.5. IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPULSORY AGRICULTURAL POLICY The implementation guideline of the compulsory agricultural policy seemed to be potentially effective for undertaking productive agricultural endeavors for both the colonial ruler as well for prosperous livelihood of the farmers. In reality, however, the policy implementations were



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not abiding the provisions articulated in the general principle of the guidelines. As a matter of fact, during the implementation of compulsory agricultural policy, the farmers were increasingly suffered from perpetuating deprivation, poverty and hunger, instead of gaining prosperity. The following experiences had been noted from the policy implementation of compulsory agricultural policy based on the six major principles as the following elaborations: Guideline 1. The Colonial government make consensus with the local population, in order to share part of his land for cultivating agricultural crops that have international market potential; From Guideline 1., it is seemingly that the consensus takes part voluntarily without any intimidation. In practice however, the local authority through the Regent and Village Head forced the people to surrender part of his land under the immediate supervision and control of the Dutch Officer. Every Officer is entitled to the special bonus or personal incentive should he managed to collect more agricultural products to the Colonial Government. The more he collect, the more incentive he obtains. As a result, the officers are pursuing injustice competition with each other for obtaining more products to collect. And hence, the farmers, who mostly illiterate, were continuously became the victims of unfair conducts. Guideline 2. The total land area that must be planted by obligatory types of crops must not exceed 20% of the land owned by the people; In practice, this article is hardly implementable because the landownership is mostly small scattered. Meanwhile, the nature of tobacco, and sugar cane for instance, would need larger plot of land to effectively and efficiently manageable. For this purpose, the Dutch government officers simplify the land arrangement by regrouping the ownerships, determined the best part of the regrouped land for cash crops and leave the rest for food crops. Having tempted to obtain more incentives, the officers mostly took more than 20%, often up to 50% of the farmer’s land for cash crop on compulsory basis. Guideline 3. The labor works be required for production of obligatory types of crops must not exceed the labor works that are required for conducting rice production from the farmer’s land. This article actually means to give adequate time for the farmer to cultivate the agricultural land for local market potential. In reality, the farmers were mostly forced to do more labor works than his obligation for the compulsory crops, as a result, his food crops left unmanageable.


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Guideline 4. Land tax for production of obligatory types of crops must be exempted from land rent.

In reality, this article was mostly ignored, for the land tax was still levied with increasing rates, and yet without considering tax exemption at all.

Guideline 5. In case if the total price of agricultural products paid to the Colonial Government exceeded the amount of land rent that have to be paid bay the farmer, the Government shall return the balance to the farmer;

In reality, this article was not followed at all. In fact, most of the farmers those days were practically illiterate, having far more than capable to understand their rights as well as obligation and responsibilities. Being the case, they mostly relied without reserve to the local government officers, who in facts, also tempted to gain from such a humble condition of the farmer.

Guideline 6. The Colonial Government shall be responsible to the risks of agricultural failure due to unusual climatic conditions, except if the failures were due to the faulty of the farmers themselves.

In reality, the Dutch Colonial Government staff would instantaneously blamed the farmers for any striking risks, no matter how realistic the rationale that the farmers’ had.

With all the evidences, the implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy having the farmers under the already poor, illiterate, and devastating conditions, had been increasingly suffered from perpetuating deprivation, poverty and hunger, instead of gaining prosperity. In
fact, the Indonesian history had noted such a notorious agricultural program, causing hundred of thousands of casualties, deaths of hunger as well as epidemics, particularly during the extreme drought year between 1848 and 1849, in Demak, Central Java.
4.6. CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY IRRIGATION WEIRS ON JAVA ISLAND

Following the implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy, which was initiated by Johnnes
Van den Bosch (1830-1833), the Dutch Colonial Government since then, directly involved in agricultural management, production and marketing of agricultural products, including the efforts to improve irrigation infra-structures for supporting the Compulsory Agricultural Policy.
Stone inscription at the Old Sampean Weir, located at the upstream site of New Sampean Weir



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ha at the delta of Sidoarjo had
been constructed from 1852 to 1857. While the Mojokerto weir, was rehabilitated in 1972/ 1973.
4.7. THE FIRST SUGAR FACTORIES With regards to the post harvesting process, there are some major differences between coffee, tea, and cotton on one side, as well as sugarcane on the other. The first category requires a

In an attempt to provide for constant availability of irrigation water, the Dutch Colonial Government paid special attention on the future potential development of fertile agri-cultural land of the delta Sampean River in East Java. For this purpose, the Dutch Government dispatched Ir. Van Thiel to Situbondo to construct a weir in Kali Sampean River in 1832. The construction of this weir made of teakwood framework structure, filled with stone and boulder. The Total width of the weir was 45 m and

New Sampeam weir, at the upstream site of Old Sampean Weir

the height at eight m. In 1850 the Sampean weir could no longer utilized, as the teakwood material for routine maintenance was no longer available. For improvement purpose, the strengthening work was undertaken by means of masonry structure early in 1847, but the weir did not last long.

Up until 1876 temporary weir structures had been constructed, and at the same year the masonry weir was completed, but the weir did not last long as well. The Kali Brantas irrigation scheme with an area of 34,000

The Old Lengkong Weir preserved as a monument near the new Lengkong Weir



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relatively simple post harvesting process and subsequently brought to the government owned storage before marketing. On the other hand, the sugarcane required more complicated process before it became ready-export commodity.


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For processing of the sugarcane into sugar, the Dutch Colonial Government employed private companies on contract basis, in which, the government provide constant supplies of sugarcane as raw material for the sugar factory.

At the initial stage the private companies received advance payment for initial capital, of which to be paid back in terms of the total amount of bulk-sugar produced.

To this point, the private sectors became more and more encouraged to manage sugar production. To anticipate the over enthusiastic participation of private sector, in 1837 the Colonial Authority applied for new policy to hold down the number of private companies that eligible to involve in the sugar production through a rigid prioritization. In principle,

A sugar factory in East Java, has been producing since early Duch Time and Still producing today



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the private companies must conduct some kind of competitive bidding, although in practice such procedure was not always the case.

In some regions, the supervisory role for sugar production was entrusted to the Government officers, but the supervision implementation was found later on to be least effective, and hence the policy implementation had been treated as the trial cases only.

Given the fact that the private owned sugar factories had been highly profitable, the application of advanced technology became increasingly demanding for efficient means of production. In spite of the demand for large amount of capital investment to meet application of advanced technology on sugar production, the output in return also became increasingly attractive due to higher efficiency with more effective means of productivity.

During the implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy in Indonesia, the Dutch Colonial Government, for supporting sugar industries mainly implemented irrigation development and management, with some exceptions. Only after the shift of colonial policy for giving attention on the prosperity of the local people, then irrigation development and management in Indonesia received more attention by the Colonial Authority.

The growth of sugar export from Java during the Compulsory Agricultural Policy:

Year Ton of Sugar

1831 7,300 1835 27,000 1840 63,400 1868 161,800


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4.8. DEVELOPMENT OF SUGAR FACTORIES ON JAVA The peak implementation of Compulsory Agricultural policy was mostly recognized between 1830 and 1840. Since then, this program had been managed to gain the objective originally envisaged for recovering the downfall financial position of the Dutch Colonial Government.



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During the Compulsory Agricultural Policy, Irrigation development and management also had significant impacts, particularly on the escalating value and importance of irrigation command areas soon after the area cultivated for sugarcane and other industrial crops. Irrigation operation and management on the other hand, also received more attention as the Colonial Authority became aware of the importance of irrigation for supporting agricultural production.

In response to the increasing demands for transportation facilities, construction of the first railway on Java was also conducted in much earlier 1432 extended between Semarang and Yogyakarta via Surakarta.

With regards to the pros and contras of the Compulsory Agricultural Policy, despite the positive impacts, frequent disputes occurred amongst the Colonial Government Officers as well as between the private sectors and the Dutch Citizens themselves between 1850-1860. However, the issues often come up later because communication services between Indonesia and the Netherlands at that time was still using conventional surface mail, which was far from satisfactory. Besides, radio communication had yet developed.

The contras who opposed to the Compulsory Agricultural Policy consisted of those who had deep empathy to the desperate sufferings of the local people from inappropriate conducts of the officers. Most of this category, which consisted of the religious background, requested the Colonial Government to put an end to the Compulsory Agricultural Policy. The private sectors also opposed to the policy because they do not want the government monopolize the trade sector, which implied that they would not have, but very limited opportunity to pursue economic development by means of investing their capital in Indonesia. They did want to obtain as much opportunity as possible to undertake agricultural trade and commerce, and let the government provide development and services of public infrastructures.

In 1860 Deuwes Dekker, a Dutch writer, under the pseudonym Multatuli wrote a book entitled Max Havelaar, which disclosed inappropriate conducts of the Dutch Colonial Officers against the already desperate local inhabitants. The book illustrates the desperate livelihood of the local inhabitant represented by the main actress named Saijah and Andinda. Through this book, Multatuli managed to communicate non-humanitarian perspective of Colonial Government to the native inhabitant of the protectorate. The Indonesian people recognized Multatuli to have opened the new venture to Indonesian voyage into independent country. On top of this, Multatuli also gave confidence to Indonesian Nationalist movement in the sense that not all of the Dutch people were in favor of the Compulsory Agricultural Policy, and thereby ignored the local inhabitants who in majority were desperate farmers. The second book was written by Frans Van den Putte entitled “Suiker Contracten” (Sugar contract) also disclosed the dreadful practice of the Compulsory Agricultural Policy in Indonesia.

Having all the disclosures, the Dutch Colonial Government eventually got embarrassed and gradually brought the Compulsory Agricultural Policy to an end. In 1860, the compulsory plantation on pepper was abolished, followed by “nila” (genus corchorus) in 1865, and


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abolishment of most of obligatory crops in 1870, except coffee in West Java, which was only abolished in 1917 denoted the end of Compulsory Agricultural Policy enforcement.

4.9. THE IMPACTS OF DAENDELS’ TRANS JAVA ROAD CONSTRUCTION In Central Java, the Demak Regency had been notoriously known as the extremely flat coastal area, that the natural drainage for preventing the area from flood was continuously
problematic. The flood problems became increasingly threatening after the construction of Daendels Highway (1809-1811) parallel with the coastal lines. The embankment for the highway construction instigated extra blockage to the natural drainage flows to the sea. To
resolve the problem a parallel drainage channel (prauw vaart kanaal) with the Daendels highway alignment was excavated. Dissimilar with the climatic condition with the subtropical zones, as the Dutch Engineer assumed based on experienced in the Netherlands, only within few years the drainage channel became deteriorated due to excessive tropical rainfall with substantial rate of erosion. Eventually the drainage channel that had been constructed with large amount of capital investment became ineffective.

The Prauwvaart drainage canal at the present condition (after Angoedi, 1984. P. 66)



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Given the fact of the ineffectiveness, the function of the drainage channel then transformed into flood conveyance from southern areas. However, the longitudinal slope of the channel is so flat that it could not convey the excessive water from southern areas, then soil embankment constructed in 1836 along the bank of Kali Tuntang River to reduce the impact of flood inundation. Later, the flooding problems in this area had continuously worsen due to the hardly integrated construction of polder dykes by the private landowners to prevent their properties -- they purchased from the Dutch Authority -- from flooding. As a result, almost the entire part of the Demak area frequently suffered from severe flooding during the rainy season, and in contrast, during the dry season water became extremely scarces, even as little as for livestock water consumption. To illustrate these dreadful circumstances, there is a local expression stated that: ”Nek rendeng wing Demak ora biso ndodok, nek ketiga ora bisa cewok”, which literally translated as: “During the rainy season, the Demak people cannot sit up, and during the dry season they cannot wash hand”. In 1848 and 1849 the prolong consecutive droughts occurred in Demak area that make the crop production completely failure. The severe drought recorded to bring about terrifying famine (Hongersnood, in Dutch term), which caused deaths of more than 200,000 people, not reckoning the deaths of thousands of livestocks. This was the most notorious incident in the history of the Dutch Colonial Occupation in Indonesia. In fact, the Dutch authority wished to


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neutralize this negative image form international outlook instantaneously. This partly because of the inability to take control the famine, on the one hand, and the impacts of inappropriate conduct of the Dutch colonial officers during Compulsory Agricultural Policy in Indonesia, on the other. Being the case, the Colonial Authority in Indonesia, with approval from the Netherlands Government, initiated the construction of irrigation schemes in Demak area, so the farmers would not mainly dependent upon appropriate climatic conditions. Following the new irrigation development policy, the Glapan Weir in Kali Tuntang River constructed in 1852 and completed in 1859, however, it cannot utilized fully because the canal networks had yet completed till 20 years later between 1880 and 1890. Apart from the above evidences, the Glapan Weir in the Semarang-Demak-Kudus region had been noted by Abdullah Angoedi (1984), as the first Weir in Indonesia after the Enforcement of Colonial Rule in Indonesia.1 The irrigation weir was fully dedicated for paddy cultivation, not only because the lands in that area were not suitable for other cultivation, but also because the area had potential risk of interchangeable flooding and droughts. The weir was constructed by using special tile block (klinkers, in Dutch) imported from the Netherlands because stone materials were not available locally, and hence required very costly transportation costs. After the concurrent rehabilitation as well as repair of Glapan Weir, a number of changes had been made, and therefore, the present shape is no longer similar to its original structure. The fact that irrigation weir have already been lasted for over 150 years, it must be regarded from the humanity aspect as the symbol of the past endeavor on irrigated agricultural practice for future prosperity of the people in the Demak Regency in particular, and Indonesia in general.

Up until the fall of the Dutch Colonial Power in Indonesia in 1941, hydrological condition of Demak region remained unchanged, even most recently (2004) some apparent evidences indicate the continuous degradation of the weir due acceleration of sediment transport. For illustration, the original shape of intake gate of Glapan Weir had been suffered from sediment obstruction at the bottom part. At the time when the weir constructed, the magnitude of the angle degree at the entry point away from river axis was not properly determined, to meet the hydraulic characteristic for

Batang Mimpi at the Batang Mimpi River, Dharmasraya Regency, constructed earlier in 1826 or

26 years before the construction of Glapan Weir



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1 During the field survey for data collection in Sawahlunto-Sijunjung (currently Sawahlunto-Sijunjung and

Dharmasraya) Regencies, West Sumatra Province, however, it was discovered – without much explanation -- that a weir named Batang Mimpi at the Batang Mimpi River, Dharmasraya Regency, in fact constructed earlier in 1826 or 26 years before the Glapan Weir. Apparently, there must be a certain explanatory rationale behind the early construction implementation of the weir in the context of both Colonial Policy and the “Inner-Outer Island’s context”. This matter beyond the scope of this publication, therefore, it still opens for future studies.


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appropriate characeristic of sediment transport. At the same time, the sediment trap
technology (in 1852) was still at the very infant stage of development with practically no previous background experience at all. After quite a long time interval, the continuance work was only started in 1878, consisted of east canal network from Glapan Weir while constructing Kali Serang Weir near the Sedadi Area. The plan also covers waterway channel between Demak and Tanggulangin as well as irrigation infrastructures from the channel together with repairs of irrigation networks with the total coverage area of about 41,000 ha.
4.10. EARLY DEVELOPMENT GROWTH DURING COLONIAL PERIOD Before the establishment of the Department of Public Works, which referred to as “Burgerlijke Openbare Werken – BOW” in Dutch term, all of the construction aspects were



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directly managed by the Local Authority. At that time, before the arrival of the western people, the Regent, Vice Regent, and the relevant staffs entrusted, directly supervised the construction works related to water resources and irrigation including weirs, canal excavation and other related structures. The regent mobilized his people for construction works in terms of forced labor. This was the reason why most of the Dutch Colonial Officer claimed that they could have the construction works completed with lower costs.

For large construction, there already limited number of Dutch Engineers work for the Dutch Colonial Government, because during that early day, there was no Indonesian engineer yet, as the first engineering faculty was only established in Bandung, West Java in 1924.

At that time, should any problems associated with irrigation works encountered, the Dutch Engineer usually mobilized to help resolving the problems. Nevertheless, the non-experienced engineers usually posess but limited knowledge about actual site conditions, on top of the absence of hydrological as well as climatological data, records, and other such river information.

Under such condition, not surprisingly if the Dutch Engineers were unable to conduct the assignment completely. In addition, most of the employers who took control over the engineer’s workmanships were non-technical officers. Related to this, many of the Senior Dutch Officers (Binnenlandsch Bestuur) regarded the employment of engineer as unnecessary and costly undertakings. It is understandable therefore, that the Dutch Colonial Government took many years for the establishment of technical institution such as the Department of Public Works.

In 1846 a water gate constructed in 1846 at the junction of the Kali Surabaya River, equipped with stoplogs. Later in 1853 and 1857 similar water gate constructed for conducting water control in the Kali Surabaya River. In 1857 the Dutch Colonial Authority constructed a barrage across the Kali Porong River at Lengkong site. This barrage is still performing and still regarded as an important weir for water regulation within the Brantas Delta, especially after rehabilitation in the fiscal year of 1972/1973.

The Brantas River Delta at Sidoarjo during that time had yet transformed into fully technical irrigation because some of the 34,000 ha coverage area was still served by simple structure, others still without intake gates. The planned technical irrigation was only made happened about 30 years later. This was the Glapan Irrigation Scheme at the Kali Tuntang River in Central Java.


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4.11. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EAST SEMARANG AND DEMAK REGION Since about 1850’s significant thought had been concentrated on hydrological improvement for East Semarang and Demak plains located between East Flood Channel of Semarang and Kali Tuntang Rivers. The low land plain located further east to Kali Serang included in the Demak Irrigation Scheme formerly called Demaksche Waterwerken. Both areas located at the
lowland plain under the poor condition, often encounter by flood incidents during the rainy season and severe drought during the dry season. The rivers from south mountainous areas of Ungaran and Merbabu flow through the lowland plain of East Semarang. The soil properties of the mountainous areas consisted of loose materials so easily eroded, that the rivers are flowed from East Semarang conveyed large numbers of sediment. These rivers are Penggaron, Dolok and Jragung, which in fact, are small rivers, often used by local people for irrigation by means of simple weirs across the rivers. Most of these rivers had narrow cross-sections that make them susceptible to local flooding. The process of accumulation of sedimentation in the long run brought about consequences to make the bottom level of riverbed and cross-sections increasingly aggravated relative to its original level. With the continuation of this process, river cross-sections would no longer capable to accommodate the floodwater discharge and subsequently inundating the lowland in the vicinity areas. Both of the lowland plains of East Semarang and Demak are interconnected with each other in terms of irrigation and drainage control, therefore, both of the plains together are expressed in terms of Jratunseluna lowland plain in accordance with abbreviation of the river names: Jragung Tuntang, Serang Lusi, and Juana (Jratunseluna).
4.11.1. THE ISLAMIC KINGDOM OF DEMAK According to the historical records, King Raden Patah founded the kingdom of Demak in 1478. At that time, the land plain in the vicinity of Demak are known as the prosperous rice producing area. Despite that the available irrigation schemes were mostly of simple structures, even only rain-fed, however, the productions are much adequate to export rice to other area from central Java via Jepara Port. At the time when Cornelis De Houtman landed in Banten for the first time in 1596, he noticed that at the local market, there were rice and sugar products sold by the farmer. This indicated that the Jepara farmers at that time had already cultivated sugarcane, the location of which assumed to be in the vicinity of Gunung Muria. With the fact that agricultural practices in the area dependent upon rainfall, the productivity would have to be prevented from risks of flood and drought.

4.11.2. CONDITION AFTER ARRIVAL OF THE DUTCH The initiative of Daendels with his notorious Trans Java Road project from 1809 to 1811 divided the Demak plain into two with the construction of road embankment of Semarang-Demak-Kudus. The road embankment functioned as “long-side-dyke” till eventually made



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some kind of polder formation, which inundating the enclosed land, every time the heavy rainfall occurred. In 1880 The Dutch Colonial Government sold the public lands to private companies, especially during financial deficit of the government. As a result, private agricultural lands became mushrooming, with occasional landlord mode of agricultural practice.


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In order to prevent the private own agricultural lands, the owner constructed dyke around their lands. This eventually became increasingly encountering surface water flow to the sea, and hence made escalation of flood problems in the area. The problems of flooding became more significant as the frequent occurrence overflow over the dyke of Kali Tuntang River. The left dyke of Kali Tuntang River from Glapan Weir was set up at a lower level from the crest to allow the flood water overflowed in the form of side spillway along two km, referred to as Ngroto side spillway, which also contribute additional water flow to inundate East Semarang plain. This partial measure, in reality, hardly resolved the underlying problems, and hence, the flood and drought problems against East Semarang and Demak continuously encountering with frequent interchanges between floods and droughts according to the seasonal characteristic of the year. And eventually, the famous role
of Semarang and Demak areas as the center of rice production during the Demak Kindom faded away.
4.11.3. RESERVOIR ALTERNATIVE From interchangeable striking of floods and droughts incidents in Semarang and Demak lowland plains, the emergent idea for constructing reservoir to gradually solving the problems, became more and more popular. The first reservoir sites to consider were Penggaron and Jragung, which were estimated to have effective reservoir capacities between
20 and 53 MCM. Nevertheless, after a series of geological investigations, these sites were not technically feasible, not only due to low effectivity, but also because of the problems of excessive sedimentation that endlessly jeopardizing the economic life of the reservoirs. For subsequent alternative, Ir. Varkevisser, a Dutch engineer, suggested the Rawa Pening Besar Plan (Groot Rawa Pening Plan) in 1916 by constructing a cofferdam across the Tuntang River and the main drainage channel of Jragung at the Tuntang site, having a potential storage capacity at about 237 MCM. Through the executive order of Governor General of the Dutch Colonial Government dated 5th May 1918, the study team for Rawa Pening was established to scrutinize the prospect of the reservoir. The study team concluded that, from the perspective of civil engineering, the construction of cofferdam across the river for alleviating the water level at Rawa Pening proposed reservoir was not quite complicated. Instead, the social and economic consequences were far from simple. Further to this, about 4,000 ha of paddy field, must be sacrificed in addition to the need to relocate about 30,000 people, as well as the need to pursue realignment of railway from Tuntang area to Ambarawa. With all the conclusions, the Governor General decided to cancel the non-feasible Rawa Pening Plan in 1923.
4.12. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS

4.12.1. BACKGROUND DEMAND FOR INSTITUTIONAL SETUP Concerning the provision of raw material for sugar industry, the Dutch Colonial Government continued to undertake development and management of irrigation in Netherlands Indies till the emergence of new paradigm of colonial approach in Europe as the result of French



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Revolution in 1795. The slogan of French Revolution: Liberte', Egalite', Fraternite' (Freedom, Equality and Friendship) brought about new paradigm to colonial rule during the interim rule of Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles (British) between 1811-1816, which far in contrast, from the previous Dutch Colonial Rule, Daendels, between 1809 and 1811.


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Inspired by the French Revolution, the British ruler in Indonesia led by Raffles intended to alleviate the people sufferings from inhumane conducts of the previous Dutch Ruler. However, Raffles was not managed to make this goodwill happened due to discontinuation of colonial power, and the Dutch returned to Netherlands Indies again. Shortly after Raffles, the Dutch Government assigned Commissioner General Johannes van den Bosch to enforce compulsory agricultural policy, for quickly recovering the economic downfall of the Dutch Colonial during the VOC era. At the beginning of this policy in 1830, the already gradually improved economic condition in Indonesia during Raffles, immediately transformed by Johannes van den Bosch, back to even worse than the previous condition. Under the Compulsory Agricultural Policy, Bosch insisted to collect as much funds as possible for recovering financial crisis of the government, especially after the prolong Diponegoro War (1825-1830). Upon the enforcement of Compulsory Agricultural Policy under the absence of appropriate irrigation infrastructures, agricultural products became decreasingly reliable. For which, Governor General Rochussen recommended to the Minister van Kolonien (the Dutch Colonial Minister) through his official letter of 28th October 1847, to pursue irrigation development as the following deliberation:

"Wij mogen den rijstbouw dus niet langer afhankelyk laten van den regen, doch behooren denzelfde tebevestigen op den straks gemelden zekeren grondslag van kunstmatige bewatering", (After Angoedi, 1984, P. 82)

Which translates literally as: "We could no longer allow agricultural implementation of rice production continuously dependent upon rainfall, instead, we have to maintain constant supplies of water by developing irrigation infrastructures ".

At the beginning, this recommendation was not regarded seriously as an effective means of agricultural improvement, due to the absence of experience, technical staffs as well as lacking of budget and expertise. Nevertheless, the approach became gradually more convincing through consistent support and guidance from the Colonial Government Authority. The most substantial constraint was due to the severely lacking of irrigation engineers and experienced technical staffs. In reality, only five engineers were employed in Netherlands Indies in 1844. Later on, it was increase between 1844 and 1854 into 10 persons, and yet without appropriate knowledge about water resources, hydrology, and rivers behaviors under the intense tropical rainfall pattern. Given these constraints, the inexperienced engineers often make mistakes on their mostly
“trial and error” planning and construction approaches for newly implemented irrigation development and management technologies. On top of these, the available engineers, at the same time, must pursued every effort to undertake adequate training for technical staffs necessitated to assist them, which in fact, highly time consuming.
4.12.2. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS The recommendation of Governor General Rochussen to the Netherlands Government through his official letter of 28th October 1847, to start giving attention to irrigated agriculture – particularly for paddy as the staple diet of local people -- apparently received considerable attention. Most significantly was the establishment of the “Department van Burgelijke



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Openbare Werken (B.O.W.)” or Ministry of Public Works in 1854, which was responsible for development of public infrastructures of water resources including irrigation. At the time of the establishment of the Ministry, only 10 engineers were employed, and then later after few years, increased to 21 persons, assisted by 14 technical high school graduates. During the following years the newly established Ministry of Public Works encountered by problems for recruiting competence personnel’s due to the lack of university and technical high school graduates. Therefore, some non-graduated staffs were recruited to fill up the vacant positions. In the subsequent years, the Dutch Government launched special program in the Dutch University on engineering education for those who interested to work for development in Netherlands Indies. With the establishment of the Department B.O.W (Ministry of Public Works), supported by a number of professional engineers, the development and management of public woks infrastructures in Netherlands Indies, ever since, conducted by professional government officials (Binnenlandsch Bestuur). In spite of the strategic importance of the establishment of the Departemen B.O.W. in the Indonesian history of irrigation, it took many years before the Dutch Colonial Government gave full development endeavor for construction of irrigation infrastructures. More significant commitment was only apparent when the Colonial Government established the Afdeling Irrigatie or Irrigation Division of the Department BOW in 1889, or 35 years after the establishment of the Ministry of Public Works. This was due to the fact that the Departemen BOW was not only responsible for irrigation development and management, but also for roads and buildings, as well other public infrastructures such as storages for accommodating agricultural products. The first generation of Dutch Engineers worked in Netherlands Indies suffered from not only technical problems, but also social, economic as well as political problems. Senior non-technical officers to undertake irrigation development did not immediately entrust most of the newly employed engineers. The problems mostly rooted from the past development implementation (before arrival of the engineers to Netherlands Indies), at the time when the authority for irrigation development was still under the non-technical government officers or Binnenlandsch Bestuur (BB), who in fact hold strong power to make decisions. Under such circumstances, the non-technical government officers were inflicted with overconfidence, and hence regarded that construction of public infrastructures did not have to be led by technical professionals. Moreover, the over confident non-technical officers had common practice to employ forced labor (without payment), which obviously produced relatively cheap construction costs relative to the woks conducted by professional engineers, with reliable construction quality as well as appropriate services. Through a long process, the non-professional government officers eventually were aware that, irrigation development and management to be fully successful, should be undertaken through systematical process from land surveying, comprehensive investigation, as well as appropriate planning and technical designs before the actual implementation of physical construction. Responding to such the underlying awareness, in 1885 the Colonial Government decided to establish a task-force institution referred to as (Irrigatie - Brigade) or Irrigation Contingent, which was responsible for construction preparation of irrigation works, under the leadership of Ir. Heskes.


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This irrigation contingent consisted of a number of engineers, technical staff (opzichter), land-surveyors, draft-men, who altogether, conduct preparatory works for irrigation development implementation. The immediate targets of the task force-were irrigation construction for paddy field on the government owned lands. They usually set up their office at the nearest site to irrigation project, with the technical guidelines, direction and supervision from the Director of BOW or his authorized staffs.

Despite that this independent Irrigation Contingent only existed for five years – since it was merged into the Irrigation Division of the Department BOW (Afdeling Irrigatie van het Departement der BOW), however, the importance of which, was regarded as the benchmark of Indonesian History of Irrigation development and management. This was particularly the case with respect to its success to induce transformation of orthodox colonial paradigms toward advanced technical “school of thought”, that irrigation development and management must be backed up with a series of preparatory works, including planning, technical design and other non-technical studies prior to actual physical construction. Apart from this strategic change, the Dutch Colonial Government also become aware that agricultural development must be prioritized to prevent the hunger and famine incidents from happenings, such as the cases in 1848/1849, before establishment of the Department BOW.

With the subsequent opportunities entrusted to professional engineers, it was evident that irrigation engineering become advancing with the consistent support of professional engineers. In this regard, Ir. A.G. Lamminga had been contributing significantly to extensive land surveying and studies as well as investigation on potential irrigation development on the Northern Coast of Central Java from Cirebon to Pekalongan within several year field investigations.

From the data and information concluded by the study, a comprehensive masterplan was then set up for integrated irrigation development from several rivers, including Kali Pemali irrigation scheme. From this point on, the Pemali irrigation scheme had been considered as the first model for modern irrigation development and management in Indonesia, with its dictinct technical feature following theoretical approach on differentiation between conveyance canal and drainage canals for technical irrigation. The famous Pemali-Comal irrigation schemes, was then developed after the subsequent recommendation of comprehensive study and investigation of Ir. A.G. Lamminga. Through a series of field investigation in Pemali-Comal area, Ir. A. G. Lamminga formulated the “Pemali-Comal Rating Curve”, which later on became instrumental reference for determination of canal designed-capacity, and still referred to (with or without subsequent adjustment) by many irrigation designers in Indonesia today. (See Supplement Paper on Brief Review of Irrigation Water Management Studies during Colonial Period).

Further transformation: The term of Public Works or “Pekerjaan Umum” originally derived from the Dutch terms as “Openbare Werken”, and officially used in 1942 as “Pekerdjaan Oemoem”, which was referred to by the Japanese Ruler as “Kotabu Bunitsu”. The official documents of establishment of the Department of BOW was based on the State gazette document of 1919 No.2, 124 No.576 and 1925 No.258 and 345.


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Later in 1933, the Department of BOW was transformed further into “Department van Verheer en Waterstaat” or Departement of Public Works and Water Resources, based on the State Gazette Document of 1933 No.509 jo. State Gazette No. 603 and 704.2

4.12.3. STAGGERED PLANTING SYSTEM Another irrigation engineering study, which concluded by Ir. Lamminga was determination of staggered planting system (Golongan System) at the Pemali irrigation scheme, in an attempt to
optimize the water distribution and allocation for the given conveyance capacity. In principle, the staggered planting system operates for maximizing irrigation water utilization on larger commading area under the limited availability of water from the river. Under the staggered planting system in the Pemali scheme, irrigation command areas were subdivided into five sub-command areas, of which irrigation water distribution was conducted on staggered basis at two weeks interval from one area after another.
Accordingly, the water distribution demand becomes smaller as compared with simultaneous water distribution, and hence the block-by-block irrigation command areas of water requirement might be fulfilled with the existing water available at the river. In this context, reduction of peak canal capacity implies minimization of canal dimensions, and hence minimization of construction costs with smaller water capacity at the same irrigation command area. From series of irrigation development and management experience conducted
in the Pemali Irrigation scheme in 1898, a number of techniques have been invented for subsequent implementation (with or without adjustments) in many part of Indonesia till today.
4.12.4. ESTABLISHMENT OF IRRIGATION DISTRICT After the establishment of Department BOW, irrigation development and management had eversince implemented with subsequent consideration of technical related aspects. From



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series of experiences, irrigation development and management have been recognized to be mutually independent aspects, in terms of the two sides of a coin that cannot be separated from each other.

Learning from experiences, it had been recognized that for appropriate irrigation operation and management, institutional aspects becomes necessitated for scrutinizing and conducting water allocation and distribution, otherwise, irrigation construction with costly investment cannot fully utilized as previously envisaged in the design.

For optimum operation with manageable size of commanding area the entire irrigation area divided into manageable irrigation districts referred to as "Irrigatie - Afdeling", or irrigation districts, covers a commandable size consisting of groups of irrigation areas under one or more hydrological river boundaries, superimposed with the boundary of local government administration as if possible. In practice, however, the hydrological boundary of irrigation districts, are rarely coincided with administrative boundary of local government. 2 Through the follow up course of Indonesia’s history, it was recorded that the Ministry of Public Works and

Water Resources was transformed into the Ministry of Public Works and Electrical Energy in 1960’s, then become the Ministry of Public Works in 1974. Subsequently, the ministry was separated into two in 2000 namely, The State Ministry of Public Works and the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Developments. Eventually, the two ministries were merged again in 2002 into the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures (SRI) till present. The Water Resources and Irrigation is currently operated under the Directorate General of Water Resources of the Ministry of SRI.


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On January the 1st, 1889 the first irrigation district was established at Serayu Irrigation schemes referred to as "Irrigatie-Afdeling Serayu", which covers the Government administrative boundary of Banyumas and Bagelen Residencies, having its headquarters at Purworejo. The name of irrigation district per-se was taken after the name of the major river (Serayu River) flowing in the vicinity areas. The subsequent irrigation district was then followed by the establishment of "Irrigatie-Afdeling Brantas", or Brantas Irrigation District in 1892, covering the triangle areas of Malang - Kediri - Surabaya. Then followed by "Irrigatie-Afdeling-Serang", or Serang Irrigation District covering Semarang-Demak and Purwodadi areas with it headquarters at Demak. The hydrological boundary covers the Jragung, Tuntang, Serang, Lusi and Juana river catchments.

The irrigation district as irrigation management institution headed by chief Irrigatie-Afdeling, after well-experienced or senior engineer, referred to in Dutch term as Hoofd-ingenieur, assisted by several junior engineers and a group of mid-level technical staff referred to as opzichter. To assist the opzichter, several irrigation water masters or Mantri Ulu-ulu, or Mantri Waterbeheer, are assigned to conduct irrigation water distribution management for both private owned agricultural lands and sugarcane plantation. The routine operation of irrigation canals, structures and appurtenances are carried out by irrigation formen referred to as Mandor-irigasi or Beambte Waterbeheer, together with a group of daily worker referred to as ploegkoelies.

Both Opzichter and Mantri-Waterbeheer are the main personnels responsible for implementation of irrigation water distribution and generally are capable of performing their task independently. The relationship between Mantri Waterbeheer and the farmers as water users are mediated by ditch tenders (ulu-ulu), which are elected by the farmers themselves on the basis of democratic majority rule principle. In practice, however, irrigation personnels were so busy with routine activities to serve the water users, and therefore, they are not assigned to manage village irrigation. Instead, village ditch tenders (ulu-ulu desa) are managing village irrigation schemes.

After a long-term experience, the establishment of Irrigatie-Afdelingen or Irrigation Districts has been proofed to be highly successful and satisfactory. Under the irrigation district’s institutional arrangement, the farmers had been effectively and efficiently utilized the existing irrigation schemes. Each irrigatie-afdeling has been managed to conduct routine guidance as well as training for its own staff as well as for the Mantri Waterbeheer, on self-sustainable basis.

Having the consecutive successes on establishment and subsequent management of irrigation under the institutional arrangement, a number of new irrigation districts then subsequently established, including Pekalen-Sampean irrigatie-afdeling in East Java, Pemali-Comal irrigatie-afdeling in the Residency of Pekalongan, as well as Cimanuk irrigatie-afdeling in Indramayu. In 1909, the Madiun Irrigation Section as a subordinate organization of Solo irrigatie-afdeling was established, and by 1910, the entire Java Island has been divided into irrigation districts, including the being implemented irrigation schemes, as well as future irrigation systems which were still under the planning stage.


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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter V. Irrigation Development and Management during Colonial Era

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CHAPTER V IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT DURING

COLONIAL ERA AFTER WORLD WAR-I



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5.1. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM After the enactment the so called ‘Ethical Policy’ at the beginning of the 20th Century, the Colonial Government paid more attention to irrigation development. Furthermore, after the First World War since 1918, the “Netherlands Indie” Dutch colony had been suffered from severe food scarcity due to the impact of the War (1914-1918). During which, a large number of local people substituted their staple diet with corn, cassava, sweet potato, for they hardly affordable to buy expensive rice, if any at all. Given this devastation condition, the government put special attention on irrigation development in attempt to fulfill the needs for foods. The priorities of development were initially given to the densely populated region, i.e. Java Island. During which, a number of large scale irrigation development projects were implemented. As examples; in East Java, around Jember town and Lumajang plain 40,300 hectares (as the first step) of land were developed and irrigated. This area is known as Bedadung-Bondoyodo (see Item 2 of Section 7.7.2). In West Java, 78,000 hectares (as the first stage) was developed and irrigated through Walahar Weir in Citarum River. Later, the total area expanded to 80,000 hectares, and became the second largest area served by one single weir (see Item 4 of Section 7.4.2).

Irrigation development out site of Java Island was not as large as on Java. In Sumatra there were also some irrigation developments project including; Simalungun, Batang Mimpi and Batang Selo Irrigation schemes. During that period, the Government provided financial assistance to develop and up-grade the existing systems built by the farmers. At that time, the construction works for Saddang Irrigation Development including Benteng Barrage in South Sulawesi was also being underway.

In relation with irrigation history, sugar industry has contributed significantly in the development of irrigation systems on Java particularly in terms of participation in physical development, rehabilitation, and financial contribution. This was due to the fact that irrigation development on Java was still newly implemented to provide water for sugarcane estates.

The above-mentioned developments were government developed projects in term of rehabilitation, up-grading, and remodeling of the existing systems, which were previously developed by the local community as well as some new land development. The completed and the 1930’s being implemented irrigation development projects on Java Island are listed in Table 5.1 below:

2 Tangerang/Cisadane 52,000 Cisadane 3 Karawang/Walahar 78,000 Citarum 4 Cipunegara 28,000 Cipunegara 5 Cimanuk/Rentang 89,000 Cimanuk 6 Cilutung 15,800 Cilutung

II Central Java Province 1 Pemali 31,200 Pemali 2 Gung-Kumisik 25,900 Gung, Kumisik 3 Comal-Cacaban 26,900 Rambut, Waluh, Comal 4 Bodri 19,100 Bodri 5 Demak 33,700 Tuntang, Serang

III East Java Province 1 Pacal 14,900 Pacal Reservoir 2 Sidoarjo 34,000 Brantas 3 Kraksaan Timur 14,900 Small rivers/streams 4 Banyuwangi Selatan 35,000 Baru, Setail, Blambangan 5 Tanggul Bondoyodo 24,000 Bondoyodo, Tanggul 6 Bedadung 16,300 Bedadung 7 Warujayeng-Turi Tunggorono 15,200 Brantas 8 Madiun 13,400 Madiun

Total area 598,500
Source: Abdullah Angudi; History of Irrigation in Indonesia, 1984.
5.2. CONSTRUCTION OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES AND DAMS

5.2.1. IRRIGATION NETWORKS

Irrigation development listed in Table 5.1, which was carried out by the Dutch Government has increased food production on Java Island. This Section will highlight some notable cases on construction of irrigation infrastructures on Java.


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Table 5.1. Irrigation development projects completed and being implemented up to 1930

No. Name of Irrigation Scheme Area (ha)

Name of River (Water Source)

I West Java and Banten Provinces 1 Ciujung 31,200 Ciujung



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a) Tangerang Irrigation Scheme Tangerang Irrigation scheme lies on northern plain of West Java (presently Banten Province) just eastward of Jakarta, the capital of the Republic of Indonesia. West boundary of the area is Cidurian River. Before 1920, this area was private owned lands, which were originated from the property of Dutch Landlords sold by the government. The people who inhabited this region were very poor due to excessive burden imposed by the Landlords in term of compulsory work and unbearable taxes. To improve the people’s living condition, the government released a regulation on May 14, 1914 regarding the re-buying of the Landlords’ lands by the government. The lands were than distributed to the landless community. Through difficult negotiations, the process of rebuying took about twelve years since the regulation had been in effect. In 1926 large areas


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had been purchased and development of irrigation systems was then resumed. The government had prepared a plan to develop this area since 1912 simultaneously with preparation of the above mentioned land arrangement regulation.

Based on the source of water, Tangerang irrigation area is divided into two separate systems i.e. Cidurian (12,100 ha) and Tangerang-Pasar Baru (40,500 ha) systems. Cidurian system receives water from Cidurian River through Cidurian Weir, while Tangerang-Pasar Baru from Pasar Baru Barrage in Cisadane River.

The notable aspect associated with this system is the flood control works of Cidurian system, which was implemented prior to construction of irrigation systems. Those flood control works are:

1) Cidurian River improvement works including river channel improvement and flood way in the form of river short cut;

2) Construction of flood embankments on both sides of Cidurian River banks totaling at about 20 km; and

3) Cimanceuri River improvement works and construction of flood embankments on both sides of the river banks.

At that time the completion of Cidurian Weir and Pasar Baru Barrage, irrigation water for Kresek and Pasilian areas, the land of which, had been re-bought by the government in 1918/1919, was undertaken by utilizing the supply from swamp areas located at the upstream side.

After completion of the said flood control works as the first stage, the subsequent construction of Cidurian irrigation system including the weir was started.

Construction of Tangerang-Pasar Baru System and Pasar Baru Barrage was prepared as the last stage of the development implementation. And hence, until the break up of the Pacific War, only 46,200 hectares out of 52,600 hectares of the Tangerang irrigation scheme were completed.

b) Gung-Kumisik Irrigation Scheme

The Gung-Kumisik irrigation scheme with a command area of 25,900 ha lies between Mount Slamet northward to the sea and the land plain around Tegal. The Gung topography is mostly wavy in southern part and flat in northern part up to the sea, while Kumisik lies in the undulating area from the foot of Mount Slamet to the northern plain. Development of this area was started in 1911, seven years after development of east neighbor, Pemali-Comal areas, and completed in 1925. Development of this area carried out by utilizing of the existing infrastructure, which was built by the previously built by the farmers, and classified as simple irrigation systems. Crop water requirement for this area is about 25% higher than other areas due to the substantially high porosity of land.

The Gung irrigation system with a total command area of 18,500 hectares obtains water from the Gung River through Danawarih Weir, of which most of the irrigation infrastructures were constructed in undulating area with steep sloped canal. To avoid canal scouring, a kind of gabion was used on canal bed and on both sides of canal. In the flatter area, another weir was constructed named Pesayangan Weir at the distance of about 7.50 km southward of north coast. This weir is intended to collect return flow of irrigation area at the up-stream site. The purposes of the later mentioned weir were to divert water for irrigation, transfer of water to


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neighboring rivers, and sanitary flushing for human settlement area of the Tegal Municipality. Embankments were also constructed downstream of this Pesayangan Weir for the purpose of flood protection in the vicinity areas.

Design criteria used in this area was a bit different with the criteria that is usually used in the design of irrigation system. In this regard, irrigation canals beside as supply canals are also used as drainage canals. This approach applied to solve the shortage of water, as the return flow can be used at downstream areas. This approach applies only in wavy topography where the slopes of canals are quite steep.

Construction of irrigation networks also includes drainage and flood control works i.e. internal drainage of the downstream part and improvement of Gung River and other two smaller tributaries.

Kumisik irrigation scheme consisted of a number of small scattered of simple irrigation schemes, divert water from small streams flowing in the vicinity area. Canals and intake structures were built by the farmers. Supply canals are also used as drainage canals as they can collect return flows to supply for downstream areas. Intake structures built as simple earth weir across the stream. Irrigation area of Kumisik consists of six sub-systems as listed in
Table 5.2 below:
Table 5.2. Sub-systems of Kumisik Irrigation System

No. Name of Sub-system Area (ha) 1 Kumisik 3,920 2 Rajabawah 200 3 Parakan Kidang 1,900 4 Gondang 780 5 Karanganyer 200 6 Lenggor 300 Total 7,300



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Development and rehabilitation of these areas is conducted by replacing all simple earth weirs with permanent weir (named Ciawitali Weir) and utilizing the existing canals with small modifications and remodeling. Construction of Kumisik system was started in 1909 and was only completed fifteen years later i.e. in 1924. c) Banyuwangi Selatan Irrigation Scheme Preparation works of Banyuwangi Selatan Irrigation Scheme was started with a project identification in 1912, which then discovered the potential area to be developed as irrigated agricultural land in this area.

The area, which is mostly of low lying plains located in the southern part of Banyuwangi Town in East Java Province. A number of rivers flowing in this area, among others Seboni River, at the downstream part called Tambong River, Bomo River, Blambangan River, which also called Pangpang River, and Setail River. The potential areas are listed in Table 5.3 below:

3 Tambong (Senobi) 98 5,000 4 Simbar (Setail Tributary) 33 3,500 5 Blambangan (Pangpang) 130 2,200 6 Baru 470 27,800 Total 956 53,200

Transfer of water from a river (having more water) to other river (having inadequate water) and use of return flows were used in the design. Irrigation Development of this area is incorporated with transmigration program. In this regard, transmigration (at that time) means resettlement of people from the more densely populated area to less populated areas within Java Island. Settlement of people from Java Island to the other Islands referred to by the Dutch as Colonisatie or Colonization.

The need of labor for this development project was supplied from other places of Java and Madura Islands and some others were mobilized from prisoners. The resettled people were involved in land development and some others preferred to work in other fields.

Construction of irrigation facilities was started in 1922. The initial step was construction of Blambangan irrigation scheme with a barrage in Blambangan River. In 1924 construction of Setail Irrigation Scheme was started with a fixed weir constructed in the Setail River. Subsequently, was the construction of Kali Baru Irrigation System, which was implemented at the last stage. Kali Baru Irrigation Scheme obtained water from Kali Baru River through a weir named Karangdoro Weir. The construction stage of Banyuwangi Selatan Irrigation
System, which was started in 1922, was only completed 17 year later in 1939. 5.2.2. DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
In order to facilitate the appropriate water allocation and distribution, all of the technical irrigation systems have to be equipped with discharge measurement devices. Within the period of colonial era, the following discharge measurement devices were used in technical


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Table 5.3. Potential areas of Banyuwangi Selatan

No. Name of River Catchment Area Upstream of Weir (km2)

Potential Area (ha)

1 Setail 110 7,000 2 Bomo 115 10,900



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irrigation systems:

1) Cipoletti Weir; the most popular measurement device used after the World War-I; 2) Ventury Weir; Used after 1930 as alternative of Cipoletti Weir. The head loss of Ventury

is practically less than Cipoletti; 3) ‘Crump de Gruyter’ steel gate device; a measurement device used at field reservoir; 4) ‘Romyn’ steel gate; in principle, is a movable broad-crested weir, mostly used in flat area

to meet the prerequisite of less head losses; 5) Thomson Weir; in principle is a V-notch sharp-crested weir used to measure the low

water discharge; and 6) Broad-crested weir.


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5.2.3. CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS At the earlier time, the objective of dam construction was to provide water for irrigation and to ensure the water availability within dry season in such away that the cropping intensity
would exceed 200 %, even up to 300 % whenever possible. Construction of dam in Indonesia had been started before World War I. Shortly after the First World War, a number of dams were constructed as listed in Table 5.4 below:
5.3. DECENTRALIZATION OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

5.3.1. DECENTRALIZATION Establishment of provinces on Java under the Dutch Colonial Government Administration was started in 1925. Decentralization of irrigation management applied since 1930. Under the stipulation of the Decentralization Policy, Provincial Government has a responsibility in

Table 5.4. Construction of Dam after the First World War

No. Name of Dam Location Year of Construction Type of Dam Capacity

(x10-6 m3)1 Pacal East Java 1927-1933 Rock fill 41.50 2 Penjalin Central Java 1930-1934 Earth 9.50 3 Gunung Rowo Central Java 1918-1925 Earth 5.00 4 Gembong Central Java 1930-1933 Hydraulic fill 9.62 5 Situ Patok West Java 1924-1927 Earth 12.00 6 Malahayu Central Java 1935-1940 Rock-sand with clay core 60.00

Source: After Ir. Abdullah Angudi, History of Irrigation in Indonesia, 1984.



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operation, maintenance, and management of irrigation systems. For this purposes, the Provincial Government has to established an institution named ‘Provinciale Waterstaatsdienst’ (Provincial Irrigation Services) chaired by a ‘Hoofd Provinciale Waterstaatdienst’. Each Provinciale Waterstaatsdienst has ‘Waterstaats Afdelingen’ (WA), which was previously called ‘Irrigatie Afdelingen’ chaired by Hoofd Waterstaats Afdeling. Each Waterstaats Afdelingen divided into a number of Sections (Sectie) and each section consists of Sub-section (Onder-sectie). Each Sub-section consists of a number of ‘Kemantren’ chaired by ‘Mantri Kemantren’ (Water Master). Water distribution is the responsibility of Water Master assisted by a number of ‘Ulu-ulu’ which was assigned on elected basis by farmers and the assignment endorsed through the official Decree of Head of Regency. Maintenance of canals and structures is the responsibility of Water Master assisted by a number of ‘Mandor’ (irrigation supervisors). In the context of Integrated River Basin Management before 1910, the government had established seven River Basin Waterstaats Afdelingen (RBWA). The main duties of RBWA were development, O&M, and management of water resources and irrigation within river basin or integrated basins. Those seven RBWA were: i) Serayu River Basin; ii) Brantas River Basin; iii) Serang River Basin; iv) Pekalen Sampean (integrated) Basins; v) Pemali-Comal (integrated) Basins; vi) Madiun River Basin (to be developed under as the Bengawan Solo River Basin); and vii) in conjunction with the Cimanuk River Basin.


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5.3.2. ESTABLISHMENT OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT BOARD (IMB) Preparation works for establishment of IMB or in Dutch language ‘Waterschap’ was initiated in 1919 by Water Resources and Irrigation Services (WRIS), Department of Public Works.
Initially, WRIS established head office of IMB (Centraal Waterschap Kantoor) in Yogyakarta and a branch in Solo (Surakarta). IMB referred to as the technical institution operated under the Central Government/WRIS which at the initial stage has the following duties: i) Topographical surveys and mapping of irrigation areas; ii) Preparation of a plan of improvement and up-grading of irrigation networks which was
built by commercial agricultural enterprises; iii) Establishment of boundary of Irrigation Section, Sub-Section, and ‘Kemantren’; iv) Establishment of Technical Institutions, staffing and recruitment of staff; v) Compiling and documenting of technical drawings; and vi) Preparation of budget proposed for initial years.

After the preparation works completed, in 1920 the government released Regulation on Water Resources and Irrigation Management (Vorstendlandsche Waterschap Reglement). In 1921 two IMBs were established i.e. Opak-Progo IMB in Yogyakarta and Dengkeng-Pepe IMB in Surakarta (Solo), and in 1924 also established Bengawan IMB in Surakarta.

Each IMB has the following Service area: Opak-Progo IMB at 48,500 ha; Dengkeng-Pepe IMB at 45,600 ha; and Bengawan IMB at 43,200 ha. 5.4. PARTICIPATION OF IRRIGATION BENEFICIARIES IN O&M Based on the policy of the Dutch Colonial Government on irrigation development and management, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs have to be provided by irrigation
beneficiaries. The payment of O&M cost was based on type of crops and size of irrigated area. The amounts of fees to be paid are calculated by multiplying the crop coefficient with the rate of service fee. Service fee to be decided every Fiscal Year; depending upon the total cost required for O&M. For illustration, the following example of calculation is presented in Table 5.5 below.
Table 5.5. Calculation of fee to be paid by irrigation beneficiaries (Gulden per bau; 1 bau = 0.71 ha)

Fiscal Year 1934/35 1935/36 1936/37 1937/38 1938/39 1939/40 Crop Coeff. Service Fee (Gulden/bau) 0.194 0.227 0.290 0.323 0.247 0.263

24 Sugarcane (seed crop) 4.66 5.44 6.95 7.76 5.92 6.31 8 Sugarcane 1.55 1.81 2.32 2.59 1.97 2.10 8 Tobacco 1.55 1.81 2.32 2.59 1.97 2.10 6 Other commercial crops 1.16 1.36 1.74 1.94 1.48 1.58 3 People crops (Paddy) 0.58 0.68 0.87 0.96 0.74 0.79

Source: Ir. Subandi Wirosumarto, Irrigation History of Indonesia, 1998.



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Notes: the present exchange rate (2004) of Gulden is about US$ 0.5

From the view point of institutional arrangement, the membership status of farmers in IMB is on collective basis, covers all farmers within a village. Contribution of farmers either in pecuniary term or in kind are collected through the Head of the Village. Head of the Village also responsible to provide for labor, mobilized them from village amongst the farmers in the


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area for maintenance purpose. The labors are not paid in cash but deducted from the contribution they have to pay as much as five cents Gulden per man-day. At that time, five cents is equivalent to the price of about one liter of white rice.

After the Dutch government surrendered to Japanese soldier in 1942, IMB was dispersed and all aspects related to O&M of irrigation were returned back to the Public Works Services.

5.5. IRRIGATION DURING THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION



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Following the Japanese invasion in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the Japanese occupation in Indonesia started on March 1942 when General Ten Poorten, Dutch Commander in ‘Netherlands Indie’ (Indonesia) signed a Surrender Document to Japanese Soldier. Since then, the term of ‘Netherlands Indie’ or ‘Hindia Belanda’ was not use any longer, and instead, replaced with the term of Indonesia, till present. For Military government administrative purpose, during the period of Japanese occupation, Indonesia was divided into three regions (Gunseikanbu) i.e.: i) Sumatra Island (including the surrounding islands) with Bukit Tinggi as the Headquarters; ii) Java Island (included surrounding islands) with Jakarta as the Headquarters; and iii) other Islands with Makassar as the Headquarters. In each region, the Japanese Military ruler constructed military forts and warfare bunkers, some of them are still available today. For instance, in Bukittinggi (West Sumatra) there is a famous tunnel network for defense purpose made by Japanese soldiers, known as ‘Lobang Jepang’ (literally meant as Japanese Tunnel). This tunnel network is well maintained as one of the tourist objects. For territorial government administration of the Japanese Ruler, each Gunseikanbu led by an army commander called ‘Guseikan’. In line with the military strategy of the Japanese Ruler, irrigation sector plaid a strategic role in providing for food stuff in supporting the need of Japanese soldiers in the battlefields. To increase food supply, the Japanese soldiers were forced to collect 50% (half) of food crop agriculture production of the people. This has caused very severe famine incidents with millions of people died of starvation during that period. To handle the urgent irrigation works, the military government mobilized people on compulsory basis. Some of them were paid, and some others were not. The unpaid workers (Kinrohoshi) were mobilized for maintenance of, inter-alia, irrigation facilities. The forced laborers (Romusha) were also mobilized for development projects especially the projects for military defense purposes. Within the Japanese occupation period some water resources development projects were conducted, but most of which never have been completed. The partly completed works were damaged due to poor quality of works. Those projects, inter alia, were; i) South Tulungagung Flood Control; ii) Sampean Hulu Weir; iii) Mataram Canal; and iv) Citanduy Weir. Further to these, the institutions dealing with development and management of irrigation systems were also reformed. Kresidenan Irrigation Service (KIS) was established in each Kresidenan (Residency Government Administration)1. In Java case, for instance, KIS implements its duties under the coordination of Provincial Public Works Services while for the out side of Java, KIS directly operated under the command of the respective Japanese 1 ‘Kresidenan’ was the administrative government area formed during colonial era. On Java Island, Kresidenan

was an administrative area under the province, provided coordination to some Regencies. However, there was no province established on the out site of Java Island. Therefore, on the out site of Java Island, Residen was directly under the command of Central Government Administration.


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military commander. Therefore, after the establishment of KISs in each Kresidenan, there were no more River Basin Waterstaats Afdelingen (RBWA) with river basin(s) based of service area. The RBWA was then completely abolished.

5.6. LAND TAX SYSTEM



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5.6.1. PERIOD FROM 1900 TO 1942 The period from 1900 to 1942 had been well-known as the Ethical Policy or in Dutch language referred to as the ‘etische politiek’. Queen Wilhelmina at the opening speech of the ‘Staten Generaal’ (Dutch Parliament Meeting) in 1901 stated that the Netherlands has an ethical obligation to the people in the colonized territories. The Queen also promised to investigate and to overcome the problems of social-economical condition of the peoples. The objective of Ethical Policy was to increase the social and economical conditions of the people in the colonial territories. One of the adverse impacts of colonial misconduct in Indonesia was the impoverish process on Java that had begun since the imposed of compulsory agriculture policy (CAP) or in Dutch language as kultuur stelsel followed by authoritative behavior of the Landlords and the sugarcane or commercial agricultural enterprises investors. Implementation of the ethical policy on Java Island consisted of improvement of education system, development of infrastructures including irrigation, agricultural extension, livestock development etc. In addition, the government established a committee to investigate social-economical conditions of the people. Meyer Ranneft and Huender made an investigation on taxes imposed to the peoples. Meyer Ranneft and Huender recommended to abolish the so called ‘heat tax’ (hoofdgeld) and to improve land tax (landrente). In 1907 the government enacted a regulation on land tax i.e. State Gazette No. 277 of 1907 by adopting ‘Priangan’ Tax Regulation of 1896 with some modifications. The modified land tax was then applied also in ‘Priangan’ (West Java) since 1916. In 1927 the government issued a new Law on Land Tax known as State Gazette No.163 year 1927 which was applied for Java and Madura Islands except Yogyakarta and Surakarta. To protect the people from the pressure of commercial agricultural enterprise investors, in 1918 the Dutch Government released a so called Law on Land Tenant on Java and Madura Islands (De Java and Madoera Groundhuur Ordonantie 1918). In Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Solo) and areas out side of Java and Madura Islands Outher Island different Laws were applied. In the area where Land Tax had never been applied, the people have to pay a kind of tax which was based on local tradition and customs. With regard to the measurement standard for determining the magnitude of land tax, soon after ‘matrix system’ has been applied, all of the standard of measurement must follow such system. For that reason, in 1939 the government modified the 1927 Land Tax. There were four new regulations issued to substitute the existing laws. These were: i) State Gazette No. 240/1939 for Java and Madura; ii) State Gazette No. 241/1939 for Bali and Lombok; iii) State Gazette No. 242/1939 for South Sulawesi; and iv) State Gazette No. 243/1939 for South-east Kalimantan. The difference between Law for Java and out site of Java were: i) collection of fee out side of Java was 10%, while on Java only 8%; ii) There was 5% of penalty for tax disobedient, while


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on Java there was no such penalty; iii) there was an exception for transmigrant settlers for the first three year’s tax exemption.

In general, the land tax to be paid by the people ranging from 8% to 20% of net agricultural products depending upon classification of land and the level of crop production.

State Gazette No. 163 of 1927 prescribed the following formulae;

1) Paddy field with the yield of 20 Pk or more per year, applied as follows:

Tax = (8%-20%) x (Yield – 10 Pk) x Unit cost of agricultural product.

2) Paddy field with the yield of less than 20 Pk per year, applied as follows:

Tax = (8%-20%) x (50% of Yield) x Unit cost of agricultural product. Where: Tax in Gulden per Bau. Bau is a unit of area at about 0.71 hectares per Bau. Pk is a Unit of Weigh at about 87 Kg per Pk. Yield in Pk/Bau decided based on experimental pilot project.

For example: Calculation of Tax for dry land which was conducted by comparing the dry land with wet land, indicated that the minimum tax was 0.25 Gulden per Bau and the maximum land tax was about 20 Gulden per Bau.

5.6.2. LAND TAX DURING THE PERIOD OF JAPANESE OCCUPATION Within the period of Japanese occupation, there was no change on Land Tax Regulation. The only land tax modification made by the Japanese Ruler was calculation or determination of the amount of tax to be paid.



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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter VI. Modern Time

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CHAPTER VI MODERN TIME

Immediately after Indonesia’s independence, irrigation condition was practically under the most severely deteriorating condition. All of the physical condition of water resources and irrigation infrastructures including canals, structures as well as appurtenances were only remained at an average between 40 to 60% of the original condition before the war.

Meanwhile, the new irrigation development had completely terminated even before the break up of the Second World War. During which, the country suffered from the worst deficit of food agricultural production in the history.

Under such a devastating condition, irrigation program was concentrated on mass rehabilitation followed by application of intensive operation and management of the rehabilitated irrigation schemes. After the serviceability of the existing schemes recovered, then irrigation development priority was given to the most affordable extensification as well as upgrading works, followed by the Five-Year Development Program (PELITA), which gave special focus on mass infrastructural development through systematical planning and implementation stages.

The following elaboration describes the chronology of irrigation development and management after the Country’s in independence in 1945 up to the present time (2004), which is divided into three major periods as the following: (1) The Period from 1945 up to 1969, that is the period from independence (1945) to the first year of the First Five Year Development (PELITA-I) Plan; (2) The period from 1969 to 1994, that is the period from PELITA-I to the end of PELITA-V or the First Long-term Development Phase (PJP-I); (3) The period from
1994 to 2004, i.e. the period from PELITA-VI to the period of irrigation reform era with various policy reforms on development and management of irrigation systems.
6.1. SOCIETAL AND AGRICULTURE SITUATION

6.1.1. POPULATION

Population in Indonesia is the third largest in Asia after the People Republic of China and India. In 2002 the total population was recorded to be more than 228 million peoples, while in 2001 was only recorded at about 209 million. In 1950 the overall population of Indonesia was



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only about 77.2 million, which increased to be more than 119 million in 1969 and by 1995 increased to almost 195 million.

For giving a comparative feature about population of Indonesia and other Asian countries, the following figure presents population in some selected countries in Asia as shown in Tables 6.1, while the total population in Indonesia between 1950 and 2002 by province is presented in Table 6.2 at the end of this section.


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Table 6.1. Estimated mid year population of some selected countries in Asia 1997 – 2001 (x 10-6)

Country 1997 1999 2001 Indonesia 197.81 202.83 208.90 Bangladesh 124.30 128.10 131.50 Myanmar 46.40 4 9.13 51.14 People’s Rep. of China 1,230.10 1,253.60 1,271.90 Hong Kong 6.49 6.67 6.73



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India 955.22 986.90 1,017.50 Republic of Korea 45.95 46.62 47.34 Malaysia 21.67 22.71 23.80 Pakistan 128.42 134.51 140.47 Philippines 73.53 7,678.00 80.10 Singapore 3.79 3.95 4.13 Srilanka 17.70 18.28 18.73 Thailand 60.60 61.81 62.91 Viet Nam 74.09 76.60 78.92

Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 2003.

The annual average population growth in Indonesia in the period from 1971 to 1980 was noted to be 3.2%. The highest growth was Lampung Province at 5.77% followed by East Kalimantan Province at 5.73%, Bengkulu Province at 4.39%, Jambi Province at 4.07%, and other provinces were less than 4%. The lowest growth at that period was Yogyakarta Special Territory at 1.1% followed by East Java Province at 1.49%, Bali Province at 1.69% and South Sulawesi Province at 1.74%.

At the middle of the period from 1971 to 1980 the Family Planning have been programmed and executed. The result of this program has shown the positive impact at the early period between 1980 and 1990. At that period of time, the annual average national population growth which previously noted at 2.32 % decreased to 1.98% annually.

Within the period of 1980 to 1990 population growth in Lampung Province, which was previously noted at 5.77% decreased to 2.67%. While East Kalimantan, which was previously 5.73 % decreased to 4.42% (this was recorded to be the highest growth in the period of 1980 to 1990), and Jambi decreased from 4.07% to 3.4%.

At the period between 1990 and 2002, Family Planning Program had been consistently undertaken especially until 1998. The result of which was very positive, as indicated by the national average population growth which decreased to 1.49%, although there was still a province with more than 3% of population growth. Meanwhile, Jakarta, Central Java, East Java, Yogyakarta, and Maluku are amongst the provinces with less than 1% of growth. The lowest growth was Maluku Province, which was only 0.08% followed by Jakarta at 0.17% and West Sumatra at 0.63%. Population growth in the period between 1971 and 2002 by province are presented in Tables 6.3, hereunder.

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Table 6.3. Population growth (%) by province 1971 – 2002

Province 1971 - 1980 1980 - 1990 1990 - 2002 Jakarta 3.93 2.42 0.17 West Java 2.66 2.57 2.03 Central Java 1.64 1.18 0.94



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Yogyakarta 1.10 0.57 0.72 East Java 1.49 1.08 0.70 Aceh 2.93 2.72 1.46 North Sumatra 2.60 2.06 1.32 West Sumatra 2.21 1.62 0.63 Riau 3.11 4.30 4.35 Jambi 4.07 3.40 1.84 South Sumatra 3.32 3.15 2.39 Bengkulu 4.39 4.38 2.97 Lampung 5.77 2.67 1.17 Bali 1.69 1.18 1.31 West Nusa Tenggara 2.36 2.15 1.82 East Nusa Tenggara 1.95 1.79 1.64 West Kalimantan 2.31 2.65 2.29 Central Kalimantan 3.43 3.88 2.99 South Kalimantan 2.16 2.32 1.45 East Kalimantan 5.73 4.42 2.81 North Sulawesi 2.31 1.60 1.33 Central Sulawesi 3.86 2.87 2.57 South Sulawesi 1.74 1.42 1.49 South-East Sulawesi 3.09 3.66 3.15 Maluku 2.88 2.79 0.08 Irian Jaya 2.67 3.46 3.22 INDONESIA 2.32 1.98 1.49

Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995, 2003

Population density in Indonesia in 1950 was recorded to be at 40 capita/km2, increased to be about 62 capita/km2 in 1969, and 112 capita/km2 in the year of 2002. The highest density was noted in Java Island at 382 capita/km2 in 1950, and 975 capita/km2 in 2002, while outside of Java (Outer Islands) was only recorded at about 15 capita/km2 in 1950 and 10 capita/km2 in 2002.

The average population density outside Java Island varied from nine capita/km2 in Irian Jaya (Papua) Province to 155 capita/km2 in Nusa Tenggara Province including Bali Island. In the island of Sulawesi, the density at that period was 80 capita/km2. Tables 6.4 hereunder, shows population density in major islands from 1971 to 2002, while Tables 6.5 at the end of this section shows the density by province from 1950 to 2002.

Java (incl. Madura) 132,186 576 690 859 975 Sumatra 473,481 44 59 77 57 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 88,488 75 90 106 155 Kalimantan 359,460 10 12 17 21 Sulawesi 189,216 45 55 66 80 Maluku & Irian Jaya 496,486 4 5 7 6 Total Outer Islands 1,787,131 24 31 40 10 Indonesia 1,919,317 62 77 96 112 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1968, 1995 and 2003.

The total land area of Java Island, which is only 6.9% from the entire land area of Indonesia, is currently populated by more than 60% of the country’s population. In the year of 1950, the average percentage of people living on Java Island was 65.35%, while the figure in the year 1971 was 63.83% and went down to 58.65% in 2002. The total land area of Sumatra Island is 473,481 km2 or 24.7% was populated by more than 21% of people in the year 2002, while area of Kalimantan Island of 539,460 km2 (28.4%) was only populated by 5.58% of the country’s population. Table 6.6 hereunder shows distribution of population at main islands, while Tables 6.7 at the end of this section presenting percentage of population distribution

Sumatra 473,481 24.7 17.46 19.07 20.44 21.15 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 88,488 4.6 5.55 5.40 5.27 5.34 Kalimantan 539,460 28.1 4.32 4.58 5.09 5.58 Sulawesi 189,216 9.9 7.15 7.08 7.01 7.27 Maluklu & Irian Jaya 496,486 25.9 1.69 1.75 1.96 2.01
Indonesia 1,919,317 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003. 6.1.2. CONTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

Despite the fact that Indonesia has long been known as an agrarian country, however, the country had been notoriously known as the world largest rice importer during the years before 1969. Through mass development of irrigation infrastructures between 1969 and 1984,


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Table 6.4. Population density (capita/km2) in major islands 1971 – 2002

Island Area (km2) 1971 1980 1990 2002

from 1950 - 2002 by province.

Table 6.6. Percentage of distribution of population in Indonesia

% of population distribution Island Area (km2)

Area (% of total) 1971 1980 1990 2002

Java & Madura 132,188 6.9 63.83 62.12 60.22 58.65



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Indonesia was managed to attain self-sufficiency in rice production in 1984. However, due to the rapid escalation of population growth, the self-sufficiency of rice, as the staple diet of the people, was only lasted for two years. This matter was also accelerated by the underlying competition on demands for land on the one side and the demand for water on the other.


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After the successive irrigated agricultural development, the contribution of agricultural sector to gross domestic product was recorded at about 9.14% in 1994, increased to be about 10.57% in the year of 1999, and decreased again to 8.91% in the year of 2002.

For illustration, the distribution of gross domestic product of Indonesia between 1994 and 2002 presented in Tables 6.8, while Tables 6.9 shows the growth of gross domestic product

Livestock & Products 1.86 1.77 2.16 2.14 2.16 Forestry 1.80 1.63 1.26 1.18 1.05 Fishery 1.71 1.68 2.36 2.33 2.90 Total of Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, and Fishery 17.29 17.16 19.61 17.23 17.47

Others 82.71 82.84 80.39 82.77 82.53 Gross Domestic Product 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: After Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003.

China, People Rep. of 6.80 7.30 6.80 6.50 Hang Kong -6.50 9.50 1.00 2.90 India 4.80 2.20 3.70 4.20 Republic of Korea -7.60 8.40 2.20 4.00 Malaysia -9.70 5.80 -1.90 1.70 Pakistan -0.40 1.60 0.30 0.80 Philippines -2.80 1.80 1.30 2.10 Singapore -3.40 8.60 -4.90 0.90 Srilanka 3.50 4.30 -2.40 2.30 Thailand -12.00 3.80 1.00 1.70
Viet Nam 2.90 4.60 4.30 4.70
Source: After Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003.

6.1.3. GROWTH OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL AREA The total land area for irrigated agriculture of food crop in Indonesia was recorded to be 8,165,133 ha in 2002, consisted of 7,769,733 ha of paddy field and 395,400 ha of sugarcane.

per capita in some Asian countries in 1999, 2000, and 2002, for comparative figure.

Table 6.8. Percentage distribution of gross domestic product (%) 1994 – 2000, at current market prices by industrial origin

Distribution Industrial Origin 1994 1995 1999 2000 2002

Food Crops 9.14 9.27 10.57 8.91 8.77 Non-food Crops 2.77 2.80 3.27 2.67 2.60

Table 6.9. Growth rate of per capita gross domestic product of several countries at constant

prices 1999 – 2002 Distribution Industrial Origin

1998 2000 2001 2002 Indonesia -14.30 3.40 1.90 2.10 Bangladesh 3.70 4.30 3.60 3.20 Myanmar 3.90 4.40 - -



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The sugarcane area is particularly referred to in this section because this crop has actually had


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a special relationship with the history of irrigation development in Indonesia which had previously introduced since early Dutch colonial time. In addition to this, there is currently a total area of 1.06 million hectares of upland paddy field with a total productivity of about 2.7 million ton, contributing at about 5.5% of national rice production. In 2002, the total irrigated paddy field on Java possessed 42.80% of the total irrigated paddy field in Indonesia. While Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Bali Islands at about 27.16%, 13.01%, 11.63%, and 5.40% respectively. The total production of irrigated paddy field in 2002 was noted at 48,794,236 ton or about 4.66 ton/ha on the average. The highest (average) yield has been on Java (5.25 ton/ha), followed by Bali-Nusa Tenggara at 4.61 ton/ha), and Sulawesi at 4.43 ton/ha. Sumatra at 4.05 ton/ha, Maluku and Irian Jaya at about 3.10 ton/ha, and Kalimantan at about 3.22 ton/ha. Table 6.10 hereunder, shows the total land area under irrigated paddy field and production in
2002, while Table 6.11 at the end of this section presenting rice field area and yield by province in 1994 and in 2002. Table 6.10. Irrigated land and paddy production in Indonesia, (2002)
Island Area (ha) Cropping Area (ha)

Total Yield (ton)

Average Yield (ton/ha)

Sumatra 2,087,939 2,674,589 10,826,103 4.05 Java 3,339,168 5,263,179 27,615,900 5.25 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 413,377 527,965 2,435,966 4.61 Kalimantan 992,165 781,851 2,519,011 3.22



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Sulawesi 937,084 1,201,876 5,237,109 4.43 Maluku & Irian Jaya - 22,629 70,147 3.10 Indonesia 7,769,733 10,472,089 48,794,236 4.66

Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 2003, BPS Statistics Indonesia

a) Period from Independence (1945) to the First Five Year Development Program (1968) At the period between 1945 and 1955, or the first decade after independence, there were practically no significant growths on irrigated paddy field as well as on rice production. During that period, the government of Indonesia was very busy to deal with political problems, both on internal as well as on external affairs. The Cabinet was frequently changed, and hence, it was not possible to plan and implement appropriate development program. Despite the urgent demand, the government fully understood that the underlying deficit of food stocks would continuously decreasing due to the severely lacking of adequate attention on appropriate development and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures. By 1952 President Soekarno, the first president of Indonesia, delivered a speech at the opening ceremony of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Indonesia entitled "A Matter of Life and Death". In his speech President Soekarno stated that: “at the moment (1952) Indonesia currently having severe problem on lacking of food”. He stated further that in the year of 1960 the shortage of food will be increasingly more devastating is no immediate actions were taken. In fact, the statement of President Soekarno came true in the year between 1961 and 1962, when the prices of rice shoot up to three times due to severe lacking of food stocks. In an attempt to resolve the problem, at that time, the government promoted consumption of corm to replace rice (1963). During that devastating moment, Indonesia had been notoriously known as the largest rice importing country in the world.


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As the consequences, during the period from 1945 to 1967, that was the period after independence to the First Five-Year Development (PELITA-I), nearly no growth in food production had been taken part. In the year of 1955 paddy production had been noted to be almost 13 million ton, in 1961 increased to only about 14 million ton. In 1968, the first year of PELITA-I, rice production increased to 18 million ton and cropping area increased from 5.6 million ha to 6.3 million ha. The average yield also increased from 2.5 ton/ha in 1961 to 2.9 ton/ha in 1968. During the above-mentioned period (from 1945 to 1967) the government had implemented a number of development programs related to rural prosperity. For example in the year 1952 the government enacted the so called Prosperity Plan of Kasimo. The important measure in this plan was the establishment of an institution for rural society education. Through this institution, the irrigation officers and the farmers are able to meet and conduct mutual dialogue. The other interesting aspect of this plant was the capacity to perform demonstration of farming techniques. In 1958 the government established a so called Institute of Food Production and Land Development. The main emphasis was to increase food production through intensification and extensification programs. In 1959, through the Presidential Instruction (INPRES-I of 1959), the government established the so called ‘Prosperous Action Command’ (KOGM) directly chaired by the president at the central level, and at territorial level by governor/head of regent/head of district/head of village. But these two institutions were not success in achieving its targets. In turned, there was no land development progress and no significant increased in food production were ever achieved during that period. In 1955 cropping area was recorded at about 5.52 million ha, and in 1961 the total area was slightly increased to 5.59 million ha. The overall rice production in 1995 was 13 million ton, increased to only 14 million ton in 1961. Subsequently in 1964 the President established the National Production Council to replace KOGM. But it did not also met the objectives particularly in rising of food production.

1) Agricultural Extension (BIMAS) and Mass Intensification (INMAS) Programs In 1963/1964, a group of students of from Faculty of Agriculture, University Indonesia, initiated a pilot project in the town of Karawang, West Java. The activity of the pilot project was mainly giving direction and guidance to the farmers concerning the application of integrated was agricultural production technology. The production technology was referred to as “Panca Usaha” (literally meant as five efforts). The five elements of “Panca Usaha” were: i) appropriate land preparation; ii) seed of good variety; iii) balanced and correct type of fertilizer; iv) appropriate control of pests and diseases; and v) good irrigation systems. One year later, which was in 1964/1965 the “Panca Usaha” was improved and developed as mass demonstration program (DEMAS). Under this program, paddy field divided into small units at about 50 ha per unit and two agricultural extension workers were assigned in each unit. The government provided all of the required funds for implementing this DEMAS Program. In 1965/1966 fiscal year, the “Panca Usaha” program was expanded and then named as “Agricultural Extension Services for Self Food Sufficiency Program”. The agricultural extension program (BIMAS) was gradually improved through application of the subsequent BIMAS Program consisted of four activities these were: i) agricultural extension; ii) production equipments and facilities; iii) credit, government provides credit facility for farmer in cash, as well as production equipment and facilities; and iv) marketing of agricultural products.


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Based on subsequent evaluation, the implementation of agricultural extension (BIMAS) was considered to have come up with good achievement. Taking into consideration of the past success in 1967/1968 the government launched a program so called mass intensification (INMAS) by introducing new seed variety (commonly known as “improved variety” or High Yielding Variety-HYV). 2) Physical Development of Irrigation Facilities In spite of the difficult condition the government faced, there were still a number of program implementations conducted within the period from 1950 to 1960’s. In this period, development and rehabilitation were concentrated on Java Island. During which, some large projects were completed on Java, including: i) ‘Lakbok Utara’ Irrigation Scheme, in Ciamis Regency, West Java; ii) ‘Saluran Mataram’ or Mataram Main Canal in Yogyakarta; iii) Bekasi Weir in West Java; iv) ‘Cacaban’ Reservoir in Central Java; v) ‘Darma’ Reservoir, in West Java; vi) Jatiluhur Irrigation Project, covering a total command area of 240,000 ha, and considered to be the largest irrigation scheme in Indonesia. The latter project was started in 1950 and completed in 1969. In order to provide adequate water supply for irrigating such a large area, a large multipurpose reservoir known as Jatiluhur Reservoir was constructed in the upper reach of Citarum River. This reservoir has a total capacity of about 2,500,000,000 m3. Implementation of this reservoir started in 1960 and completed in 1967. Jatiluhur Irrigation Scheme and Jatiluhur Reservoir Projects were designed based on the following concept: i) integration of water resources of eight rivers flowing in the project area; ii) integration of all the existing irrigation areas and newly constructed areas located in the project area, by means of integrated River Basin Management. See also Supplement Paper on Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir for more detailed information on Jatiluhur Reservoir. b) Period from PELITA I to the end of PELITA V (1968 – 1994). In connection with the subsequent implementation of the five-year-Development Plan (PELITA); the first five consecutive PELITA’s, from 1968 to 1994, was referred to as the first Long-Term Development Implementation (PJP-I). The following elaboration discusses the subsequent growth of agricultural development from the First PELITA (PELITA-I), to the Fifth PELITA (PELITA-V), which was the period between 1968 and 1974. In the First Five-Year Development Program (1968-1974), which so-called as PELITA-I, the priority of agricultural sector development was aimed to increase food production. At the first year of PELITA-I in 1974, the main target of rice production was 15.4 million ton, equivalent to about 29.6 million ton of dry un-husked paddy. During which, some development programs were implemented. These included intensification program – to increase agricultural productivity/yield – and expansion program (land development and expansion of irrigation areas). To support this program, in 1968, the government promoted the participation of private sector in BIMAS program. The Private sector, under government supervision, provided credit facility for farmers in terms of financial facility for purchasing agricultural equipments and facilities. The implementation of the said program was initially conducted on Java Island and Lampung Province. However, the program was discontinued at the end of 1969 due to the problem of sluggish return of agricultural credit.


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In attempting to improve the implementation of BIMAS, in 1969, the government gave special scrutiny on organization and standard operational procedures. In addition to the improvement of organization and standard operation procedures, the government also established a new system and procedure of banking credit. In 1970 the government established a so-called National BIMAS program, which consisted of five elements of production supports, namely: Agricultural extension Workers; Village Unit Bank; Kiosks for agricultural equipments and facilities conducted a special program for improvement; and Village Cooperative Unit.

Given the strategic role of irrigation in food production, the government subsequently conducted a special program for improving the existing irrigation system parallel with the promotion of quick yielding projects. During which, two large projects were developed: i) Jatiluhur Irrigation Project (Prosijat), aimed to complete the on-going development of irrigation network in area of Jatiluhur (240,000 ha); and ii) Irrigation Projects supported by International Development Association of the World Bank (Prosida). The first main objectives of Prosida was rehabilitation of: i) ‘Glapan-Sedadi’ Irrigation Networks in Central Java; ii) ‘Rentang’ and ‘Cisadane’ Irrigation Networks in Banten Province; and iii) Development of new irrigation networks of ‘Way Seputih’ in Lampung Province. Implementation of the above-mentioned projects resulted with substantial intensification. At the first year of PELITA I (1968) the overall intensified area under the program was 617,000 ha, while in 1973 a total of 2,834,000 ha was completed.

During the subsequent development implementation in the period of PELITA-II (1974-1979), the main programs were development of new irrigation networks for the total area of 470,000 ha, and swamp development of about 800,000 hectares.

Following the severe droughts and pest attacks in three consecutive years from 1975 to 1976, rice production was significantly decreased. This condition forced the government to import rice from various rice producing countries.

In PELITA-III (1979-1984) the government established a development concept on agricultural sector. The concept was directed toward accelerating rice production by means of:

i) Revision and improvement of BIMAS and INMAS program. Transformation of BIMAS and INMAS into Special Intensification (INSUS) program;

ii) Rehabilitation and up-grading of irrigation systems covering a total area of 350,000 ha; iii) Construction of new irrigation networks covering a total area of 326,000 ha; iv) Swamp development of 456,000 ha; v) Tertiary/on-farm development covering a total command area of 1,681,000 ha; vi) Construction of four big dams i.e. ‘Gajah Mungkur’ in Central Java, ‘Widas’ in East Java,

‘Way Rarem in Lampung, and ‘Batu Jae’ in Lombok Island.

By the end of PELITA-III, that was in 1983 the government, again, improved the organizational aspects of BIMAS at provincial, regency, district as well as at the village levels. All of the related institutions (Agriculture, Irrigation) at provincial and regency level were included in the BIMAS improvement program. Head of District and of Village Heads were also included in the Improved BIMAS Program at the District and Village levels. Apart from the said improvement of BIMAS, during the same period, the government also implemented new INSUS program referred to as General Intensification (INUM) addressed the farmers who have been included in the INSUS program.


History in Brief



90

90

Approaching the fourth PELITA (1984-89), the successful result of previous PELITA-III has become apparent. This indicated by the obvious achievement of “rice self-sufficiency” in 1984, despite that the success had only been lasted for two years i.e., 1985 and 1986. The main programs in this period were rehabilitation and up-grading of the existing irrigation schemes at a total of 360,000 ha, land development 600,000 ha, and swamp development at a total area of 300,000 ha. In 1987, due to continuous escalation of population growth and competing demands of land and water, as well as the increasing of per capita rice consumption, the government has to import rice to meet the escalating demands.

To accelerate the growth of rice production, the government, again, undertook a series of improvement measures on INSUS/INUM at the end of 1986. The improved INSUS referred to as ‘Supra INSUS’ and had been implemented since 1987.

In PELITA-V (1989-1994) implementation of Supra INSUS indicated the positive impacts. Early at the first year at PELITA-V (1989/1990), the Supra INSUS program had been implemented in a total area of about 2.56 million ha and subsequently increased to 3.16 million ha in 1992. Meanwhile, the average yield increased from 4.7 ton/ha under the INSUS area and 3.6 ton/ha of which under the INUM areas. National average of yield in 1994 increased to 4.63 ton/ha and the total national rice production was increased to a total of 44 million ton. c) Period from 1994 to 2002

1) Period 1994 - 1999 (Before Irrigation Policy Reform)

In this Period, attention of the government was not only addressing irrigation development, but also given to industrial sector, therefore agricultural development in general, development of irrigation in particular, obtained less priority. During this period, the progress of expansion of irrigated paddy fields was very low, the achievement was only 60,000 ha or 50 % of the overall target. As consequences, in 1998 the government had to import 631,100 tons of rice and almost 1.6 million tons in 1999. Implementation of rehabilitation program of simple irrigation and village irrigation system at 1.6 million ha and swamp reclamation in Central Kalimantan at 300,000 ha did not contributed as previously expected. This condition became worth due to prolong dry season in 1997. In an effort to minimize excessive rice import, the government strengthened the previously implemented rehabilitation program, as well as reactivated the Supra-INSUS, INSUS, and INMUM programs. 2) Period of 1999 - 2002 (Period of Irrigation Policy Reform)

In this period, some important changes had occurred in political matter, and also in water resources aspects. Regional Autonomy and Decentralization of irrigation management laid the foundation for major shift of authority and budgetary allocation from Central Government to Regional Government. On April 1999, the government issued a Presidential Instruction Number 3/1999. Following the said Presidential Instruction, the government released a special regulation on irrigation through the Government Regulation Number 77 of 2001 regarding irrigation. On February 2004, the Executive Government together with the Parliament finalized a new Law in Water Resources, including which is Irrigation, Law No. 7 of 2004.


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91

d) Achievement on Agricultural Development The progress and achievement of agricultural development during the period from 1955 to 2002 are summarized as follows:

1) Harvested area of irrigated rice increased from 5.5 million hectares in 1955 to 10.5 million hectares in 2002;

2) Harvested area of maize increased from 2.2 million hectares in 1955 to 3.1 million hectares in 2002;

3) Harvested area of soybean increased from 0.52 million hectares in 1955 to only 0.56 million hectares in 2002;

4) Harvested area of peanut increased from 0.30 million hectares in 1955 to 0.65 million hectares in 2002;

5) Harvested area of upland paddy increased from 1.05 million hectares in 1955 to 1.24 million hectares in 1994 and decreased to 1.06 million hectares in 2002.

Growth of harvested area and yield of paddy and secondary crops during 1955 - 2002 is presented in Tables 6.12 hereunder: Table 6.12. Harvested area and agricultural product (1955 – 2002)

Crop 1955 1961 1968 1991 1994 2002 1. Irrigated Rice Cropping Area (10-3 ha) 5.517 5.584 6.307 9.168 9.494 10.472 Production (10-3 kg) *) 12,985.0 13,934.7 17,622.0 42,330.9 43,959.2 48,794.2 Average Yield (t/ha) 2.35 2.50 2.79 4.62 4.63 4.66



91

2. Maize Cropping Area (10-3 ha) 2.204 2.462 3.269 2.909 3.109 3.121 Production (10-3 kg) **) 1,970.8 2,283.1 3,101.9 6,255.0 6,869.0 9,527.1 Average Yield (t/ha) 0.97 0.93 0.95 2.15 2.21 3.05 3. Soybean Cropping Area (10-3 ha) 515 625 676 1.368 1.407 546 Production (ton) ***) 346,200 426,300 389,200 1,555 1,564.80 652,800 Average Yield (t/ha) 0.67 0.68 0.58 1.14 1.11 1.20 4. Peanut Cropping Area (10-3 ha) 298 365 390 628 643 648 Production (ton) ***) 206,900 252,200 273,000 652,100 632,000 722,100 Average Yield (t/ha) 0.69 0.69 0.70 1.04 0.98 1.11 5. Dry Land Paddy Cropping Area (10-3 ha) 1,053 1,273 1,657 1,113 1,240 1,059

Production (10-3 kg) *) 1,447.4 1,965.4 2,409.5 2,357.3 2,662.3 2,585.9 Average Yield (t/ha) 1.37 1.54 1.45 2.12 2.16 2.44

Notes : *) dry un-husked rice **) dry grain maize ***) dry peeled peanut Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1958, 1968, 1995 and 2003


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92

Irrigated paddy field area in 1955 was recorded at 5.52 millions hectares, increased to 5.58 million hectares in 1966 and in 1968 such irrigated rice field area increased to 6.31 million hectares, but increased at 13 % as compared to 1961’s production. In the period between 1968 and 1991, through Intensification and Extensification Programs, crop yield has increased from 2.79 ton/ha in 1968 to 4.62 ton/ha in 1991. The irrigated paddy field increased from 6.31 million hectares in 1968 to 9.17 million hectares in 1991. Within the period from 1991 to 1994, that was at the end of PELITA-V or at the end of the First Long Term Development (PJP-I), the average growth of rice field area was 3.56% (330,000 ha) averaging at 1.2% per year, lower than the same period between 1968 and 1991, at 1.97%. The national average yield of paddy within the said period was increased by 3.56%. During the period between 1994 and 2002, which was the irrigation reform era, the programs of agricultural development were continued. In 2002 the total irrigated paddy field area was almost 10.5 million ha while in 1994 it was only 9.5 million ha, or increased at about 1.29% per year. The average yield in 1994 was noted at 4.63 ton/ha, while in 2002 noted at about 4.66 ton/ha (or increased only at about 0.1% per year). The average increased of cropping area is presented at the above Tables 6.12., while Tables 6.13, 6.14, and 6.15 hereunder show the average increased of irrigated paddy field area, the average growth of production and average growth of yield 1955 to 2002. The total cropping area, total production, yield of paddy and secondary crops between 1955 and 2002 are
presented at the end of this section in Tables 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18.
Table 6.13. Average increased of cropping area of paddy and secondary crops 1955 – 2002, (%/year)

Year Paddy Maize Soybean Peanut 1955 0.20 3.61 3.56 3.75
1961 1.85 4.68 1.36 0.98 1968 1.97 -0.48 17.08 2.65 1991 1.19 2.29 0.48 0.80 1994 1.29 0.05 -10.20 0.10
2002 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995, 2003

Table 6.14. Average growth of production of paddy and secondary crops 1955 – 2002, (%/year)

Year Paddy Maize Soybean Peanut 1955 1.22 2.64 3.86 3.65 1961



92

3.78 5.12 -1.45 1.18 1968 6.10 4.42 49.94 6.04 1991 1.28 3.27 0.10 -1.03 1994 1.37 4.84 -9.71 1.78


93

Table 6.15. Average growth of yield of paddy and secondary crops 1955–2002, (%/year)

Year Paddy Maize Soybean Peanut 1955 1.00 -0.79 0.24 -0.08

1961 1.71 0.33 -2.60 0.19
1968 2.84 5.50 16.25 2.10 1991 0.09 0.92 -0.37 -1.78 1994 0.08 4.77 1.25 1.67

The comparison of growth of cropping area, of production, and of yield by main islands in 1955, 1968, 1994, and 2002 are presented in Tables 6.19 and 6.20.

Table 6.19. Cropping area, production and yield by main islands (1955 and 1968) 1955 1968

Name of Island Cropping Area (10-3 ha)

Total Production (x 10-3 ton)

Average Yield (t/ha)

Cropping Area (10-3 ha)



Sumatra 668 2,026.9 3.03 1,168 3,812.8 3.26
Java 3,926 8,557.7 2.18 3,766 10,372.8 2.75 Bali-Nusa Tenggara 282 857.7 3.04 335 1,001.1 2.99 Kalimantan 237 452.4 1.91 448 877.6 1.96 Sulawesi 374 923.8 2.47 570 1,557.3 2.73 Maluku – Irian Jaya 0.3 INDONESIA 5,487 12,818.5 2.34 6,287 17,621.9 2.80
Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1955 and 1968.

Table 6.20. Harvested area, production of paddy, and average yield by main islands (1994 and 2002).

1994 2002

Name of Island Cropping Area (ha)



Cropping Area (ha)



Sumatra 2,362.087 9,526.75 4.03 2,74.589 10,826.1 4.05



93

Java 4,830.643 25,658.85 5.31 5,263.179 27,615.9 5.25 Bali-Nusa Tenggara 488.438 2,212.52 4.53 527.965 2,436.0 4.61

Kalimantan 723.003 2,017.04 2.79 781.851 2,519.0 3.22 Sulawesi 1,056.467 4,451.07 4.21 1,201.876 5,327.1 4.43 Maluku – Irian Jaya 18.280 51.50 2.82 22.629 70.1 3.10

INDONESIA 9,476.918 43,917.72 4.63 10,472.089 48,794.2 4.66 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003.

Cropping area, production, and yield by province in 1955, 1968, 1994 and 2002 are presented at the end of this section in Tables 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, and 6.24.


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6.1.4. IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES POLICY REFORM In 1987 the government of Indonesia released a new policy on operation and maintenance of irrigation referred to as the 1987 Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Policy (IOMP). This policy issued as a precondition for further loan projects funded by the World Bank and Asian



94

Development Bank (Burn, Bryan; Irrigation Reform). The purpose of this policy has been to ensure adequate funding for operation and maintenance (O&M) and improve irrigation management. Government committed to increase budget allocation for O&M, strengthen land and property tax, as well as mobilize more resources from beneficiaries.

There are three programs included in this policy these were: i) turn-over of small scale irrigation schemes (the command area of less than 500 ha); ii) implementation of irrigation service fee (ISF); and iii) efficient O&M.

Given the fact that the IOMP did not achieved the expected targets, the government released a new policy in irrigation development, which was accommodated in the Presidential Instruction Number 3 of 1999 (INPRES No. 3/1999) and Government Regulation Number 89 of 2001 on Renewal of Irrigation Management Policy.

The presidential instruction prescribed five principals for irrigation reform including:

i) redefining of irrigation institutions;

ii) empowerment of Water User’s Association (WUA);

iii) transfer and joint management;

iv) farmer-managed fees; and

v) irrigation sustainability.

Presently, (February 2004) the Parliament and the Executive Government of Indonesia has been finalizing the Water Resources Law (UUSDA No.7/2004) as the revision of Law No. 11/1974, Concerning Water Resources Development. This Law also covers the arrangement of water resources management and its process by establishing a Coordination Board of Water Resources Management at the Central Level, Provincial Level, and if necessary, at Regency Level government administration.

This UUSDA defines the roles and responsibility of river basin based water resources management:

1) Inter-provincial River Basins and inter-state River Basins or Strategic River Basins are controlled by Central Government;

2) Inter-regency River Basins are under control of Provincial Government; and

3) River Basins which are entirely located at a regency/town are under the control of the Government at the Regency Level.


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95

Table 6.2. Population in Indonesia by province (1950 – 2002) (x 10-3)

End of Year Province 1950 1961 1969 1971 1980 1990 2002 Jakarta 4,579 6,503 8,259 8,382



95

West Java 21,624 27,454 35,382 45,776 Central Java 21,877 25,373 28,521 31,786 Yogyakarta 2,489 2,751 2,913 3,163 East Java 25,517 29,189 32,504 35,225 Java and Madura 50,456 63,059 76,286 76,086 91,270 107,579 124,332 Aceh 2,009 2,611 3,416 4,041 North Sumatra 6,622 8,361 10,256 11,942 West Sumatra 2,793 3,407 4,000 4,298 Riau 1,642 2,168 3,304 5,383 Jambi 1,006 1,446 2,021 2,494 South Sumatra 3,441 4,630 6,313 8,143 Bengkulu 519 768 1,179 1,656 Lampung 2,777 4,625 6,018 6,889 Sumatra 20,809 28,016 6,507 44,846 Bali 2,120 2,470 2,778 3,230 West Nusa Tenggara 2,203 2,725 3,370 4,152 East Nusa Tenggara 2,295 2,737 3,269 3,945 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 6,618 7,932 9,417 11,327 West Kalimantan 2,020 2,486 3,229 4,198 Central Kalimantan 702 954 1,396 1,966 South Kalimantan 1,699 2,065 2,598 3,068 East Kalimantan 734 1,218 1,877 2,589 Kalimantan 5,155 6,723 9,100 11,821 North Sulawesi 1,718 2,115 2,478 2,911 Central Sulawesi 914 1,290 1,711 2,287 South Sulawesi 5,181 6,062 6,982 8,284 South-east Sulawesi 714 942 1,350 1,935 Sulawesi 8,527 10,409 12,521 15,417 Maluku 1,090 1,411 1,858 1,904 Irian Jaya 923 1,174 1,649 2,356 Maluku & Irian Jaya 2,013 2,585 3,507 4,260 Total Outer Islands 26,751 34,526 41,768 43,122 55,665 71,052 87,671 Total Indonesia 77,207 97,585 118,054 119,208 146,935 178,631 212,003

Source : Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995, and 2002 Name of provinces are based on 1995 data.


History in Brief

96

Table 6.5. Population density in Indonesia by province (1950 – 2002) (x 10-3)

End of Year Province Area (Km2) 1950 1961 1969 1971 1980 1990 2002

Jakarta 590 7.761 11.022 13.998 12.623 West Java 46,300 467 593 764 1.058



96

Central Java 34,206 640 742 834 977 Yogyakarta 3,169 785 868 919 993 East Java 47,921 532 609 678 735 Java and Madura 132,186 382 477 577 576 690 814 975 Aceh 55,392 36 47 62 78 North Sumatra 70,787 94 118 145 162 West Sumatra 49,778 56 68 80 100 Riau 94,561 17 23 35 57 Jambi 44,800 22 32 45 47 South Sumatra 103,688 33 45 61 75 Bengkulu 21,168 25 36 56 84 Lampung 33,307 83 139 181 195 Sumatra 473,481 44 59 77 57 Bali 5,561 381 444 500 573 West Nusa Tenggara 35,051 63 78 96 206 East Nusa Tenggara 47,876 48 57 68 83 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 88,488 75 90 106 155 West Kalimantan 146,760 14 17 22 29 Central Kalimantan 152,600 5 6 9 13 South Kalimantan 37,660 45 55 69 70 East Kalimantan 202,440 4 6 9 11 Kalimantan 539,460 10 12 17 21 North Sulawesi 19,023 90 111 130 106 Central Sulawesi 69,726 13 19 25 36 South Sulawesi 72,781 71 83 96 133 South-east Sulawesi 27,686 26 34 49 70 Sulawesi 89,216 45 55 66 80 Maluku 74,505 15 19 25 25 Irian Jaya 421,981 2 3 4 9 Maluku & Irian Jaya 496,486 4 5 7 6 Total Outer Islands 1,787,131 15 19 23 24 31 40 10 Total Indonesia 1,919,317 40 51 62 62 77 93 112 Source: After Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1968, 1995, and 2003 Area of each province is based on 2002 data Name of provinces are based on 1995 data.


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97

Table 6.7. Percentage distribution of population of Indonesia by province (1950 – 2002) (x 10-3)

End of Year Province 1950 1961 1969 1971 1980 1990 2002 Jakarta 3,84 4,43 4,62 3,95



97

West Java 18,14 18,68 19,81 21,59 Central Java 18,35 17,27 15,97 14,99 Yogyakarta 2,09 1,87 1,63 1,49 East Java 21,41 19,87 18,20 16,62 Java and Madura 65,35 64,62 64,62 63,83 62,12 60,22 58,65 Aceh 1,69 1,78 1,91 1,91 North Sumatra 5,55 5,69 5,74 5,63 West Sumatra 2,34 2,32 2,24 2,03 Riau 1,38 1,48 1,85 2,54 Jambi 0,84 0,98 1,13 1,18 South Sumatra 2,89 3,15 3,53 3,84 Bengkulu 0,44 0,52 0,66 0,78 Lampung 2,33 3,15 3,37 3,25 Sumatra 17,46 19,07 20,44 21,15 Bali 1,78 1,68 1,56 1,52 West Nusa Tenggara 1,85 1,85 1,89 1,96 East Nusa Tenggara 1,93 1,86 1,83 1,86 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 5,55 5,40 5,27 5,34 West Kalimantan 1,69 1,69 1,81 1,98 Central Kalimantan 0,59 0,65 0,78 0,93 South Kalimantan 1,43 1,41 1,45 1,45 East Kalimantan 0,62 0,83 1,05 1,22 Kalimantan 4,32 4,58 5,09 5,58 North Sulawesi 1,44 1,44 1,39 1,37 Central Sulawesi 0,77 0,88 0,96 1,08 South Sulawesi 4,35 4,13 3,91 3,91 South-east Sulawesi 0,60 0,64 0,76 0,91 Sulawesi 7,15 7,08 7,01 7,27 Maluku 0,91 0,96 1,04 0,90 Irian Jaya 0,77 0,80 0,92 1,11 Maluku & Irian Jaya 1,69 1,76 1,96 2,01 Total Outer Islands 34,65 35,38 35,38 36,17 37,88 39,78 41,35 Total Indonesia 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00

Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995, 2003 Name of provinces are based on 1995 data.


History in Brief

98

Table 6.11. Irrigated paddy field area and rice production (1994 and 2002) by Province

Area (ha) Cropping Area (ha) Total Yield (ton) *) Average Yield (ton/ha) Province

1994 2002 1994 2002 1994 2002 1994 2002



98

Aceh 315,210 288,574 322,759 322,385 1,315,662 1,347,988 4.08 4.18

North Sumatra 537,264 524,649 715,380 711,589 2,904,484 2,962,457 4.06 4.16

West Sumatra 227,347 229,641 366,604 417,939 1,709,705 1,857,691 4.66 4.44

Riau 220,368 111,935 115,077 108,199 378,994 354,017 3.29 3.27

Jambi 222,068 131,245 139,830 138,323 478,245 499,491 3.42 3.61

South Sumatra 516,210 440,647 320,777 489,730 1,136,041 1,711,514 3.54 3.49

Bengkulu 81,829 83,113 77,213 88,658 281,830 337,421 3.65 3.81

Lampung 281,401 278,135 304,447 397,766 1,321,784 1,755,524 4.34 4.41

Sumatra 2,401,697 2,087,939 2,362,087 2,674,589 9,526,745 10,826,103 4.03 4.05

Jakarta 3,963 2,866 4,803 2,322 22,965 11,303 4.78 4.87

West Java 1,174,861 1,126,917 1,814,794 1,983,649 9,502,006 10,283,358 5.24 5.18

Central Java 1,004,413 991,251 1,433,182 1,581,392 7,552,623 8,283,824 5.27 5.24

Yogyakarta 61,150 58,542 97,643 98,049 542,070 537,955 5.55 5.49

East Java 1,151,912 1,159,592 1,480,221 1,597,767 8,039,187 8,499,460 5.43 5.32

Java 3,396,299 3,339,168 4,830,643 5,263,179 25,658,851 27,615,900 5.31 5.25

Bali 90,310 85,525 150,510 148,025 796,821 809,656 5.29 5.47

West Nusa Tenggara 191,397 214,576 253,176 274,754 1,148,982 1,283,981 4.54 4.67

East Nusa Tenggara 88,485 113,276 84,752 105,186 266,717 342,329 3.15 3.25

Bali & Nusa Tenggara 370,192 413,377 488,438 527,965 2,212,520 2,435,966 4.53 4.61

West Kalimantan 471,537 287,013 209,125 247,787 571,143 784,839 2.73 3.17

Central Kalimantan 278,353 182,556 100,740 86,796 233.326 239,855 2.32 2.76

South Kalimantan 488,464 415,828 350,515 365,036 1,039,455 1,211,594 2.97 3.32

East Kalimantan 128,166 106,768 62,623 82,232 173,114 282,723 2.76 3.44

Kalimantan 1,366,520 992,165 723,003 781,851 2,017,038 2,519,011 2.79 3.22

North Sulawesi 87,487 83,713 86,330 104,131 369.823 462,872 4.28 4.45

Central Sulawesi 148,247 128,023 126,683 202,907 429,227 780,390 3.39 3.85

South Sulawesi 604,546 661,273 780,525 822,586 3,434,997 3,801,872 4.40 4.62

South-east Sulawesi 64,317 64,075 62,929 72,252 217,024 281,975 3.45 3.90

Sulawesi 904,597 937,084 1,056,467 1,201,876 4,451,071 5,327,109 4.21 4.43

Maluku - - 4,904 3,469 14,426 10,055 2.94 2.90

Irian Jaya (Papua) - - 13,376 19,160 37,069 60,092 2.77 3.14

Maluku & Irian Jaya - - 18,280 22,629 51,495 70,147 2.82 3.10

INDONESIA 8,439,305 7,769,733 9,478,918 10,472,089 43,917,720 48,794,236 4.63 4.66 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003 *) dry un-husked rice


History in Brief

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Table 6.16. Area of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002)

Paddy Maize Soybean Peanut Year Area

(10-3ha) *) +/- (%)

Area (10-3ha) *) +/- (%) Area

(10-3ha) *) +/- (%) Area (10-3ha) *) +/- (%)

1955 5,517 2,024 515 298
1.21 21.64 21.00 22.00
1961 5,584 2,462 625 365 12.95 32.78 8.16 6.85

1968 6,307 3,269 676 390 45.36 -11.01 102.37 61.03

1991 9,168 2,909 1,368 628 3,.58 6.88 2.85 2.39

1994 9,494 3,109 1,407 643 10.30 0.39 -61.19 0.78

2002 10,472 3,121 546 648 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995 and 2003 *) Cropping Area

Table 6.17. Production of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002)

Paddy Maize Soybean Peanut Year Production

(ton) 1) +/- (%)

Production (ton) 2) +/- (%) Production

(ton) 3) +/- (%) Production (ton) 3) +/- (%)

1955 12,985,000 1,970,800 346.200 206,900 7.31 15.85 23.00 22.00



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1961 13,934,700 2,283,100 426.300 252,200 26.46 35.86 -8.70 8.25

1968 17,622,000 3,101,900 389.200 273,000 140.22 101.65 299.67 138.86

1991 42,330,000 6,255,000 1.555.500 652,100 3.85 9.82 0.60 -3.08

1994 43,959,200 6,869,000 1564.800 632,000 11.00 38.70 -58.28 14.26

2002 48,794,200 9,527,100 952.800 722,100 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995 and 2003 1) dry un-husked rice 2) dry loose maize 3) dry peeled crops


History in Brief

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Table 6.18. Average yield of paddy and secondary crops (1955 – 2002)

Paddy 1) Maize 2) Soybean 3) Peanut 3) Year Production

(ton) 1) +/- (%)

Production (ton) 2)

+/- (%)

Production (ton) 3)

+/- (%)

Production (ton) 3)

+/- (%)

1955 2.35 0.97 0.67 0.694
6.03 -4.76 1.46 -0.48 1961 2.50 0.93 0.68 0.691 11.96 2.32 -15.59 1.31 1968 2.79 0.95 0.58 0.70 65.25 126.61 97.50 48.34 1991 4.62 2.15 1.14 1.04 0.28 2.75 -2.19 -5.34 1994 4.63 2.21 1.11 0.98 0.63 38.16 7.50 13.37 2002 4.66 3.05 1.20 111
Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1956, 1968, 1995 and 2003 1) dry un-husked rice 2) dry loose maize 3) dry peeled crops

Table 6.21. Cropping area and average yield by main islands (1955)

Irrigated Paddy Province Area

(ha) Cropping Area

(ha) Total Production

(ton) *) Average Yield

(t/ha)



100

Sumatra 668,000 2,026,900 3.034 Java 3,442,000 3,926,000 8,557,700 2.180 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 282,000 857,700 3.014 Kalimantan 237,000 452,400 1.909 Sulawesi 374,000 923,800 2.470 Maluku & Irian Jaya Indonesia 5,487,000 12,818,500 2.336 Sugarcane 51,000 Total Irrigated Rice 3,493,000 Dry land Paddy 1,044,000 1,434,200 1.374 Total Paddy **) 6,531,000 14,252,700 2.182

Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1959 *) dry un-husked rice **) Irrigated Paddy and Dry land Paddy


History in Brief

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Table 6.22. Cropping area and average yield by main islands (1968)

Irrigated Paddy Province Area Cropping Area Total Production Average Yield



101

(ha) (ha) (ton) *) (t/ha) Sumatra 1,168,000 3,812,800 3.264 Java 3,766,000 10,372,800 2.754 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 335,000 1,001,100 2.988 Kalimantan 448,000 877,600 1.959 Sulawesi 570,000 1,557,300 2.732 Maluku & Irian Jaya 300 Indonesia 6,287,000 17,621,900 2.803 Sugarcane 65,500 Total Irrigated Rice Dry land Paddy 1,657,000 2,409,500 1.454 Total Paddy **) 7,944,000 20,031,400 2.522 Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1968 *) dry un-husked rice **) Irrigated Paddy and dry-land paddy


History in Brief

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Table 6.23. Cropping area and average yield by province (1994)

Irrigated Paddy Province Area

(x 10-3 ha) Cropping Area

(x 10-3 ha) Total Production

(ton) *) Average Yield

(ton/ha)



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Aceh 15.210 322.759 1,315,662 4.076 North Sumatra 537.264 715.380 2,904,484 4.060 West Sumatra 27.347 366.604 1,709,705 4.664 Riau 220.368 115.077 378,994 3.293 Jambi 222.068 139.830 478,245 3.420 South Sumatra 516.210 320.777 1,136,041 3.542 Bengkulu 81.829 77.213 281,830 3.650 Lampung 281.401 304.447 1,321,784 4.342 Sumatra 2,401.697 2,362.087 9,526,745 4.033 Jakarta 3.963 4.803 22,965 4.781 West Java 1,174.861 1,814.794 9,502,006 5.236 Central Java 1,004.413 1,433.182 7,552,623 5.270 Yogyakarta 61.150 97.643 542,070 5.552 East Java 1,151.912 1,480.221 8,039,187 5.431 Jawa 3,396.299 4,830.643 25,658,851 5.312 Bali 90.310 150.510 796,821 5.294 West Nusa Tenggara 191.397 253.176 1,148982 4.538 East Nusa Tenggara 88.485 84.752 266,717 3.147 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 370.192 488.438 2,212,520 4.530 West Kalimantan 471.537 209.125 571,143 2.731 Central Kalimantan 278.353 100.740 233,326 2.316 South Kalimantan 488.464 350.515 1,039,455 2.966 East Kalimantan 128.166 62.623 173,114 2.764 Kalimantan 1,366.520 723.003 2,017,038 2.790 North Sulawesi 87.487 86.330 369,823 4.284 Central Sulawesi 148.247 126.683 429,227 3.388 South Sulawesi 604.546 780.525 3,434,997 4.401 South-east Sulawesi 64.317 62.929 217,024 3.449 Sulawesi 904.597 1,056.467 4,451,071 4.213 Maluku - 4.904 14,426 2.942 Irian Jaya - 13.376 37,069 2.771 Maluku & Irian Jaya - 18.280 51,495 2.817 INDONESIA 8,439.305 9,478.918 43,917,720 4.633 Sugarcane 496.900 Total Irrigated Land 8,936.205 Dry land paddy 1,239.864 1,239.864 2,584,867 2.085 Total Paddy **) 10,176.069 10,718.782 46,502,587 4.338



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Table 6.24. Cropping area (ha) and average yield by province (2002) Irrigated Paddy

Province Area (x 10-3 ha) Cropping Area -3

Total Production *)

Average



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(x 10 ha) (ton) Yield (ton/ha) Aceh 315.210 322.385 1,347,988 4.181 North Sumatra 537.264 711.589 2,962,457 4.163 West Sumatra 227.347 417.939 1,857,691 4.445 Riau 220.368 108.199 354,017 3.272 Jambi 222.068 138.323 499,491 3.611 South Sumatra 516.210 489.730 1,711,514 3.495 Bengkulu 81.829 88.658 337,421 3.806 Lampung 281.401 397.766 1,755,524 4.413 Sumatra 2,401.697 2,674.589 10,826,103 4.048 Jakarta 3.963 2.322 11,303 4.868 West Java 1,174,861 1,983.649 10,283,358 5.184 Central Java 1,004,413 1,581.392 8,283,824 5.238 Yogyakarta 61.150 98.049 537,955 5.487 East Java 1,151,912 1,597.767 8,499,460 5.320 Jawa 3,396.299 5,263.179 27,615,900 5.247 Bali 90.310 148.025 809,656 5.470 West Nusa Tenggara 191.397 274.754 1,283,981 4.673 East Nusa Tenggara 88.485 105.186 342,329 3.255 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 370.192 527.965 2,435,966 4.614 West Kalimantan 471.537 247.787 784,839 3.167 Central Kalimantan 278.353 86.796 239,855 2.763 South Kalimantan 488.464 365.036 1,211,594 3.319 East Kalimantan 128.166 82.232 282,723 3.438 Kalimantan 1,366.520 781.851 2,519,011 3.222 North Sulawesi 87.487 104.131 462,872 4.445 Central Sulawesi 148.247 202.907 780,390 3.846 South Sulawesi 604.546 822.586 3,801,872 4.622 South-east Sulawesi 64.317 72.252 281,975 3.903 Sulawesi 904.597 1,201.876 5,327,109 4.432 Maluku - 3.469 10,055 2.899 Irian Jaya - 19.160 60,092 3.136 Maluku & Irian Jaya - 22.629 70,147 3.100 INDONESIA 8,439.305 10,472.089 48,794236 4.659 Sugarcane 496.900 Total Irrigated Land 8,936.205 Dry land paddy 1,239.864 1,058.583 2,682,343 2.534 Total Paddy **) 10,176.069 11,530.672 51,476,579 4.464



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6.2. LAND TENURE AND MANAGEMENT 6.2.1. LAND TENURE a) Farmer’s Household
About 50% of household in Indonesia are food crops farmers household (mainly paddy, secondary crops, and horticulture). The total farm household (FHs) in the provinces vary from 46% to 78%. The highest levels of food crop farmers were in Maluku and Irian Jaya (Papua) Provinces at about 78%, while the lowest level was in Sumatra and Java at about 47%. Agricultural Census of 1983 and 2003 show the increasing number of land holding farm household, particularly food crops farm household (FCFH). In 1983 total FCFH noted as 24,458,000 FHs increased to 27,446,000 FHs in 2003 (increased by 12.2%). Total number of food crops farm household by main islands is presented in Table 6.25 below, while Table 6.26 at the end of this section shows the food crops farm household by province in 1983 and 2003.
Table 6.25. Food crops farm household by main islands in 1983 and 2003 (x 10-3 ha) Paddy/Secondary Crops Horticulture Total

Island 1983 2003 + / - (%) 1983 2003 + / -

(%) 1983 2003 + / - (%)

Sumatra 3,111 3,080 -1.0 1,181 1,902 6 1.0 4,292 4,982 16.1
Java 9,762 10,759 10.2 5,192 5,079 -2.2 14,954 15,838 5.9 Bali-Nusa Tenggara 1,032 1,334 29.3 623 747 19.9 1,655 2,081 25.7 Kalimantan 846 1,131 33.7 399 585 46.6 1,245 1,716 37.8 Sulawesi 1,193 1,343 12.6 613 697 13.7 1,806 2,040 13.0 Maluku-Irian Jaya 291 468 60.8 215 321 49.3 506 789 55.9 Indonesia 16,235 18,115 11.6 8,223 9,331 13.5 24,458 27,446 12.2 Source: Agricultural Census 1983 and 2003, BPS Statistics Indonesia
b) Land Tenure Nearly 50% of farm households control less than 0.5 ha of land per household and only 22% control 0.5 – 1.0 ha of land per household. Farm households control two to three ha of land only at about 7%. Table 6.27 below shows the Land Holding Farm Household (LHFH) by
Size of Land Controlled in 1983 and 1993.
Table 6.27. LHFH by area of land controlled in 1983 and 1993 1983 1993 Size of Area



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Controlled (ha) Total LHFH % Total LHFH % < 0,05 1,271,067 6.52 646,372 3.28

0,05-0,09 1,167,370 5.99 948,296 4.81 0,10-0,24 3,155,471 16.18 3,570,371 18.11 0,25-0,49 3,938,317 20.19 4,417,121 22.41

< 0,5 9,532,225 48.90 9,582,160 48.60 0,50-0,74 2,797,812 14.35 2,934,875 14.89 0,75-0,99 1,445,451 7.41 1,438,870 7.30 0,5 – 0,99 4,243,263 21.80 4,373,745 22.20 1,00-1,99 3,297,609 16.91 3,312,218 16.80 2,00-2,99 1,294,048 6.64 1,457,561 7.39

>3,00 1,134,312 5.82 988,122 5.01 Total 19,501,457 100.00 19,713,806 100.00

Source: Agricultural Census 1983 and 1993, BPS Statistics Indonesia


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Average land controlled by land holding farm household is only 0.83 ha. The largest is Kalimantan Island at 1.98 ha, followed by Sumatra at 1.24 ha, and Sulawesi at 1.21 ha. Table 6.28 shows the average land controlled by Land Holding Farm Household.

Table 6.28. Average land controlled by land holding farm household by main islands in 1993



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No. Province Land

Tenure (x 10-6 ha)

Number of LHFH

(x 10-6)

Average Land Controlled (ha/RPPL)

1 Sumatra 5.885 4.765 1.24 2 Java 5.461 1.563 0.47 3 Bali & Nusa Tenggara 1.150 1.323 0.87 4 Kalimantan 2.393 1.207 1.98 5 Sulawesi 2.013 1.664 1.21 6 Maluku dan Irian Jaya 580 509 1.14

Indonesia 17.482 21.031 0.83 Source: Agricultural Census 1993, BPS Statistics Indonesia


Crops Horticulture Total Province 1983 2003 1983 2003 1983 2003

Aceh 314 N.A 88 N.A 402 N.A North Sumatra 842 822 255 414 1,097 1,236 West Sumatra 429 467 173 243 602 710 Riau 160 158 113 198 273 356 Jambi 185 179 91 140 276 319 South Sumatra 437 541 186 363 623 904 Bengkulu 106 134 39 87 145 221 Lampung 638 779 236 457 874 1,236 Sumatra 3,111 3,080 1,181 1,902 4,292 4,982 Jakarta 7 7 11 11 18 18 West Java 3,082 3,148 1,422 1,538 4,504 4,686 Central Java 3,014 3,446 1,856 1,607 4,870 5,053 Yogyakarta 370 391 285 159 655 550 East Java 3,289 3,767 1,618 1,764 4,907 5,531 Java 9,762 10,759 5,192 5,079 14,954 15,838 Bali 262 253 196 217 458 470 West Nusa Tenggara 328 417 130 188 458 605 East Nusa Tenggara 442 664 297 342 739 1.006 Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1,032 1,334 623 747 1,655 2,081 West Kalimantan 344 456 161 196 505 652 Central Kalimantan 126 198 66 129 192 327 South Kalimantan 286 349 106 154 392 503 East Kalimantan 90 128 66 106 156 234 Kalimantan 846 1,131 399 585 1,245 1,716 North Sulawesi 246 261 116 156 362 417 Central Sulawesi 157 167 97 95 254 262 South Sulawesi 673 774 325 352 998 1,126 South-east Sulawesi 117 141 75 94 192 235 Sulawesi 1,193 1,343 613 697 1,806 2,040 Maluku 150 194 88 152 238 346 Irian Jaya 141 274 127 169 268 443 Maluku and Irian Jaya 291 468 215 321 506 789 Indonesia 16,235 18,115 8,223 9,331 24,458 27,446

Source: Agricultural Census 1983 and 2003, BPS Statistics Indonesia

6.2.2. EXPANSION AND RECLAMATION OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL LAND Indonesia has 34.5 million ha of swamp land both inland swamp or fresh water swamp and coastal swamp or tidal swamp. Tidal swamps often penetrate the river over hundred of


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Table 6.26. Food crops farm household by province in 1983 and 2003 (x 10-3)

Paddy & Secondary



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kilometers upstream as the case on the Islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya (Papua). The inland and coastal swamps of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya have been sparsely populated. The activities of the peoples were initially limited to fishing and gathering of forest products for domestic consumption. In Irian Jaya, extensive ‘sago’ palm areas are found in swamp areas, which provide staple food for local inhabitants. Agriculture in the swampland of Sumatra and Kalimantan were initially started around 1925, at the first stage by the local


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people in the coastal swamp areas and later by spontaneous migrants. They settled on the tidal river banks as well as along the water channel for log transportation and navigation. These settlers cleared the swamp forest and started cultivating rice and coconuts. The development was gradually extended into the swamp center by the construction of drainage networks. Today, about 2.4 million hectares of swamp land had been developed spontaneously by means of this principle.

Planned swamp reclamation in Indonesia began on a modest scale in 1939, particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Recognizing the potential of swamp development, the government began to develop tidal swamp in 1964 and initiated large scale reclamation of swamp land early in 1970’s.

In 1984 a nationwide inventory was completed to identify potentials of low cost agricultural development. The study was carried out extensively within a total area over 24.6 million ha of coastal lands and near coastal swamp land in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya. The study revealed that about 3.7 million hectares of swamp land has been reclaimed. Another 5.1 million hectares of coastal and the vicinity of coastal swamp lands would be suitable for agriculture development by means of low cost and simple technology approach. In addition, the lowland swamps covering an area over 15 million hectares may be made suitable for agricultural purposes, but with higher investment and sophisticated infrastructures.

During the First Five Year Development (PELITA-I) 1969–1974 the government established the Project Unit for Tidal Swamp Reclamation under the control of the Ministry of Public Works. The swamp areas reclaimed by the central and provincial governments increased sharply from 35,000 hectares in 1972 to a total of about 1.3 Million hectares in 1995 (see Table 6.29.)

Table 6.29. Development of swamp area in 1995 (in ha)



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Province Tidal Swamp In-land Swamp Total Aceh 0 4,600 4,600 North Sumatra 0 82,510 82,510 West Sumatra 0 19,540 19,540 Riau 142,310 10,410 162,720 Jambi 73,690 13,050 86,740 South Sumatra 359,250 112,200 471,450 Bengkulu 0 9,620 9,620 Lampung 30,000 27,550 57,550 West Kalimantan 93,700 35,550 129,250 Central Kalimantan 67,930 36,100 104,030 South Kalimantan 58,320 113,900 172,220 East Kalimantan 0 6,640 6,640 Sulawesi 0 2,000 2,000 Irian Jaya 0 6,000 6,000 Total 835,200 479,670 1,314,870

Source: Swamp Development in Indonesia, Ministry of Public Works


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Private sector participated in swamp development since 1984: Under the participatory approximately 0.2 million ha has been developed by private sector for estate crops, mainly oil-palm, hybrid coconut and pineapple. Many of these estates were implemented together with small-holder farmers either under the Project Management Unit (PMUs) or Nucleus Estate and Small Holder (PIR-Trans) Schemes.

During the period of PELITA-II and III (1969–1979) main emphasis was given on increasing paddy production to support self-sufficiency in this commodity. Rehabilitation and expansion of swamp schemes were supported by smallholder rice intensification programs aimed at increasing the use of modern inputs and improving productivity.

Within the PELITA-III and IV (1979–1989) the development emphasis widened to include intensification programs for maize and soybean. Due to the fall of oil prices, the government decided to accelerate development of non-oil sectors and of export oriented commodity. Within PELITA-IV (1984–1989) private sector has been actively involved in tree crops plantation (oil-palm and hybrid coconut) business in tidal swamp areas.

In PELITA-V (1989–1994) the strategy of swamp reclamation focused on the up-grading of hydraulic infrastructures and promoting agricultural development through introduction of new technological packages and strengthening of agricultural support services.

During PELITA-VI (1994-1999), swamp development reflected the water resources sector policy, rising of quantity, quality, and diversity of agricultural products. During this period more intensive efforts have been focus on the promotion of efficient and effective utilization of irrigation and drainage facilities of lowland areas through:

i) improving of O&M system; ii) increasing farmer participation in O&M; iii) developing effective Water User Organizations (WUAs); and iv) involving of village cooperatives (KUDs) in managing local water resources. The above-mentioned activities were concentrated in the provinces of West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, Lampung, West, Central, and South Kalimantan. The underlying swampland development projects presently under the construction or being under the technical consideration include:

i) development of oil-palm and coconut estates in South Sumatra, Jambi, and Riau; and ii) construction of hydraulic infrastructure for shrimp ponds in Aceh and Central Sulawesi and

Central Kalimantan Provinces.

6.2.3. CLASSIFICATION AND UNIT OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM MEASUREMENT

a) Classification of Irrigated Agricultural Land Irrigated agricultural lands are divided into three categories: 1) Technical irrigation system



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The category of irrigation system in which the supply of water is fully measured and regulated. This system is mostly equipped with water measurement devices, regulator gates, and has the irrigation supply canals separated with drainage canals. The system consists of main canals and secondary canals (referred to as main system), and tertiary canals systems. Under this category, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of the main systems are conducted


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by the government while the O&M of the tertiary systems are the responsibility of the farmers themselves. 2) Semi-technical irrigation system The category of irrigation system in which the supply of water is of water is technically regulated but not measured. The water supply for this category is measured and regulated only at the intake structures at the main canals. Along the downstream of the intake structures water is technically regulated but not measured. In this category the system is equipped with regulator gates and not provided with discharge measurement devices. Similar to the technical irrigation system, this semi-technical irrigation category also consisted of main system and tertiary systems. The O&M of main system (large scale irrigation systems) is conducted by the government while O&M of tertiary systems is the responsibility of the farmers themselves to carry out. The development/constructions of small scale irrigation schemes are only for independent command area having not more than 500 ha. Construction implementation is conducted by the government and subsequently handed-over the scheme to the farmers (through WUAs) for subsequent O&M. The latter category of irrigation hand-over is popularly known as the ‘turn-over’ of small scale irrigation systems. 3) Simple irrigation system (also known as village irrigation system) The category of irrigation system in which the supply of water is measured and not regulated. In most of the systems under this category, irrigation canals are also functioned as drainage canals. The systems are mostly constructed, operated, and maintained by the farmers themselves. The government provides the necessary assistances for construction and/or rehabilitation. It is important to mention that in some areas, the cropping intensity of these simple irrigation systems are often more than 200%. In addition to above-mentioned three categories, there are some other irrigated agricultural land which are not included in the former category, these are:

i) Rain-fed paddy field. The category of paddy field in which the water requirement is merely dependent upon rainfall. In some area with high rainfall, cropping intensity of this category not rarely more than 100%;

ii) Tidal paddy field. The category of paddy field in which the supply of water comes from rivers affected by tidal fluctuations; and

iii) Others. The category of paddy field in which the supply of water is merely dependent from the vicinity area of the valley, polder, or in the swampy areas.

The total area of paddy field in Indonesia in 2002 was noted at approximately at 7.8 million
hectares as described in Table 6.30 hereunder:
Table 6.30. Paddy field by classification of irrigation in Indonesia, 2002 Classification Area (ha) % of Total

Technical irrigation system 2,209,200 28.51



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Semi-technical irrigation system 988,821 12.78 Simple irrigation system 1,586,953 20.48 Rain-fed 2,015,349 26.01 Tidal Paddy field 615,201 7.94 Others 333,324 4.30 Total 7,748,848 100.00 Source: Agricultural Census 2002, BPS Statistics of Indonesia.


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The above figures show that the largest paddy field is technical irrigation system amounting to more than two million ha or 28.5%, followed by rain-fed paddy field at about 26%, and simple irrigation system at about 20.5% of the overall irrigation command area.

In terms of distribution by geographic location, Java Island has the largest irrigated rice field with a total area of more than 3.3 million ha, followed by Sumatra Island at about 2.1 million ha, Kalimantan Island at about 1.0 Million ha, Sulawesi Island at about 0.9 million ha, and Nusa Tenggara including Bali at about 0.42 million ha. See Table 6.31 for further details, as
presented below:
Table 6.31a. Area of paddy field in main islands by category of irrigation, 2002

Sumatra Java Bali-WNT Kalimantan Sulawesi Total Category Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %



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Technical 321,234 4.2 1,516,252 19.6 84,632 1.1 24,938 0.3 262,144 3.4 2,209,200 28.5Semi-Technical 257,771 3.3 402,987 5.2 173,364 2.2 33,297 0.4 121,402 1,6 988,821 12.8

Simple 455,235 5.9 615,380 7.9 92,070 1.2 189,326 2.4 234,933 3.0 1,586,953 20.5Rainfed 50,940 7.1 777,029 10.0 68,380 0.9 339,705 4.4 297,295 3.6 2,015,349 26.0Tidal 288,661 3.7 776 0.01 29 0.0 323,556 4.2 2,179 0.0 615,201 7.9Others 230,621 3.0 4,144 0.05 72 0.0 97,603 1.3 884 0.0 333,324 4.3Total 2,104,462 27.2 3,316,577 42.8 418,547 5.4 1,008,425 13.0 900,837 11.6 7,748,848 100Source: After Statistics of Indonesia 2003.

Table 6.31b at the end of this section shows the area of paddy field by province in 2002. b) Measurement Unit of Irrigation System In terms of physical characteristic, the magnitudes of measurement units of irrigation schemes, for practical reasons are divided into three main categories. These are:

i) Large scale irrigation system; which is an individual irrigation scheme with a command area more than 25,000 ha;

ii) Medium scale irrigation system; which is an individual irrigation scheme with a command area between 5,000 to 25,000 ha; and

iii) Small scale irrigation system; which is an individual irrigation scheme with a command area of less than 5,000 ha.

In most cases, both the large and medium scale irrigation schemes, with some exceptions, fall into the technical irrigation category, while part of medium scale and small scale schemes could be the combination of technical, semi-technical, or simple irrigation category. The above-mentioned units, however, for practical reason, are not following the terms of small scale category as are referred to in the “Turn-over Small Scale Project”. In the latter mentioned project category, the small scheme referred to the individual irrigation scheme having not more than 500 ha of command area. However, under the newly enacted Law No.7/2004, for the purpose of determining the measurement unit for management of irrigation scheme the following categorizations are applied:

i) The scheme larger than 3,000 ha operated by the government; ii) The scheme larger than 1,000 ha and less than 3,000 ha operated by provincial

government; and iii) The scheme less than 1,000 ha operated by local government (Regency/Municipality).

North Sumatra 70,360 76,222 120,083 149,547 25,927 29,110 471,249West Sumatra 37,149 59,130 94,917 53,130 - 80 244,406Riau - 7,978 28,663 43,461 28,521 3,312 111,935Jambi 3,772 9,087 25,426 16,242 53,090 20,452 128,069South Sumatra 28,004 10,800 41,714 84,530 147,040 148,967 461,055Bengkulu 21,779 18,144 18,297 19,174 1,556 9,412 88,362Lampung 102,174 20,511 42,804 95,316 32,002 18,005 310,812Total Sumatra 321,234 257,771 455,235 550,940 288,661 230,621 2,104,462Jakarta 860 656 995 355 - - 2,866West Java 435,828 141,282 293,457 250,531 15 1,528 1,122,641Central Java 390,147 124,532 195,072 273,973 313 1,773 985,810Yogyakarta 18,490 23,481 6,674 9,608 - - 58,253East Java 670,927 113,036 119,191 242,562 448 843 1,147,007Total Java 1,516,252 402,987 615,389 777,029 776 4,144 3,316,577 Bali 2,882 64,871 13,678 801 - 6 82,238West Nusa Tenggara 66,826 80,686 37,126 33,839 19 - 218,496East Nusa Tenggara 14,924 27,807 41,266 33,740 10 66 117,813Total Nusa Tenggara 84,632 173,364 92,070 68,380 29 72 418,547West Kalimantan - 9,573 82,635 108,212 94,481 4,480 299,381Central Kalimantan 5,403 14,111 53,007 40,353 54,163 1,680 168,717South Kalimantan 19,455 4,590 29,887 118,373 157,118 90,954 420,377East Kalimantan 80 5,023 23,797 72,767 17,794 489 119,950Total Kalimantan 24,938 33,297 189,326 339,705 323,556 97,603 1,008,425North Sulawesi 27,707 21,994 19,243 17,254 50 50 86,298Central Sulawesi 43,396 29,894 36,481 10,095 681 413 120,960South Sulawesi 168,782 54,803 156,393 247,191 1,250 100 628,519South-east Sulawesi 22,259 14,711 22,816 4,755 198 321 65,060Total Sulawesi 262,144 121,402 234,933 279,295 2,179 884 900,837Maluku (NA) Irian Jaya (NA) INDONESIA 2,209,200 988,821 1,586,953 2,015,349 615,201 333,324 7,748,848

Source: Agricultural Survey 2002, BPS Statistics Indonesia.

6.2.4. LAND TAX SYSTEM a) Period from 1945 to 1959 This period also termed as the period after the country’s independence to the period where the new regulation on Agricultural Tax and Regional Development Tax were applied.


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Table 6.31b. Area of paddy field by category of irrigation in each province, (in ha), 2002 Province Technical Semi-

technical Simple Rainfed Tidal Others *) Total

Aceh 57,996 55,899 83,331 89,540 525 1,283 288,574



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After proclaiming the country’s independence on August 17, 1945 the government took over the Gunseikanbu Zaimubu from the Japanese Ruler and transformed it to the Department of Finance. The government also took the over Zaimubu Shuzeika and transformed it to Land Tax Service as the official executing agency of Land Tax in Java and Madura Islands. Within the Japanese occupation period, Hindia Belanda (Indonesia) was divided into three regions (see Section 5.5.). The authority of Land Tax Services was only for Java and Madura Islands. In 1947, when the Dutch Military Action (known as the First Military Action) reoccupied some territories of the Republic of Indonesia, the Colonial Government put the Land Tax Services into effect. The head office of the Land Tax Services was in Jakarta with


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some branches within Java and Madura Islands. In Eastern part of Indonesia, the Land Tax Services operated under the authority of the East Indonesia State that has the head office in Makassar (South Sulawesi). While fighting for freedom, the Government of the Republic of Indonesia, in 1948 prepared a draft Regulation for replacing the Land Tax with Income Tax. The draft was discussed in Solo at the middle of December 1948 involving high officials of the related Ministries including the Ministry of Home Affairs. Unfortunately, on December 19, 1948 the Dutch Military Action (known as the Second Military Action) attacked Solo. And hence, the said discussion was failed to reach any conclusion. Following the military action, for tax regulation within regions under the authority of Dutch Government, a new land tax regulation was released, i.e. Regulation No. 314 of 1948 as the improvement of the former Regulation No. 240 of 1939. Under the new regulation, the land tax for paddy field increased from 20% to 100%. However, this new regulation was only valid for Java Island excluded West Java Territory (at that time known as the Pasundan State). On July 6, 1949 the Government of the Republic of Indonesia reorganized all institutions that were previously enforced by Colonial Ruler. In this context, the Land Tax Services was temporarily incorporated in the Tax Services under the Department of Finance. At the same year, the government recognized the 1948 Draft Regulation regarding Substitution of Land Tax into Income Tax. This regulation was known as the Law No. 1 of 1949. This was the first Law, which legalized by the Government of Indonesia. The draft of this regulation was firstly discussed in Solo on December 1948. The main consideration behind the replacement of the Land Tax with Income Tax was based on assumption that the product output of land in any form shall be regarded as the income derived from other sectors. As the result of the ‘Round Table Conference’ which was held in the Netherlands from August to November 1949, the two institutions dealing with land tax were incorporated as Land Tax Services of the Republic of Indonesia’s Union. Those two institutions were Land Tax Services under the Government of Indonesia and De Dienst Der Landelijke Inkomsten under the Dutch Government. In 1951 a new regulation on Land Tax i.e. Law No. 14 of 1951 was enacted. This Law substituted the Law No. 1 of 1949 and acknowledged that all Laws, Regulations, Federal Laws and the likes were revoked. At the subsequent implementation of the said Law, the actual application was encountered by a difficulty to convert land tax data into income tax data. During which, a number of efforts were conducted among others, to create a coefficient for converting land value into income basis, and establishment of an institution dealing with registration of agricultural and tax of land products. Nevertheless, application of this Law was not successful due to some institutional constraints. In attempt to resolve the underlying constraints, in 1951 the government established the State Ministry of Agrarian, but the duties of this State Ministry were decided after a long discussions, given the fact that there were several institutions dealing with land and land taxes. Following the previous attempts, in 1956 the government established Ministry of Agrarian and Land Registration Offices, which was operated under the Ministry of Justice, which was later on moved to the Ministry of Agrarian. The Land Registration Office (dealing with Land Tax) under the Ministry of Finance was also incorporated under the Ministry of Agrarian. Eventually, the Land Registration Office dealing with land tax (under coordination of


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Ministry of Finance) was excluded from the Ministry of Agrarian following a motion from the Parliament.

For improvement of the underlying constraints, in 1959 the government prepared a Regulation on Agrarian Tax which was approved by the Parliament as Draft Regulation on Agrarian Tax. Unfortunately, this draft was never had been legalized by the Parliament due to uncertainties of local political conditions.

b) Period from 1959 to 1985 This period also referred to as the period of tax of agricultural products and Regional Development Tax.

At the initial stage, after the failure to replace the Land Tax with Income Tax, the government released a new regulation on agricultural Products’ Tax named Law of Agricultural Products Tax (PHB) in1959. This Law applied not only for land products but also for land as a property. This was the first Land Tax Law released by the Government of Indonesia. Under this law, the PHB to be paid at 5% of the average of net annual products of land and subject to possible increased to 10% upon request from the Provinces or Regencies. In 1960 the government released a so called Principal Law of Agrarian, which was expanded the objects of tax beyond the previously known land tax regulation.

Within two years after enactment, this Law had widely applied within the entire territory of the Republic of Indonesia. The revenues earned from this tax were fully collected and managed by the government at the Regency level to be used for regional development in agrarian sector. The tax collectors were Head of Villages but since 1965, it was replaced by a team consisted of three elements, i.e. civil servants, village administrator and tax officials. The collectors had the privilege for collection fees at an amount of 10% of the collected taxes.

In 1965 the PHB was further transformed into Regional Development Tax (IPEDA); covered not only land and products in the rural areas but also in urban areas, and the implementation is subject to the appropriate control of the Directorate General of Taxes, Ministry of Finances.

c) Period from 1986 till Present This period also referred to as the period of Land and Building Tax.

In 1985 the government released a Law on Tax related to land and building so called Land and Building Tax (PBB) through Law No. 12 of 1985.

The tax objects of PBB applied to the entire land surfaces, which is regarded as the real property based on the market values of the respective tax objects. It is understandable that market values of irrigated agricultural land were mostly higher than the non irrigated agricultural lands, and therefore irrigated land was subject to higher land tax relative to the non irrigated lands. The tax that has to be paid by each citizen was at about 0.5% of the net assessment value of land and building.

As prescribed by the Law No. 12 of 1985, the tax payment shall be made through banks, post offices and other financial institutions, which subject to prior approval by the Ministry of Finance. Provincial and Local Autonomous Governments are responsible to collect tax of urban and rural areas, while the Central Government is responsible to collect taxes for commercial agriculture estates, forestry, and mining.


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6.3. DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION

6.3.1. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES During the Pacific War and few years after the country’s independence between 1940 and



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1950, there had been very few attentions given to the appropriate operation and maintenance (O&M), as well as to the development of new irrigation schemes. As the result, almost all of the existing irrigation schemes on Java as well as on the Outer Islands were under the severely deteriorating condition. The absence of appropriate maintenance was further experienced till early 1969, at the time the government initiated a comprehensive development program known as the Five-Year Development Implementation (PELITA). At the time before implementation of the comprehensive development program, the common condition of irrigation canals and its structures were estimated to be in the range of 40 to 60% of their full operational function. In the mean time, the rapid escalation of population parallel with the sharp decline of food production had forced the government to pursue every effort to catch up the increasing demands of rice production as the staple diet of the people. In attempting to catch up the escalating demands for rice production, the Government of Indonesia in fact, had earlier been undertaking some irrigation development efforts through the establishment of a number of large irrigation and water resources projects. These projects were undertaken by mobilizing the existing technical, financial as well as human resources potentials. Among the development projects which were executed under the above program, the following water resources and irrigation projects gave the most significant highlights: 1) ‘Lakbok Utara’ Irrigation Scheme in ‘Ciamis Regency, West Java with a total

command area of about 7,000 ha; 2) ‘Darma’ Reservoir in West Java Province with an effective storage capacity of 42

million m3 and with a total irrigation command area of 22,000 ha of paddy field; 3) ‘Jatiluhur’ Irrigation Project in West Java, which was constructed by integrating eight

rivers into one multipurpose system. This multipurpose water resources and irrigation projects has a total command area of about 240,000 ha, and considered to be the largest single scheme irrigation work in Indonesia. Water source for of irrigation in this system is diverted from eight integrated rivers’ systems controlled by ‘Jatiluhur’ Reservoir on the River ‘Citarum’, the largest amongst the said eight rivers. Construction of ‘Jatiluhur’ Reservoir was carried out following the development of its related irrigation schemes and was only managed to complete in 1967 (see the supplement paper entitled Jatiluhur Multipurpose Reservoir;

4) ‘Bekasi’ Weir, in West Java was also constructed during the period having its water supplied for the ‘Tarum Barat’ main canal with a total command area of 17,300 ha within the administrative territory of North ‘Bekasi’ area;

5) ‘Mataram’ Canal in Yogyakarta Special Territory was also constructed with the main purpose for inter-basin water transfer from the Progo River to the Opak River, having its commanding area located between the two major rivers. This, in fact has subsequently been noted as the first inter basin water transfer in the history of water resources and irrigation development in Indonesia;

6) Cacaban Dam in Central Java; 7) Tidal Irrigation Development and management in Sumatra and Kalimantan; 8) ‘Kali Brantas’ River Basin Development, started with the construction of ‘Selorejo’ Dam,

‘Karang Kates’ Dam, ‘Lohor’ Dam, which located in the East Java province; and 9) ‘Tulung Agung Selatan’ Flood Control in East Java Province.


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During the above mentioned period, there were two departments dealing with irrigation. These were: i) Department of Public Irrigation, under the Compartment of Public Works, dealing with water resources and main irrigation systems; and ii) Department of People Irrigation under the Compartment of Agriculture, dealing with simple and village irrigation systems. In an effort to resolve the shortage of rice production, the government since 1963/64’s fiscal year had been promoted the so called BIMAS and INMAS Programs as described in Section 6.1.3., particularly the area that had been provided with stable irrigation infrastructures. In line with this endeavor, a number of irrigation improvement programs had been implemented under the government sponsored project. This include: i) rehabilitation and up-grading programs of the existing irrigation schemes; ii) extension as well as upgrading of the already existed irrigation schemes; and iii) improvement of irrigation management. During the First Five-Year Development Implementation between 1969 and 1974 Irrigation Rehabilitation Programs, including up-grading, extension, and improvement of irrigation management were placed at the top most of development priority. In complementary with these programs, the government also organized a special program for development of new large scale irrigation schemes to be implemented at the subsequent PELITA’s. In this regard, development of new irrigation schemes was prioritized to the construction of small scale as well as simple irrigation schemes having a special approach as “quick yielding” irrigation development program. For implementation of the quick yielding program, there were four major selection criteria applied for determining the development priority: (i) the irrigation command area should not be more than 500 ha, except with special conditions; (ii) the physical characteristic of the scheme should be supported with appropriate topographical and geological condition, as well as appropriate water resources in such a way that the construction implementation would be carried out without too sophisticated technology; (iii) the construction implementation must be carried out in stages, initially with simple but functional structures, and subject to gradual upgrading into semi-technical or fully technical irrigation system; and (iv) paddy fields in terms of upland or rainfed had previously applied in the area. Within the subsequent PELITA-II (1974-1979), most of the large scale irrigation systems have already been included in the irrigation rehabilitation program. During this development period, irrigation rehabilitation program had been incorporated with up-grading of the existing canals, structures, as well as the related appurtenances to meet the previously intended structural functions. Parallel with the underlying irrigation rehabilitation program, some preparatory stages for subsequent new large scale irrigation as well as for lowland development projects were also completed. By the last year of the second PELITA period, several construction implementations of new irrigation schemes and lowland developments were initiated. For providing substantial support to the small land-holding farmers, during the initial stage of physical construction of irrigation schemes the government granted special assistants for tertiary irrigation infrastructural development, which previously under the responsibility of the farmers themselves. After the consistent implementation of irrigation rehabilitation within the previous development phases, during the follow-up PELITA-III (1979 – 1984), there were practically only minor rehabilitation works with some up-grading and remodeling works were undertaken, as well as extension of irrigation command areas where possible. Under the term of PELITA-III, the physical infrastructural development addressed the continuation of the


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large scale irrigation schemes as well as swamplands development, which were started in PELITA-II. To give full support to the farmer, during this development period, constructions of tertiary irrigation systems were taken over by the government, in addition to the previous technical supports and assistances. In connection with the overall implementation, summing up the First Long Term Development Program, the activities within the PELITA-IV (1984–1989) and PELITA V (1989–1994) were given special priority for maintaining the consistency of development implementation for finalizing the programs which were initiated and implemented during PELITA-III. Those were mostly consisted of rehabilitation (with up-grading and remodeling), development of new large water resources and irrigation schemes, swamp development, and construction of tertiary irrigation networks’ infrastructures. In addition to the above development implementation Within PELITA-V, a larger scope of lowlands’ development was carried out in comparison with the previous scope of lowlands’ development conducted in PELITA-IV.

For further details of the overall picture of the development implementation, targets and achievements of water resources and irrigation developments within PELITA-I through PELITA-V (1969 – 1994), see the following Table 6.32.

Table 6.32. Target and achievement of irrigation development 1969–1994 (in ha)

Activity PELITA-I 1969-1974

PELITA-II 1974-1979

PELITA-III 1979-1984

PELITA IV 1984-1989

PELITA-V 1989-1994 Achievement



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Rehabilitation and improvement 936,073 527,840 349,651 401,370 334,300 2,549,234

Extension and new development 191,246 325,942 325,942 218,451 500,000 1,672,910

Tertiary Development - - 1,680,573 262,152 - 1,940,000

River Improvement Works 289,068 434,523 587,100 442,900 450,000 450,000 to 500,000*)

Other Irrigation Development 118,797 - - - - -

Swamp-land Development 179,202 456,189 191,971 450,000 946,159 Source: Mardjono Notodihardjo, Human Resources Development and Technology Transfer, International Seminar on Water Resources for Sustainable Use in Indonesia, 1992. *) Annual figure

a) Development of On-farm Blocks Based on the development policy that had been placed since the colonial area, developments, operation and maintenance of on-farm blocks or commonly referred to as development of tertiary irrigation systems, had been the duty and responsibility of the farmers by themselves through mutual coordination with the water user’s association. The main duties and responsibilities referred to, including the development of: i) tertiary canals; ii) diversion boxes; iii) appurtenance structures such as drop structures, culverts and the likes; iv) quaternary canals; and v) drainage canals.

For the technical irrigation systems, in general, the government responsible to provide tertiary off-takes equipped with a discharge measurement devices at about 50 meters downstream of the tertiary off-take. The remaining works and operational activities such as construction,


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operation and maintenance are the responsibility of the farmers, right from the downstream of the said water measurement devices to the farm block or paddy fields. As stated previously, the farmers has been acquainted with the role sharing for development and management of at-the-farm-level irrigated agricultural practices since the initial stage of irrigation development during the Dutch Colonial Period. Therefore, such activities are conducted by the farmer themselves without too much problems, except for the heavy construction such as deep canal excavation or high embankment. In such a case, the government usually provides the farmer with the necessary supports and technical assistances. Similarly, village irrigation schemes were also become the responsibility of the farmers to develop, operate, and maintain the entire village irrigation infrastructures, except with some special initiatives in which, the nature of village irrigation infrastructures is so heavy to shoulder by the farmers themselves. For the latter case, subject to case by case consideration, the government may provides the farmer with external supports and assistances After an extensive field practice, within the period of PELITA-II (1974–1979) the government, through some evaluation studies, recognized the fact that the construction of tertiary irrigation schemes was not meeting the required quality standard of construction implementation. For this reason, the government took initiative to provide for technical assistance in terms of construction of pilot schemes of tertiary irrigation networks’ infrastructures. Through a number of experiences in the difficulty of the farmer to implement tertiary irrigation development policy, during the terms of PELITA-III (1979–1984), the government took over the farmers’ obligation for construction of tertiary irrigation system due to inability of the farmer to maintain proper quality of construction execution. Under the new policy, the total areas of tertiary farm-blocks constructed by the government during the period were about 1.7 million ha. During which, the design and construction of tertiary systems were carried out under the close collaboration with the farmers by means of participatory approach. In fact, the farmers were actively involved in the overall stage of tertiary irrigation development including the layout design of tertiary networks infrastructures, which should be approved by the farmers prior to construction implementation. The involvement of the farmer in the approval of the development planning, including the field drawing set up under the coordination of village head. Under the same coordination and participatory procedures the government also assisted the implementation of rehabilitation works of village irrigation system. Construction of tertiary blocks has been continued in PELITA-IV (1984–1989). Total area of development of tertiary blocks was nearly two million hectares including the areas developed within PELITA-III. b) Construction of New Weirs and Rehabilitation of the Existing Weirs In connection with the construction of new weirs or barrages as well as rehabilitation of the existing weirs, which in practice were beyond the capacity of the farmers to implement, the government had initiated construction of such infrastructures since 1950. Within the First Long Term Development Implementation (PJP-I) i.e. from 1969 to 1994 quite a large number of medium and large scale of weirs, (to provide water for irrigation scheme with a total command area of more than 5,000 hectares) had been constructed and rehabilitated. In addition, hundreds of small weirs (having less than 5,000 hectares of command area) were also constructed and rehabilitated.


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In Aceh Province (presently known as Nangro Aceh Darussalam Special Province, northern Sumatra) for instance, a lot of medium and large scale weirs as well as barrages have been constructed, among the notable one was the ‘Krueng Aceh’ Weir with a total irrigation command area of about 7,000 hectares, which was constructed in 1990 and completed in 1995.

In West Sumatra Province, however, given the irregular topographical condition, construction of large scale irrigation system were only possible in fairly limited location alternatives. Instead, only medium and small scale irrigation schemes were constructed in West Sumatra Province. For example, the medium scale irrigation scheme of ‘Batang Hari’ with a total command area of 18,900 hectares, which in fact, located in two provinces, namely West Sumatra at an area of 16,400 hectares and the rest of about 2,500 hectares in Jambi Province. Construction execution of the Batanghari Weir was completed in 2002 while the construction of irrigation networks and their related infrastructures, as well as land development have currently been underway, and scheduled to be completed in 2006.

In West Java Province, during the period between 1950 and 1969, there had been a number weirs constructed and rehabilitated, among others: (i) ‘Bekasi’ Weir and ‘Cikarang’ Weir, under the interconnected networks with the ‘Jatiluhur’ Irrigation Development Project located in West Java Province; (ii) ‘Curug’ Weir, which obtains water from ‘Jatiluhur’ Reservoir and subsequently divert it to West Tarum and to East Tarum Canals; (iii) ‘Rentang’ Weir in West Java, which was constructed in 1981 to replace the old weir which was constructed in 1911 and was no longer performing its optimum operation capacity as was projected in the original design. The total area covered by this weir is about 91,300 hectares, and hence constituted as the largest irrigation system in Indonesia served by a single weir; (iv) ‘Ciujung’ Weir in Banten Province (formerly under the territory of West Java Province) with a total command area of about 31,000 hectares. Similar with the Rentang Weir, the reconstruction of Ciujung Weir was also conducted to replace the old ones, which was no longer fully performing. The reconstruction of this new weir was completed in 1999.

During the same period, in Central Java Province, there were also some construction implementations of new weirs to replace the old weirs. These among others were ‘Manganti’ Weir, ‘Kali Wadas’ Weir, and ‘Serayu’ Barrage. In addition, there were also a large number of weirs rehabilitated within the same period. For further details please see Table 6.33., containing the newly constructed and rehabilitated weirs in Central Java Province.


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Table 6.33. Construction of new weirs and rehabilitation of existing weir in Central Java

Year of Year of Irrigation



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No. Name of Weir Construction Rehabilitation Area (ha) Remarks

1. Manganti 1972 - 1986 19,900 Barrage, with 6 gates, electric and manually operated

2. Kaliwadas, 1872/1974 1988 7,600 1974 replaced old weir, 1988 rehabilitated

3. Serayu. 1939 1996 22,000 Barrage, Replaced the old weir 4. Danawarih 1911 1915, 1918, 1970

1988, 1991, 199712,700 Damaged almost every year due

to flood 5. Sokawati 1902 1974, 1998 9,000 !974 incl. rehabilitation of main

system. 6. Glapan 1852-1859 1969, 1987 16,300 7. Sedadi 1880 1969,1987 21,300 8. Nambo 1890 1921, 1971 14,000 9. Notog 1892 1971, 1975-1978 28,300 1990-1997 small repair

11. Bojong 1849 1969, 1975 6,500 12. Sengomerto 1883 1976 5,900 1969-1974 and 1975-1981

rehabilitation of irrigation system. In East Java there were also a number of construction and rehabilitation works of weirs among others: (i) ‘Lengkong’ Weir constructed between 1970 and 1975 (for replacing the old weir, which was constructed between 1852 and 1857; (ii) ‘Gunung Sari’ Weir, constructed between 1982 and 1985; (iii) ‘Mrican’ Barrage, constructed between 1989 and 1992; (iv) ‘Jatiderek’ and ‘Menturus’ Weirs, constructed between 1990 and 1992; (v) and ‘Gubeng’ Weir, constructed between 1990 and 1993. These barrages were reconstructed with some modification to meet the underlying operational condition of water resources and irrigation infrastructures. c) Construction of New Dam/Reservoir Concerning the construction execution of new dams and reservoir during the post independence period between 1950 and to date (2004), there were a number of new dams particularly large dams (with the capacity of more than 100 million m3) had been constructed, of which, were mostly on Java Island including among others: (i) Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir in West Java Province. The construction implementation was conducted between 1960 and 1967 having a total storage capacity of 2,500 million m3, with the capacity of power generation of 6 x 25 MW, and with a total irrigation command area of about 240,000 hectares. In addition to the above functions, the Jatiluhur reservoir also aimed to provide for raw water supply for drinking water treatment plant of Jakarta Metropolitan and the vicinity areas, as well as municipality flushing for Jakarta Metropolitan City. In conjunction with the multiple reservoir operation, there are currently two large reservoirs located at the upstream site of Jatiluhur Reservoir, i.e. Saguling and Cirata reservoirs, which were aimed for hydro-power generating. (ii) Mrica Reservoir in Central Java was constructed between 1981 and 1989, having a total capacity of 137 million m3. The main purposes of this reservoir are hydro power generating at about 3 x 60 MW and irrigated agriculture with a total command area of about 20,000 hectares; (iii) Wonogiri Reservoir in Central Java, constructed between 1976 and 1981, having a total capacity of 440 million m3, with a total power generation of 32,600 MWH/year and with a total command area of about 23,200 hectares, and expected to be


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expanded to about 29,600 hectares of irrigation command area; (iv) Kedung Ombo Reservoir in Central Java, was constructed between 1985 and 1991, having a total storage capacity of 723 million m3, with a total power generation of 22.5 MW, as well as providing for irrigation at a total command area of about 60,600 hectares; and (v) Selorejo, Karang Kates, and Lahor
Reservoirs, which are amongst the major reservoirs within the structural networks of the Brantas River Basin Area of East Java, that was constructed between 1950 and 1967.
6.3.2. MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES a) Management Principle at the Central Government Level Owing to the facts that during the period after the country’s independence between 1945 to 1959, most attentions were only concentrated to political issues as well as national



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reunification, therefore, this period was renown as “nation’s consolidation”, during which, acknowledgment of sovereignty from other countries had been the first priority of the government. And hence, practically no significant attention had been paid by the government for addressing economics as well as social issues, including maintenance of water resources and irrigation infrastructures. In the mean time, within the period from 1945 to 1949 that was the period from independence to avowal of sovereignty of Indonesia by the Dutch, had been known as the period of ‘independence war’. The allied force, in attempting to maintain the colonial government in Indonesia, established the so called Netherlands India Civil Administration (NICA). The Independence war ended at 27th December 1949, immediately after the Dutch Colonial Government acknowledged and handed over the country’s sovereignty. Given the importance of irrigation in the country’s development, on July 1947, Irrigation Institution had been established in some areas in Indonesia under the coordination of the Ministry of Public Works. However, at the initial stage, only limited development and maintenance endeavors on irrigation infrastructures were managed to undertake by the Ministry of Public works. During the period from 1950 to 1960, at the central government level, Water Resources Services (WRS), Ministry of Public Works and Electric Power had been established as an institution dealing with water resources development. However, the management of water resources at provincial level had been constituted as the responsibility of Regional Water Resources Service (RWRS), operated under the Provincial Public Work Services. After the establishment of WRS, the government had been managed to prepare a nationwide program for maintenance, rehabilitation, and development of new irrigation systems. The large projects described in Section 6.3.1 were initiated earlier at the beginning of this period, but they were only completed in 1967. Following the turbulence political condition of the country, earlier in 1964, the Ministry of Public Works and Electric Power was transformed into the Compartment of Public Works, which comprised of several Departments. Under this government compartment, the Department of Public Irrigation was one of the departments assigned to deal with the main irrigation systems. While the responsibility for development and management of tertiary irrigation system/on-farm irrigation systems was entrusted to the Department of People’s Irrigation, operated under the Compartment of Agriculture. In compliance with the new assignment, the Department of Public Irrigation had been managed to set up the basic conception of comprehensive water resources development, which in turned has been adopted


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and implemented under the then established Directorate General of Water Resources Development (DGWRD), and still currently being existed as the Directorate General of Water Resources under the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures as known today. As the political reform process continued, in March 1966 the cabinet was further improved, under which, the Compartment of Public Works and Power was then transformed into the Department of Public Works and Power. However, on July 1966, the Cabinet was further improved, and the Department of Public Irrigation was transformed into to Directorate General of Public Irrigation.

At the subsequent period of the country’s development, earlier at the first year of the Five Year Development Program (PELITA-I) in 1969, the new Cabinet was established, during which, the Department of Public Works and Power was changed to the Department of Public Works and Electric Power. Under this new Department, Directorate General of Public Irrigation had been entrusted as the public institution dealing with water resources development.

Upon the subsequent achievement of political stability, within the period of PELITA-I (1969-1974), the government started to put adequate attention on rehabilitation, development, operation, and maintenance of irrigation systems. During this period, the Provincial Irrigation Service has been assigned to the implementation of small scale irrigation projects, while the large scale irrigation projects were implemented under the Central Government project through the Directorate General of Public Irrigation. Through the subsequent reform process, during the period of PELITA-II (1974-1979), the Directorate General of Public Irrigation was again transformed into Directorate General of Water Resources Development. Within the period of PELITA-III till the end of PELITA-VI (1999) there was no change in institution dealing with water resources development. b) Irrigation Management at the Provincial Level With regards to institutional development for irrigation management at the provincial as well as at the Regency level till 1975, during which, irrigation management implementation had been conducted in line with the 1927’s Irrigation Management Policy, and in consistent with the local government administration. Concerning the government administration, however, in 1974 the government abolished the so called ‘Resident’ Administration, which was a government administration at the level between Province and Regency, through Law Number 4 of 1974. Irrigation Sections under the former ‘Resident’ administration were transferred to the so called Branch of Irrigation Services, which operated under the coordination and technical guidance of the Provincial Public Works Services. In actual operation, the organizational patterns adjusted to meet with circumstances of provincial government administration. For conducting the routine activities, the Provincial Public Works Services are generally assisted by special institutions dealing with water resources development named Provincial Irrigation Sub-Service (PRISS). In some particular provinces where the water resources aspects are having quite large scope of works, the PRISS’s organizational pattern had been extended to independent Provincial Water Resources Services (PWRS). Following the most recent Decentralization Policy, the Regional Office of the Ministry of Public Works, which formally responsible as the institutional representative of the Ministry of Public Works at the Provincial Level, has been transformed into Provincial Public Works


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Services, in which irrigation and water resources development and management entrusted to the PRISS’s, except several provinces that their organizational pattern had been extended to independent Provincial Water Resources Services (PWRS). c) Water Resources Management under the State-Owned Company With regards to the Basic Philosophy of Water Resources Development prescribed by Article No. 33, Sub Article 1 of the 1945’s Indonesian Constitution, “water” and natural resources contained within, is regarded as the public good bestowed by the Almighty God, and hence, should be managed properly for the prosperity of the People. In accordance with this philosophy, Indonesia has adopted the general water resources management philosophy of “one-river, one-plan, and one-integrated-management” since 1950. Since then, this philosophy has been applied for in “Jatiluhur’ Irrigation Project (see 4.3.1 and Supplement 5.2). To meet with the provision prescribed by the basic philosophy, the management of Jatiluhur Reservoir and irrigation system operate under responsibility of a public company named Jatiluhur Authority. The above-mentioned philosophy has also been applied in the Brantas River Basin Development Project in East Java Province, through a public company named ‘Jasa Tirta’ Public Corporation, which was officially established in 1990. At present, the two public corporations have been transformed into Jasa Tirta-I and Jasa Tirta-II for Jasa Tirta in East Jawa Province and Jatiluhur Authority in West Java Province, respectively. d) Participatory Irrigation Management, Water User Association (WUA) and

Federation of WUA (WUAF)

1) Participatory Irrigation Management

Concerning the participatory irrigation management, as has been widely promoted within the last decade, as a matter of fact, the philosophy has long been applied in Indonesia during the ancient time, ever-since when the farmer initially recognized irrigation technique. Before Colonial Era, the ancient farmers in Indonesia have already been well acquainted with the development, operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures however simple it was (see Supplement Paper concerning some examples of ancient irrigated agricultural heritages in Indonesia). In West Sumatra for example, the farmers in one independent water user’s association assigned two maintenance workers, at the beginning of the planting season, for consistent implementation of irrigation water distribution and subsequently undertake routine maintenance of irrigation facilities throughout the planting season. For this assignment, the farmers mutually pay 100 kg of grain paddy per hectare to the maintenance workers. In Bali Province and other places on Java Island, the farmers have been implementing sustainable self-reliance and self-governance in the management of irrigation schemes.

In an attempt to pursue nationwide participatory approach in irrigation management, implementation of participation of irrigation users in financing the operation and maintenance of the main systems has been applied since early 1970’s. In this regard, the West Java, Central Java, East Java, and South Sulawesi provinces were amongst the provinces that had been constituted some kind of irrigation service fee (in the form of contribution of farmers for O&M costs) since early 1970’s. Under this program, the collection of financial contribution had been undertaken by the local government financial authority at the Regency level.


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For supporting financial allocation on appropriate O&M of irrigation infrastructures, the government introduced a number of methods for mobilizing adequate financial sources in addition to the budgetary support provided by the Central Government. Provision of Central Government budget has been intended mainly for large scale irrigation schemes. While for the small scale irrigation schemes (having an area of less than 500 hectares), the responsibility for financing O&M activities had been previously entrusted to the farmers themselves through coordination of the Water User’s Association. This includes village irrigation system as well as the previously turned over small scale irrigation schemes. To cover the nationwide application of participatory irrigation management, the subsequent implementation of Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) had been constituted since the middle of 1980’s to a number of large scale irrigation schemes. However, the achievement was not satisfactory due to a number of constrains, including among others of the non-effective collecting mechanism, overlapping financial responsibility for O&M, as well as other non conducive social and economic conditions of the farmers. For resolving the underlying problems and constraints, the government constituted the Public Declaration of Irrigation Management Policy Reform (DIMPR) on April 13, 1999. This declaration was specially released by the government for improving the 1987’s Irrigation O&M policy as well as the Policy instrument for Irrigation Service Fees. In turned, the DIMPR, followed by Presidential Instruction Number 3 of 1999 (INPRES No.3/1999), which was officially enacted on April 26, 1999. The Presidential Instruction (INPRES-No.3/1999) prescribed five principles of irrigation reform as follows: (i) Redefining irrigation institutions; (ii) Empowering of WUAs; (iii) Transfer and joint management; (iv) Farmer-managed O&M fees; and (v) Irrigation sustainability.

2) Water User Association (WUA) and Federation of WUA (WUAF) The initiative of irrigation development in Indonesia was firstly introduced and practiced amongst the farming community since the first century AD. At the early stage, the ancient farmers at a particular community formed themselves in a group and organized themselves to construct simple irrigation canals and intake structures. As the demands for appropriate O&M of the developed irrigation scheme became increasing, the group continued to organize themselves for conducting operation and maintenance of the developed irrigation scheme. As the time went by, this early form of water user association (WUA) in Indonesia had been developed through time with subsequent adjustment with the underlying condition from time to time. As a matter of fact, some of the ancient heritages of water user’s association in Indonesia are still practiced today with some adjustment with the underlying circumstances. Amongst the most notable traditional water users’ association, which still in existence today are: ‘Subak’ in Bali, ‘Raksabumi’ in West Java, ‘Ulu-ulu Desa’ in Central Java, Ili-ili in East Java, ‘Tuo Banda’ in West Sumatra, ‘Panriahan Pamokkahan’ and ’Siauga Parjolo’ in North Sumatra, ‘Panitya Siring’ in Bengkulu, ‘Malar’ in Sumbawa (West Nusa Tenggara), ‘Tudang Sipulung’ in South Sulawesi, ‘Kejruen Blang’ in Aceh, and some others to mention. Most of which are still practicing irrigation operation and maintenances techniques -- with some adjustment -- the way they inherited them from their ancestors from generation to generation. Approaching the post independence period, the establishment of water user’s association has become an important issue for supporting appropriate operation and management of irrigation scheme. For this reason, the formal organization of farmers was firstly established on June 1950 in Surakarta (Solo) referred to ‘Persatuan Air Surakarta’ (literally meant as Surakarta Water Union), under the initiative of the of village heads in collaboration with informal


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leaders. Immediately after the establishment, ‘Persatuan Air Surakarta’ (PAS) vastly spread out to other places in Central Java. Under the subsequent coordination of the PAS, almost all of irrigation rehabilitation works on irrigation infrastructures in Solo, Central Java, were successfully carried out in 1967. Following this distinct achievement, the PAS, awarded by the Governor of Central Java with the Grand Prize on Best Irrigation Management Practices in 1968. From this point in time, the Governor of Central Java Province transformed the PAS to the so called Dharma Tirta (literally meant as dedication to water) in recognition to the outstanding performance demonstrated by the PAS. Learning from experiences of the PAS, irrigation management techniques by the WUA, later in the following years the basic approaches had been introduced to other provinces since 1969. Since then, the basic principle adhered to Dharma had been officially spread out to other provinces in Indonesia. In addition, for accelerating the spread of Dharma Tirta concept -- with the subsequent adjustment with local circumstances – an intensive dissemination had been undertaken through some pilot schemes under the immediate operational arrangement by the Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, since 1970. Subsequently, within the period between 1970 and 1974 a large number of water user’s associations had been established in many provinces both in the Inner Islands and in The outer Islands. To mention for few examples among others: Organisasi Petani Pemakai Air (OPPA) in South Sulawesi Province; Himpunan Petani Pemakai Air (HIPPA) in East Java Province; and Mitra Cai in West Java Province. At present, after the nationwide implementation, the general name used for water user association became ‘Perkumpulan Petani Pemakai Air’ (P3A). Nevertheless, the traditional name of the water users’ associations in some particular provinces are still using the previous terms added to the P3A such as P3A Mitra Cai, P3A Subak etc., except in West Sumatra, the local government incorporating the traditional ‘Tuo Banda’ and P3A. Under the newly merged water users’ association, the Former head of Tuo Banda included as the member of management board of P3A. For strengthening the WUAs in performing their active role toward sustainable irrigation management, early in 1984, the government put into effect the Presidential Instruction No. 2/1984 concerning the empowerment of P3A. Following this Presidential Instruction, a number of endeavors have been implemented for empowerment of P3As, including the immediate support for organizational set-up and follow-up strengthening. Subsequently, in 1994 out of the total required number of 39,900 P3As, some 23,824 units have been established, and out of these, 35% were still developing, and some 16,000 new P3As were still need to be established. In Central Java Province, for example, the total number of P3As in 1991 was recorded to be 3,836 units and in 2000 increased to be 6,358 units. Out of these figure, some 812 unit were still developing in 1991 and a total of 1,071 units in 2000. The improvement which were required for organizational strengthening including among others, coordination mechanism, internal working relationship, awareness campaign and so on. For general illustration, see Figure 6.3.1, which shows the example of P3A’s Organization Structure in East Java (HIPPA). In the larger irrigation scheme where a number of WUAs have been established, coordination mechanism amongst the existing WUAs need to be constituted in order to allow them to perform their activities through an effective integrated approach. To facilitate the demand for coordination mechanism amongst the WUAs, a number of WUA’s Federation (FP3A/WUAF)


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scattered over the large irrigation schemes has been established and operated since 1996 till present. The main duties of the WUAFs are to facilitate and manage appropriate coordination amongst irrigation systems which consist of some tertiary blocks – of which, managed by a number of independent WUA or P3A. Amongst the already established and properly managed, the Tulinggula Irrigation Scheme in North Sulawesi Province has been the notable pioneer in the establishment of WUAF. The initial effort for establishment of WUA in this irrigation scheme was conducted in 1996 by assigning nine WUAs to organize themselves, working together in performing the routine operation and management of the scheme with a total command area of 1,129 ha. The scheme has been determined as a pilot project, since the provision of “turn-over of Small Scale Irrigation Program” prescribed the command area of individual scheme to be turn-over at the maximum of 500 ha. Since then, the Tulinggula of 1,129 has been decided as a pilot project for self managed irrigation system. Under this pilot project, the existence of WUA has been kept as previous ones – in terms of internal irrigation water management within the irrigation block – except the working coordination amongst the WUAs that has to be entrusted to the newly established WUAF for the benefit of all. At present, the Tulinggula WUAF has been performing well, while continuously making improvement along the process of strengthening all aspects of irrigated agricultural undertakings, including financial aspects.

With regards to the financial aspects of the Tulinggula WUAF, the new member must contribute membership fee at an amount of US$ 7.5 per person, which is regarded as the initial working capital of the WUAF. In addition to that contribution, the members are encouraged to deposit some of the money they have on optional basis, which regarded as additional source of shared-capital. For conducting the physical repairs as well as maintenance of irrigation infrastructures within the administrative area of the WUA, the concerned WUA – subject to the approval of WUAF Board of Management – may undertake part or all the repair works on contracting or sub-contracting basis.

Having this financial management in placed, within two years, between 1996 and 1998, some 152 WUAF members have been actively participating, with a total working capital of about US$ 7,500 in cash, in addition to agricultural assets of two hand tractors and three grass cutting machines, as well as rice drying facilities. For consistently maintaining the agricultural machineries, the WUAF rented out the machineries to its members for individual use, giving special membership renting rate. With all the well-coordinated activities, the Tulinggula WUAF had been formally recognized by the local government through a decree signed by Head of the Local District Government Administration in September 1997. See Figure 6.3.2., for further detailed information about typical organizational structure and mechanism of WUAF.

The organization structure of WUAF as shown in Figure 6.3.2 shows that the WUAF has a number of Sections for performing variety of different tasks. The O&M Section is the one which responsible for conducting water distribution to the tertiary blocks, in addition to other routine O&M of the system. For performing these tasks, the O&M Section is assisted by a number of ‘Juru Pintu’ (gate keeper), weir keeper, and some operation and maintenance personnel.


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a) For one tertiary block in one village b) For more than one water sources in a village

Field Extension Worker

Group

Sub Block

Head of Village, the Responsible

Person

Management Board: Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, Assistants

Field Extension Worker

Head of Village, the Responsible

Person

Sub Block

Block of Pump

Tertiary Block

Sub Block

Management Board: Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, Assistants

P2

P1



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c) For one or more tertiary network in some villages

Figure 6.3.1. Typical organization structure of WUAF (P3A HIPPA) in East Java

Farmers Group

Farmers

GroupP3

Head of Village A as the Responsible

Person

Farmers

Sub Block

Group Group

Sub Block

Head of Village C as Responsible

Person

Head of Village B as the Responsible

Person

Management Board B: Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, Assistants

Management Board C: Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, Assistants

Blocks in Village A

Management Board A: Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, Assistants

District Irrigation Committee

Blocks in Village B Blocks in Village C

Group

Sub Block

Village Boundary

Tertiary Canal

Village Boundary

Village A

Village B

Village C


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Figure 6.3.2. Typical organization structure of WUAF

TREASSURER SECRETARY

Organization Section

Weir Keeper

Cooperative Section

Contribution Section

O&M Section

Equipment Section

Gate Keeper-1

O&M Staff-1

Gate Keeper-2

O&M Staff-2

CHAIRMAN

VICE CHAIRMAN



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In order to maintain consistent empowerment, the members of WUAF have to attend regular training programs, which were designed for the all of the members, in accordance with their respective tasks and responsibilities. The training program consists of operation and maintenance techniques of irrigation infrastructures, including weirs and gates operation, calibration of discharge measurement devices, cropping pattern and calendar, water delivery schedule, as well as comparative observation the more advanced WUAFs.

3) Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Fund In an attempt to maintain a consistent implementation of governance to cover the entire administrative territories of the country, earlier in 1950 the government established Provincial Government Administrations in Indonesia. In the subsequent attempt for administering and managing the water resources, in 1953 the government enacted the Government Regulation (PP) No. 18 of 1953 concerning the role of Provincial Government in Water Resources Management. The Government Regulation prescribes that all matters concerning water resources management are the responsibility of Provincial Government. However, it was evident later that the Provincial Government were mostly having but limited capacity for appropriate implementation of water resources management, among others, due to the shortage of O&M budget as well as personnel, poor O&M techniques and facilities. Considering the inability of the provincial government to provide for O&M budget and the subsequent implementation, within the First Five-Year Development Program (PELITA-I, between 1969 and 1974, the Central Government gave special support by concentrating substantial efforts on rehabilitation works. For which, a large amount of Central Government budget was allocated for rehabilitation works, while the budgetary allocations for O&M were still put at the subsequent priority. For continuous support on the provision of adequate budgetary support, during the period of PELITA-II (1974-1979) the Central Government allocated further substantial amount of budget in terms of subsidy to the provincial government for conducting appropriate O&M of irrigation and water resources infrastructures. Upon the follow up implementation, it was


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recognized that the Central Government subsidy was still far from adequate due to the escalating budget requirements of the Provincial Government for other sectors of development. And hence, only limited O&M budgets were allocated for O&M of irrigation and water resources infrastructures. As a result, both the quality and quantity of rehabilitated infrastructures were hardly performed in accordance with the previously anticipated performance, and in turned irrigation infrastructures was deteriorated remarkably fast. Given the perpetually limited capacity of the Provincial Government to apply for appropriate O&M with adequate budgetary support, earlier in 1984, at the beginning of PELITA-IV a number of initiatives were carried out to support improving the quality performance of O&M of irrigation and water resources infrastructures. These initiatives were: (i) Establishment of quality standard of irrigation networks to implement appropriate and effective O&M; (ii) Rehabilitation of the deteriorated schemes by means of special maintenance approach; (iii) Establishment of standard, manual and procedures for effective O&M implementation; (iv) Establishment of pilot schemes for implementation of efficient O&M – these pilot schemes known as advanced operation unit (AOU), which was limited to the individual irrigation scheme with the command area between 5,000 and 6,000 hectares.

For maintaining the secure availability of budgetary allocation, the government gave a number of alternatives for budget sources including: (i) Contribution of irrigation users; (ii)
Land and Building taxes; (iii) Allocation from Provincial Government revenues; (iv) Subsidies from Central Government, particularly if items (i), (ii), and (iii) are inadequate.
6.4. OBSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES METEOROLOGY

6.4.1. EARLY CONDITION OF HYDRO-CLIMATIC OBSERVATION IN INDONESIA Earlier at the beginning of irrigation development in Indonesia, observation of water resources meteorology was not received adequate attention. In fact, the early constructions of irrigation



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and water resources infrastructures were only based on trial-and-error approach. During which, no systematical observations nor data collections were undertaken. It was only after the establishment of the “Departemen BOW” or the Department of Public Works in 1847, the technical observation on water resources meteorology was initiated with special focus on precipitation and river discharges. The water resources concern was only constrained to rainfall measurement by installing rainfall stations in the areas where water resources and irrigation development had prospective development potentials. Meanwhile, the other climatic observations were only entrusted to immediate users of the data for planning, design and management, such as for communication, transportation and agriculture.

Due to the absence of adequate technical staff for conducting meteorological observation, the rainfall stations during the early stage were installed in the suitable sites near the public offices or public schools, and keep the observation of the station with the school teachers to take care.

As the planning and design technologies advancing through time, observation on water resources meteorology also extended to other hydro-climatic parameters such as temperature, sun-shine duration and intensity, air pressure, air humidity, wind velocity and so on. The responsibility for which, were distributed to the respective agencies, including later on, to the Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics, Ministry of Transportation, Ministry of Agriculture, as well as the Ministry of Public works per-sé.


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Since the establishment of the Department of Public works, till a moment before the break up of the War, the climatic records had been observed and recoded quite intensively.

However, during and after the War the records had not been properly taken care due to a number of constraints, including the severely lacking of financial, human resources, as well as lacking of clear-cut institutional role-sharing.

6.4.2. OBSERVATION AND CLIMATE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM For supporting the activities of water resources and irrigation development and management, the following are among the important parameters that are continuously observed: (1) temperature; (2) rainfall; (3) sun exposure duration; (4) air pressure; (5) air humidity; and (6)
wind speed having the measurement system as follows: a. Temperature: Temperature measurement conducted by using thermometer with 0.1oC
accuracy; b. Rainfall: Rainfall data is expressed in terms of total amount of rainfall in mm recorded

rainfall station – In this regard there are three types of rainfall data that are commonly used: expressed in-terms of daily rainfall, maximum rainfall, and hourly distribution rainfall data; annual min, mean and maximum.

c. Sun Exposure Duration: This measurement is conducted by using Camp bell Stokes to burn scaled time paper. The result is duration time in % of sun exposure compare to eight hour a day. Therefore, 100% means that the sun exposure occurred for eight hour on average per day.

d. Air Pressure: Air pressure is measured by Barometer generally using m-bar unit. The pressure data obtained in terms of means monthly average air pressure measured at 00.00 GMT o’clock.

e. Air Humidity: Humidity is measured by Dry ball and Wet Ball. Air humidity is defined as percentage of water content in the air measured to provide differences of both temperatures between dry ball and wet ball, and then humidity value can be matched from specific table in terms of percentage value.

f. Wind Speed: Wind speed is expressed in knots or km/hour which is measured by Anemometer, which resulted data of average, maximum dominant wind direction. The average wind speed expressed in terms of the average value of daily wind speed calculated from hourly data during a day. The maximum wind speed is a maximum of daily wind speed obtained from hourly data during a day. The dominant wind direction is expressed in terms of a number of events happened for certain direction performed at the degree of
angle direction from the north on clockwise direction.
6.4.3. RAINFALL STATION DISTRIBUTION With regards to the Indonesian Irrigation History, several provinces contribute specific historical process of water resources meteorology in accordance with the specific development demands of the respective province.



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For further illustration, see Figure 6.4.1., which is depicting the overall distribution of rainfall station in Indonesia, and the following Table, giving example of rainfall station distributions, which is presented based on the inventory of the Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics of Indonesia for Central Java Province:


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An example of rainfall station distribution in Central Java

No. STA Name of Station Coordinate Elevation

(MSL) Address Owner/operator

11030 Kersana 06°45’S-108°52 ‘E 0010 Kb. Bibit Kersana Kab. Brebes

Diperta Kab. Brebes

11031 Cilacap 07°44’S-109°01‘E 0006 Sta. Meteo Cilacap BMG 11032 Tegal 06°51’S-109°09‘E 0003 Jl. Pancasila 2 Tegal BMG 11033 Gamer Pekalongan 06°53’S-109°42‘E 0004 Balai Benih Gamer Diperta Kab.

Pekalongan 11034 Sempor 07°29 ’S-109°19‘E 0114 Proy. Serbaguna Kedu

Selatan PUTL Prop. Jawa Tengah

11035 Semarang Ahmad Yani

06°59’S-110°22‘E 0003 Bandara Ahmad Yani BMG

11036 Semarang Maritim 06°57’S-110°25‘E 0001 Sta. Meteo Maritim Semarang

BMG

11037 Semarang Klimat 06°59’S-110°23‘E 0003 Jl. Siliwangi 291 semarang

BMG

11038 Kledung 07°23’S-110°01‘E 1399 Keb. Bibit Purnomosari Kledung

Diperta Prop. Jawa Tengah

11039 Seneng Magelang 07°29’S-101°14‘E 0380 DPU Pengairan Seneng DPU Prop. Jawa Tengah Wilayah. Kedu

11040 Borobudur 07°07’S-110°01‘E 0270 Proy. Rest. Candi Borobudur

PD Pemugaran Candi Borobudur

11041 Ungaran 07°07’S-110°23‘E 0320 SPMA Ungaran Pemda TK.I Jawa Tengah

11042 Getas 07°23’S-110°26‘E 0300 Getas Salatiga PNP Getas Salatiga

11048 Adi Sumarmo Surakarta

07°32’S-110°55‘E 0104 Lanud Adi Sumarmo Surakarta

Dinas Navigasi Udara TNI AU

11049 Colo Kudus 06°40’S-111°05‘E 0700 Diperta Kab. Kudus Diperta Kab. Kudus

11050 Rendole Pati 06 °43’S-111°01‘E 0017 KPP/TC Rendole Pati Diperta Kab. Pati 11423 Beji 06°26’S-110°48‘E 0020 Kec. Bangsri, Jepara Kebun Beji 11424 Karang Kemiri 08°33’S-109°33‘E 0035 Kec. Kemangkon

Purbalingga BB Sukoharjo Dep. Tan

11426 Bojongsari 07°25’S-109°24‘E 0068 Kec. Kebun Baru banyumas

BB Padi Bojongsari

11427 Wadaslintang 07°37’S-110°55‘E 0224 Kec. Wadaslintang, Wonosobo

Camat

11428 Wonocolo 11429 Ngambak Kampung 07°01’S-110°37‘E 0024 BB Ngambak

Kapung 11430 Sendang Harjo 11431 Babadan 1278 11432 Panohan 11433 Plumbon 11490 Srimadono

Chapter VI. Modern Timentent


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Figure 6.4.1. Distribution of Rainfall Station in Indonesia

Cover List of CoMSRI and INACID

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6.4.4. DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

a) General Information As far as the current the discharge measurement practice in Indonesia is concerned, in order to obtain river discharge data from a water level recorder, four stages of implementation has



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to be followed, i.e: 1) collecting water level data; 2) measuring river discharge; 3) analyzing discharge rating curve; and 4) calculating as well as evaluating discharge data. These stages are interrelated and very decisive for determining accuracy of the final result of discharge calculation. The illustrations presented below, has been adopted as the technical guideline for discharge measurement that had been evolved and developed through time. So far the river discharges data that obtained from water level recorders throughout Indonesia have been utilized effectively for supporting the development and management of water resources and irrigation.

b) Water Level Data Collection

1) Water Level Observation

The water level of a river is the stage of a river measured from a determined height, usually expressed in terms of meter (m) or centimeter (cm). The zero point is determined at one permanent datum from the average sea water level (Mean sea level - MSL) or a selected reference point. This is meant as to obtain uniformity in the use of water level data. To prevent a negative water level value, water stage at zero point should be placed about 10 to 20 cm below the lowest water stage elevation. This zero point should be made permanent in accordance with the expected life time of the station by installing a concrete or metal benchmark.

2) Type of Staff Gauges

At present, the water level observation is generally conducted by application of three types of equipments, i.e.:

• Fluctuation of water level is generally observed from the readings of non-recording staff gauges in the form of piles, which are read three times a day, namely at 07.00 am, at 12.00 pm and at 17.00 pm. Additional water level readings have to be conducted during floods.

• Automatic water level recorders in the hydrograph of the water level, which presents the relationship between water level and time.

• Water level observation by tele-metering system. Fluctuation of water levels indicates the fluctuation of river discharges.

3) Water Level Reading

Recording of water-stage elevation should be implemented prior and after discharge measurements by reading the depth of the water surface from the water-stage recorder. If the difference of water surface fluctuation at the start and end of the river discharge measurement is greater than three cm, correction of the discharge calculation indicating the depth of water stage will be necessitated.


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4) Measurement of Wetted Perimeter • Measurement of the wetted perimeter of the river is usually conducted by using a

measuring tape along the width of the river, which should be adjusted to the width of flow area and existing supporting facilities.

• Measurement of Depth of a River is usually carried out from the fixed vertical points by measuring tape, which should be installed firmly to prevent discharge of each sub-area exceeding 5% of the discharge of the entire wetted perimeter. Depth measurement by using a chain and hanging weight needs to be corrected when the chain is inclining toward the vertical axis.

5) Measurement of Flow Velocity Average value of flow velocity in a flow area usually determines by the average velocity measurement results of some points of vertical average velocity at one result of: one, two, three or more points. These measurements should consider the depth of flow, width of flow and the extent of existing facilities.

6) Method of Measurement • Wading: This method uses a sounding stick to measure flow and depth, and usually be

done manually by holding the stick perpendicular toward the river bottom. If necessary, the location of measurement should be cleaned from trash or other objects which may hamper the flow as far as the control section is not changed. Measurement should be done at normal flow condition.

• By using a boat: This method is usually applied when a river is too deep to be measured by wading and other supplementary devices such as a bridge or cable way not available.

• By using a bridge: Physical conditions of the river when the measurement cannot be taken by wading or by using a boat and/or if cable ways are not available. In this regard, the presence of a bridge over the river usually instrumental for conducting measurements. Under this condition, however, other aspects that could influence the accuracy of the measurement, have to be considered such as the physical shape of the bridge, frequency of traffic, and other such condition.

• By using of cable winch: A cable winch, which is a permanent supplementary device at the location of measurement, usually equipped with a cable car or winch. Measurement is usually performed by hanging a weight to the reel cable that will keep the cable tightly stretched and at the firm position. Therefore, application of the correct wire and appropriate weight is very important.

• By using of cable car: A cable car, which is a permanent supplementary device at the location of measurement, is considered to be most reliable for discharge measurement at large rivers. Unlike the cable winch, this device has a relatively stronger cable for supporting the load of a cable car, which consists of two surveyors, a current meter and a hanging weight to keep the cable vertical.

c) Discharge Rating Curve Analysis Discharge Rating Curve Construction: Upon the completion of collection of data on measurements, the result of discharge measurements are usually formulated into a rating curve by graphic method. The rating curve is drawn on arithmetic graph paper, with the horizontal scale representing the discharge value and the vertical scale represents the water


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level elevation. Thus, the discharge rating curve illustrates the inter-relationship between the water level and the river discharge.

d) Calculation Method and Discharge Evaluation 1) Water Level Data Processing

Preparation for data processing, the following corrections have to be conducted: 1) The height of water level during installment and graph drawing against reading of

the water level stage; 2) The time at installment and recording against time scale on graph; 3) The reversing water stage level; 4) The time delay or speed rotation of graph; 5) Zero elevation on recorder; and 6) Other factors such as condition of mud, blotting graph-pen, graded curve, and

others. 2) Discharge Calculation When the hourly water stage data or average daily water level data, flow table for each water level, and shifting of correction are collected, the average daily discharge to be calculated based on PERDAS Method, for which, the software is available at the Experimental Station for Hydrology, Research Institute for Water Resources.

3) Discharge Evaluation The average of daily discharge is plotted on graph paper by using a plotter and computer program which produced a discharge hydrograph. The discharge hydrograph of two or more water level recorders have to be compared with the accuracy of actual discharge data.

4) Discharge Publication
Only data, which fulfills the technical criteria and evaluation results, are published as the river discharge data.
6.5. DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION MAIN STRUCTURES Through the course of irrigation history of Indonesia, it is evident that the first emerging thought on structural development was associated with the artificial intervention for diverting



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water from water sources, however simple it was. In fact, from the legend of paddy it was said that the first paddy cultivation obtained its water from a resourceful spring without any intake structure what so ever, and yet the water distribution still needed to be conveyed through farm ditch, no matter how simple it was.

As the demand for expanding paddy cultivation went up in line with population increase, one must give immediate thought about the most appropriate technique for fulfilling the water supply demands. In this way, however simplest human intervention on natural state of water sources would gradually evolved through time as well as experiences, and eventually accumulated to become irrigation technique that we comprehend today.

Concerning the historical development of irrigation techniques in Indonesia, it is apparent from the most recent discovery that the ancient population of Indonesia had long been acquainted with irrigation development and management techniques. The following section describes the overview of development of main structures, types and technicalities, particularly intake structures and flood prevention facilities, from the simplest state till the most recent development implementation.


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6.5.1. INTAKE STRUCTURE

a) Embankment Since the farmers acquainted with the early irrigated agricultural techniques, they had been successfully developed the simplest structures that met the demand of water delivery. In line with the immediate demand, they initially made effort to divert water from spring or small



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rivers by means of gravity flow from free intake, in combination with stone, boulder, wooden peg, bamboo frame, or with earth-fill embankment across the river for lifting the water surface at the intake point. Such the simple structures were obviously highly susceptible to flood strike, and consequently the headwork structure was subject to annual repair or reconstruction. Depending upon the nature of the damages due to annual flooding, the annual repairs would normally be incorporated with additional improvement works such as provision of spill-way to reduce the damage due to flood stream. For the case of Balinese farmer, as an example, the construction of embankment across the river always facilitated with floodway in the center of the river or cutting the embankment to let the flood flown downstream, and hence only minor repairs would be conducted annually. Given the highly diversified natural conditions, as well as physical characteristics, the development extents of construction technicality were practically varied from place to place within the Indonesian Archipelago. Despite the long history of irrigation construction in Indonesia, so far, no obvious historical evidence that could explain the exact date of the first application of construction technology on irrigation development. For illustration, according to some scholars, the earliest construction of embankment as intake structure had only been undertaken by the Balinese farmer since 78 AD. Other source like R.Goris, a Dutch Anthropologist, argued that Irrigation with intake structure had only been used by the Balinese agricultural community around years before 600 AD. Meanwhile, some inscriptions indicate that the Bali’s farmer with its ‘Subak’ traditional organization has developed irrigation schemes with intake structures since 878 AD. It was said that at that time, the farmers of Bali had already managed to build a soil embankment of 30 meter high, which in fact, currently classified as amongst the high-embankment classification in Indonesia today. For the case of East Java Province, it was said that in northeast of present town of Kediri the farmer community had already managed to developed irrigation system with intake structure (embankment) since 804 AD. This place was known as Harinjing Village, but presently known as Srinjing Village. The irrigation command area of this scheme located within an area between the Harinjing River and Konto River, both are currently the Brantas river tributaries. After 804 AD, it was noted in the manuscript charter of ‘Mpu Sendok’, that the societies in the eastern part of Jombang had managed to complete a weir construction 929 AD. In the year of 1037, it was subsequently noted that there was a district close to Surabaya – currently the delta area of Brantas River and Porong River – had managed to develop an irrigation scheme. This scheme located in the ‘Waringin Sapto’ Village, presently known as ‘Waringin Pitu’ Village. In the mean time, in 1350 AD, the farmer in Kandangan Village, within the vicinity of the well known Harinjing/Srinjing Weir, was also noted to have undertaken rehabilitation work for a large irrigation weir. Like the historical development on the Inner Islands, irrigation development history on the Outer Islands, also have but view information concerning the exact time when the first irrigation infrastructure was initiated. The most recent historical evidences only indicated


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that during the middle of the 19th Century, it was noted that a large number of embankment weirs had been constructed on the Outer Islands, both under the initiative of the farmers and through the support of the Dutch Colonial Government. The construction was said to be temporary and simple earth structures in the form of embankment or bamboo frame filled with soil, stone, boulders. With exception, there were also some gabion weirs, with stone and boulder fills as well as with wooden posts, which had been constructed during that period. For example, a weir with simple structure was found in West Sumatra known as `Bendung Mimpi' (literally meant as Dream Weir). The weir with an irrigation command area of 350 ha was built in 1826 for supplying irrigation water to tobacco plantation in the area. The other weir is `Bendung Selo" also in West Sumatra, constructed in 1931, for irrigating paddy field of 30 ha, which was later on developed to around 150 ha. At the above-mentioned period, gabion structure for irrigation weirs and intake facilities had also been acquainted in Outer islands such as Lerang Weir in Bone Regency, South Sulawesi, which was constructed in 1919, also in Kalimantan and other islands to mention in the Eastern Regions of Indonesia. For the case of West Java, it was said that in 1739, a simple structure named `Katulampa' Weir was constructed at about five km upstream of Bogor in 1739 to irrigate agricultural area between Bogor and Jakarta. Following this example, up to 1840, there were a large number of embankments weirs built by the farmers themselves, in the scattered areas over West Java territory, including hundreds of small reservoirs or water pond termed as “Situ-Situ” in the vicinity of Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi areas. However, for most cases in West Java, the Colonial Government was only started to put attention on the development of simple embankment weir in 1932 in order to support the “Cultuur Stelsel” or Compulsary Agricultural Policy of the Dutch Colonial Government.

b) Weir During the subsequent development period, application of permanent masonry weir, as the improved type of the simple embankment type, have been widely adopted having some adjustment with local condition. As a matter of fact, since the 4th decades of the 18th Century, a large number of weir structures, consisted of masonry and concrete that equipped with intake gate – some others not – had been developed in Indonesia, especially on Java Island. Amongst the most notable ones were “Ciliwung-Katulampa” Weir in, West Java, which was constructed in 1739, “Kalikebo” Weir in Klaten, Central Java, constructed in 1824 and “Molek” Weir in East Java, constructed in 1828. Approaching the middle of 19th Century, in addition to the development of new weirs, the Dutch Colonial Government also conducted rehabilitation as well as replacement of the existing simple weirs/embankments. Most of the rehabilitation works were additionally facilitated with equipped with intake gates to allow an appropriate water control. For example, the Rentang Weir in West Java, which was built in 1846, was reconstructed with substantial improvement, including the replacement of wooden structures with masonry and concrete works. The reconstructed weirs were “Bojong”, built in the 1849, “Glapan” Weir in Central Java Province built in 1852, and “Lengkong” Weir in East Java, constructed in 1852. Other type of structure that commonly used at that period was free intakes, especially for large river, to avoid huge construction costs. The examples of such free intakes (FI) including “Mentereng” FI in “Cisanggarung” River, in the vicinity of Cirebon, West Java, built in the year 1840; “Singomerto” FI in “Serayu” River, in Central Java, which was constructed 1880.


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During the period after independence to the end of the Fist Five-Year Development Program (1945 - 1994) a large number of weirs were constructed, most of which were for small and medium scale irrigation schemes, with an irrigation command at an average of about 8,000 ha.

c) Barrage Depending upon the nature of the rivers, construction of Barrage has been initiated since early at the beginning of the 20th Century. One of the oldest and the largest barrage (in term of width and commanded area) in Indonesia is “Walahar” Barrage, was constructed in 1904. This Barrage is located in “Citarum” River, the biggest river in West Java Province. Meanwhile, in 1905 another large barrage was constructed in “Ciujung” named “Pamarayan” Barrage in “Banten” Province (before 2000 the Province of Banten was a territory of West Java Province). Following the development of the above mentioned barrages, several others were developed, including the “Pasar Baru” Barrage, constructed 1926 in “Cisadane” River, Banten Province, and “Benteng” Barrage in Saddang River, about 180 km north of Makassar the capital of South Sulawesi Province, constructed in 1937.

In Central Java Province, another barrage for designed as flood diversion structure and as intake of irrigation water, is Wilalung Barrage. This barrage was constructed in 1908 at “Serang” River in the eastern vicinity of Semarang, the capital of Central Java Province. In addition to divert flood into Serang and Babalan Rivers, “Wilalung” Barrage also functions
to divert water to Babalan Irrigation Scheme.
6.5.2. CANAL Similar to the embankment and simple weir, irrigation canal have long been recognized by the farmers, ever-since during the period when the early irrigation technique had been introduced. In most cases, construction of embankment/weir carried out simultaneously with



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or followed by construction of canals. Some cases shown that before an embankment/weir was constructed, the farmers had previously excavate the conveyance canals. In some cases when the water elevation allowed gravity flow, water was diverted from the river to the excavated canals prior to the construction of other structures. Following the water diversion, the construction of weir (embankment, bamboo, or wood) was the constructed. Historically, the canal construction techniques for conveying water to paddy fields have been applied since the 78 AD, or according to R.Goris, since before 600AD. For the case of canal construction technique in West Java Province, it was noted that in 1739 all of the concerned landlords had mutually developed irrigation canal networks from “Katulampa” Weir (in Bogor) to irrigation area in the vicinity of Jakarta with a total length of about 56 km. This canal network was developed to facilitate irrigation distribution for the command areas belonged to Landlords, extended between Bogor and Sunter area in Jakarta. Despite the above evidences, some other experiences in the mountainous remote areas both on Java and on the Outer Islands indicated that the traditional farmers had already constructed irrigation canals, often by high embankment through valleys or deep cuts along the meandering alignments at the steep hills, cascading terrains, even through tunnels across breccia rocks with hundreds of meters long. Many of these canal networks in Bali, Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra are still functioning under the well maintained condition today, after many years operation.


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6.5.3. WATER LIFTING DEVICE In Indonesia, water lifting devices for irrigation purpose, has been practiced by the farmers since the middle of 14th century. Early at the turn of the century, in West Sumatra territory, the farmers have already widely applying for water-lifting devices for irrigation and other
water utilizations. In this particular case, water is lifted from the river to irrigated paddy field by utilizing “water wheel” (see also Irrigation Examples in Chapter VII and Supplement Paper about traditional irrigated agricultural heritage in West Sumatra for further details). Such water lifting devices are still widely practiced in many hilly areas of Western Sumatra Province today, most of which are developed, operated and maintained by the traditional farmers themselves. In terms of pump as water lifting device, large electric pumping stations for irrigation have been implemented since 1930’s. It was noted that in Central Java Province, a pumping station was set up in 1939 to irrigate the Gambarsari-Pasanggrahan Irrigation Area. During the Dutch time, there have been a number of pumping stations constructed on Java Island. Depending upon the nature of water requirement, the source of water for the water pumps were taken from rivers or surface water source as well as from groundwater. For example, in Central Java Province at this time alone, there are more than 650 small pumping currently operated for irrigating more than 16,300 ha of paddy fields, on top of the scattered tubewell pumping stations to provide raw water supplies for municipal and industries. In Bengawan Solo River Basin, Central Java, there are also presently a large number of pump stations for irrigated-agricultural purposes. At present, there are currently 758 units of medium sized pumps, set up for taking water directly from rivers/canals (surface water) by means of open channels, and some 658 pump stations are currently operated for groundwater, having a total command area of about 45,000 ha. In this area, inter-regional water allocation problems often occurred due to the fact that Bengawan Solo Basin is located in two provinces, namely is Central Java and East Java Provinces. However, most of the pump stations are located in the downstream region in East Java Province. In West Java Province, on top of the many pumping station for irrigation as well as raw water supplies for domestic and industries, there is a notably large big scale pumping station which was built before PELITA-I in Curug area under the Jatiluhur Irrigation and Reservoir Project. In this station, there are two unit of pumping system, namely electric pump and hydraulic pump, which were both built in 1966 and completed in 1968. The electrics pumps are utilized for lifting water from Curug Weir (water release from Jatiluhur Reservoir) to the East Tarum Main Canal, to provide irrigating water supply for a total command area of about 80,000 ha of paddy field. Meanwhile, the hydraulic pump, which is known as Sediyatmo Pump (as designed by Prof. Dr. Ir. Sediyatmo) consists of 17 units of pump at an individual capacity of 5.00 m3/second for each unit. These hydraulic pumps lift water to West Tarum Main Canal for the purposes of irrigation water supplies of about 80,000 ha of irrigated paddy field, and raw water supplies for municipal as well as sanitary flushing for Jakarta Metropolitan City.
6.5.4. FLOOD PREVENTION INFRASTRUCTURE Indonesia, like other tropical archipelago, also strongly influenced by tropical climatic



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characteristics, both in terms of heavy tropical rains during the rainy seasons as well extreme drought during the dry season. With underlying tendency of over exploitation of


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upper watershed of the rivers with densely populated middle reach and downstream areas, it becomes apparent that the threat of probable flood and drought incidents are continuously escalating from time to time.

During the past years, flood problems were only hampering significantly of the densely populated areas as well as agricultural lands in the lowland plains. Today, however, the impacts of floods are increasingly hindering the livelihood of the people both in rural and urban areas, as well as the agricultural and industrial areas without exception. For this reason, flood prevention, flood control, and flood mitigation became increasing more important in the water resources development and management.

Since the Dutch time, flood problems had already become one of the burning issues of water resources and irrigation management. In line with extensive irrigation development implementation during the past long term development, the issues of flood control has been scrutinized and addressed in terms of structural as well as non-structural approach. However, the order of priority was still behind the urgency for sustaining food security as yet still continuously became the country’s most immediate development objective. Being the case, preventive measures in resolving the flood problems is still given more priority without disregarding the repressive, curative or rehabilitative measures.

As far as the history of flood prevention works in Indonesia is concerned, no exact evidence that could explain about the fist time since the first flood prevention works was conducted. However, it was noted that on Java Island, the prevention works has increasingly become important since the occurrence of the dreadful flood incident in 1861. At that time, the entire lowland area of South Kedu, even extended to almost the entire part of Central Java’s south-lowland area suffered from severe flood. After the outrageous strike of these floods the Dutch Colonial government conducts the following works: (1) River improvement works; (2) Construction of flood embankments; (3) Construction of two connector canals in the area; and (4) Construction of collector canals/drains. The flood prevention measures were quite effective to resolve the flood problems in the area, however, the problem remain significant in the context of the ability to conduct sustainable maintenance of the flood prevention infrastructures, in addition to the perpetuate over exploitation of upper watershed of the rivers with densely populated middle reach and downstream areas.

The subsequent flood incident occurred in 1902, which has destroyed almost the entire agricultural and residential areas of Demak, in Central Java. To protect the technical irrigation schemes in Demak from flood strike, in 1908, the government constructed a flood diversion weir named Wilalung Floods Diversion Weir. The weir equipped with four spillways located at the upstream of the weir. In addition, this flood diversion weir also used to facilitate irrigation water intake for supplying the Babalan Irrigation areas. Since the completion of this weir, until year 1993 there were no more significant floods incidences as of the flood in 1902.

on January 1993, or about 85 years after the completion of Wilalung Flood Weir, a terrible floods occurred in this area, however, the flood did not bring destructive impacts. Apart from the effectiveness of the Wilalung Flood Weir, the flood also happened just after the completion of “Kedung Ombo” Reservoir in “Serang” River at the same river where the Wilalung Barrage is located, that helped to prevent the flood water from simultaneous strike.


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Learning from the past experiences of flood preventive measures, a number of structural measures have been conducted since the Dutch Colonial Period. Amongst the preventive measures by means of structural approach, the following are the most notable ones: (1) Flood embankment; (2) River improvement works; (3) Collector drains; (4) Flood ways; and (5) Flood diversion weirs.

Under the water resources development program, during the long term development program (1969-1984) quite a large number of flood prevention facilities has been constructed in Indonesia, particularly for preventing the flood prone areas on urban as well as on the agricultural producing areas. The result of which has been significantly preventing almost two million hectares of agricultural as well as residential areas from frequent flood incidents. Learning from the past experience on flood prevention measures, it is apparent that the role of O&M of water resources infrastructures remains the most important determinant factors for the success or failure of sustainable water resources management.

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter VII. Examples Water Resources and Irrigation Development

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CHAPTER VII EXAMPLES WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

DEVELOPMENT

7.1. GENERAL The following section will highlight some specific examples of irrigation development in various provinces. The following provinces are selected: 1) North Sumatra; 2) West Sumatra; 3) Lampung; 4) West Java; 5) Central Java; 6) East Java; 7) Bali; 8) West Nusa Tenggara; Lombok Island; 9) South Kalimantan; and 10) South Sulawesi. In addition to the above selected provinces, examples on groundwater development and on
flood control projects are also presented.
7.2. NORTH SUMATRA PROVINCE

7.2.1. OVERVIEW OF NORTH SUMATRA PROVINCE North Sumatra province is located in the northern part of Sumatra Island. It covers a

2

total area of about 70,787 km , or about 3.69% of Indonesia’s total land area. According to the 2002’s census, the overall population of North Sumatra province was 11,942,000, with average growth rate 1.32% (1990 – 2002). Both of the northern and eastern coast of the provincial topography consisted of vast land plain. In the west coast of the province also consists of large land plain area. In the central part, extends from north to south the ‘Bukit Barisan’ mountain, where ‘Danau Toba’ (Lake Toba) is located. The lake is located at the top center of the province. Irrigation development started as the consecutive process of the previous development of agricultural estates in East Sumatra (East Sumatra is the name for North Sumatra area in the eastern part) during the Dutch Colonial Period.

GENERAL MAP OF NORTH SUMATRA PROVINCE

Banda Aceh

Medan

Pekanbaru Tanjung Pinang

Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung

BandungBanten Semarang

Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Palu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Pa langkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Ternate

Jakarta

Pa lembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



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The development of agricultural estates in East Sumatra has increased demands for agricultural labor, which were mostly come from Java Island as migrant workers. The most well known agricultural products from these estates are tobacco, natural rubber, oil palm, and tea. The tobacco is very famous as wrapper of cigar, and this product was only specially marketed through free auction at the Bremen tobacco market, Germany. The wet rice field area in 2002 was recorded at a total of 471,249 hectares, of which consists of 120,083 hectares of irrigated rice fields, 4,760 hectares of swamp rice fields, and 149,547

1 Technical Irrigation 70,360 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 76,222 3 Simple/Village Irrigation 120,083 4 Rainfed Paddy 149,547 5 Swamp Development Irrigation 29,110

Total 471,249 Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics.

The history of technical irrigation development in the Province of North Sumatra started earlier at the turn of the century (1900s) when the Dutch Colonial Ruler, during the assignment of De Bruin as the Colonial Resident of East Sumatra in Medan. At the inception stage, irrigation development was merely intended for supporting rubber plantation, then, expanded to irrigated paddy field for 50,000 ha in the Simalungun Regency as known today. Having successful with this irrigation development implementation, De Bruin was promoted by the Dutch Colonial Government to be the Director General of Waterstaat in 1905. At present, there currently 329,325 ha of irrigated lands had already been developed in North Sumatra, of which consisted of 132,260 ha of technical irrigation, 135,657 ha semi technical irrigation and some 61,317 ha of simple irrigation. Overall, there are a number of major irrigation schemes in North Sumatra Province. These are Simalungun irrigation scheme with a total area of 49,159 ha, Medan Krio with an area of 1,200 ha, Namu Sira-sira at a total area of 6,350 ha, Batang Gadis with an area of 6,628 ha, Batang Ilung at 4,194 ha, Sungai Ular with a total area of 18,500 ha, Bah Bolon at about 10,065 ha, Paya Sordang at about 3,907 ha, Gido
Zebua at an area of 1,258 ha, Namo Rambe at an area of 1,036 ha, Batang Angkola at a total area of 9,200 ha, and Badiri Lopian with a total area of 1,243 ha.
7.2.2. EXAMPLE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH SUMATRA a) Simalungun Irrigation Scheme Since the implementation of the “Dutch Ethical Policy” (‘ethische politiek’) at the turn of the century, the Dutch Colonial Rule developed a large number of plantations in the eastern coast

hectares of rainfed paddy fields (see Table 7.1. for more detailed information)

Table 7.1. Irrigated Rice Field Area by Irrigation System in North Sumatra Province, 2002

No. Irrigation System Area (ha)



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of the province. The plantations were initially developed in the vicinity of Medan, the capital of town of the province and later on expanded along the eastern coast of province, subsequently to the up-land areas of Simalungun. During that period, it was recorded that there were about 400 commercial agricultural enterprises in the entire part of Simalungun Regency. The required labors, known as the Deli workers (‘werk Deli’), were mobilized from Java Island through the estate based contract and/or irrigation based transmigration program


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(‘migratie’) in line with the implementation of the Dutch Ethical Policy. Some of the workers were also mobilized from Kalimantan Island. The main crops of the agricultural estates were tobacco, rubber, oil palm, and tea. In turns of the contract for labor workers terminated, most of the labor from Kalimantan areas decided to settle permanently in coastal region and developed coastal swamp for agricultural practices for paddy cultivation based on previous experiences they had in the place of origin, which is similar to the coastal swamp land in their home town. The workers who are working for tobacco plantation are allowed to plant rice (dry land rice) on the tobacco land taking the advantage of intermittent to rotational tobacco cropping system (which cultivated on rotational basis for only once within eight years) of tobacco cultivation. In practice, however, almost all of the areas were planted for commercial agricultural enterprises, and hence only limit land areas were available for rice cultivation. Moreover, the soil types were mostly consisted of light soil, which demanding for more irrigation water for paddy cultivation. As the consequences of development of commercial agricultural enterprises without food crops, the demand for food had been increasing sharply. On the other hand, the land area for rice cultivation is limited. These conditions had forced the Colonial Government to import rice from other part of Indonesia for fulfilling the increasing demands. In 1915 it was recorded that the total imported rice was 91,000 ton, which increased to 146,000 ton in 1917 and subsequently increased to about 181,000 ton of rice in 1929. In an attempt to resolve the problem, in 1913 the government developed the ‘Bah Korah’ irrigation area with a command area of 2,700 ha as a pilot project (‘Bah’ in local language means river). This pilot project had been attracted positive attention of the local people to join working at the project. The yield of this pilot scheme was recorded to be quite significant i.e. at about 3.9 ton/ha and subsequently increased to 4.4 ton/ha in 1917. After successfully completing the ‘Bah Korah’ pilot scheme in 1914, the government continued to develop other irrigation areas such as the ‘Panombean’ scheme in 1915, ‘Tiga Balata’ and ‘Dolok Marlawan’ schemes in 1918, and others minor schemes later on. The development continued to be implemented until 1942, as the broken up of war, and immediately after the country’s independence in 1945. Most of the schemes are small schemes (area less than 500 hectares). Some of them have larger areas between 1,000 ha to 3,000 ha. The

total developed areas of this scheme referred to as the ‘Simalungun’ Irrigation Scheme, which covers an area of 30,000 ha just before the work terminated following the War in 1942. After the country’s indepen-dence the project resumed through gradual implementation in line with the availability of resources, and by 1980 the overall areas of Simalungun Irrigation Scheme increased to about 50,000 ha and subsequently redesigned in 1986 to cover a total irrigation command area of about 54,000 ha.

Example of the Bah Korah intake gate, in Simalungun Regency after renovation in 1993


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b) Siauga Parjolo Irrigation Scheme This irrigation scheme is one of the oldest traditional irrigation schemes, constructed in 1885 in North Sumatra having a small irrigation command area of only 30 ha. The command area is located at the vicinity of Tangga Batu Barat village, Balige District, Tobasa Regency, North Sumatra Province.

The water source for this irrigation scheme is diverted from Aek Sidua-dua River through a conveyance canal at a total length of 3,500 m across the undulating topography (as seen in the photograph below). The fact that the irrigation scheme was previously designed for two groups of extended families, the conveyance canal was adjusted accordingly by means of branched the main canal into two parallel canals to avoid potential conflict of irrigation water allocation for the two user group. The conveyance systems were constructed between 1885 and 1889 along the foot of the hill with breccia rock, making the construction works extremely costly. It was only in 1907 the construction work was fully completed. The interesting feature of this irrigation scheme lies on the evidence that the entire construction works were merely conducted by the farmers themselves without any intervention from the government. The construction implementation as well as operation and

management were organized by traditional water user’s association referred to as the Raja Bondar (canal master, in local term). The organization of the Raja Bondar consists of Chairman, Secretary, Treausurer, Ulu-ulu (Ditch tender) as well as Parhara (canal daily worker). The board of organization is subject to annual assignment based on general consensus of the Association members. The board of organization employed irrigation workers for maintaining the schemes. Financial sources of the irrigation operation and The Sipintu-pintu parallel irrigation canals, Siauga Parjolo



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maintenance collected from annual membership fees after harvesting.

c) Bah Bolon Irrigation Scheme The Bah Bolon irrigation scheme is located in the Asahan Regency covering the Districts of Air Putih, Medang Deras and Lima Puluh.

The distinct characteristic of the service area marked with it locality at the lowland river delta, at the convergent of four rivers tributaries of the Bah Bolon, which are Pare-Pare River, Tanjung River, Dalu-Dalu River and Gambus River. The chronological development of the Bah Bolon Irrigation Scheme presents as follows.

irrigation scheme, extended along the foot of the hill of breccia rock at the sloping hill of over 200 m deepness


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In the year 1986 – 1983 Project implementation: - Construction of Headwork/With five intake gates; - Rehabilitation and New Irrigation area at 7,630 ha.

……till 2004 Rehabilitation works as well as development of new irrigation area at Simodong Irrigation Scheme with a total area of 2,435 ha.

d) Namu Sira-sira Irrigation Scheme The Namu Sira-sira irrigation scheme located within two Regencies, namely Langkat Regency and Kota Binjai Municipality with a total command area of 6,350 ha. The water source for this irrigation system is diverted from Bingei river which its upper catchment comes from the Bukit Barisan Mountain. The development phase of Namu Sira-Sira was started in 1961 having budgetary support from local government income and with some contribution from the local farming community. The headwork was initially constructed by means of free intake from the river, followed by a series of improvement works later on. The chronological development of Namu Sira-Sira Irrigation scheme illustrates as follows: In the year 1970 Construction of temporary free intake; 1975 Survey, Investigation and & Technical Design; 1978 Construction of permanent weir (Sekhlist type); 1983 Full completion of headwork’s construction; 1984-1986 Redesigned of irrigation networks; and 1982-1992 Construction of irrigation networks including tertiary irrigation

networks at a total area of 6,300 ha. e) Batang Gadis Irrigation Scheme The Batang Gadis irrigation scheme is located at the South Tapanuli Regency and the Madina Regency at about 500 km distance from Medan, having a total command are of about 6,628 ha. The headwork is located at the Perbaungan Village, Panyabungan District within the distance of about 80 km from Sidempuan Area toward Kotanopan. The water source of this irrigation scheme is diverted from Batang Gadis river, which its upper catchment and spring comes from Mount Kulabu of the Bukit Barisan Mountain vicinity. The headwork of Batang Gadis irrigation scheme consists of two weir crest and a pair of intake gates from left and right sides of the headwork. The chronological development of Batang Gadis Irrigation Scheme illustrates as follows:

In the year 1961 Survey on agricultural potential by the Directorate of Land Uses; and In the year 1973-1976 Model Test for Headwork by the Bandung Water Resources Research

Institute, Ministry of Public Works f) Batang Angkola Irrigation Scheme The Batang Angkola irrigation scheme is located at the District of Batang Angkola, of the South Tapanuli Regency and the Siabu District of the Madina Regency covering about 50 Village Administrations. The water source of this irrigation system is diverted from Batang Angkola River.


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The headwork (weir) is located at the Sayur Matinggi village at about 35 km distance from Padang Sidempuan and about 474 km from the City of Medan. The irrigation system covers a total command area of about 9,200 ha consisted of: • Rainfed paddy field = 6,100 ha; • Orchard = 771 ha; • Swamp area = 1,900 ha; and • Upland dry area = 429 ha.

The chronological development of Batang Angkola Irrigation Scheme illustrates as follows: In the year 1994-1995 Survey, Investigation and design by PT. Isuda Parama Consulting Eng; 1995-1996 Construction Implementation at about 11% completed; 1996-1997 Construction Implementation at about 31% completed; 1997-1998 Construction of headwork at about 61% completed; 1998-1999 Construction of headwork at about 96.20% completed; 1999-2000 Follow up improvement works; and
2000-2001 Follow up improvement works. 7.3. WEST SUMATRA PROVINCE 7.3.1. OVERVIEW OF WEST SUMATRA PROVINCE West Sumatra Province, which also known as Ranah Minang, has the firm customs and traditions, which are well obeyed by all of the community members. The Traditionalists, Religious leaders, Intellectuals, and prominent community members, are extremely respected and obeyed as Community Leaders. The principal of democracy, or discussion to reach consensus or agreement, has long become the community’s philosophy in West Sumatra Province.
The basic philosophy of leaderships is described as follows: “Kayu Gadang di tangah padang, tampek balinduang kapanehan, tampek bataduah kahujanan, ureknyo tampek baselo, batangnyo tampek basanda. Pai tampek batanyo, pulang tampek babarito.” (Literally translated as: Big tree at the center of the field; provides shelter from heat and rain; the root is a place to sit down; the trunk is a place to lean on. A place to ask for those who are going to travel; and a place to present report for those who are returning back.) With regard to management of irrigation system, the underlying respect for traditionalists and tradition per-sé, has been instrumental to maintaining the sustainable principle of togetherness of the Minangese community for developing and managing irrigation schemes. Rice cultivation and its associated irrigation GENERAL MAP OF WEST SUMATRA PROVINCE

Banda Aceh

Medan

Pekanbaru Tan jung Pinang

Pangka l Pinang

Padang

Bengku lu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Pa lu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Pa langkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Ternate

Jakarta

Pa lembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



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technique have been widely known since Hindu era. In this regards, L.C. Westenenk wrote De Minangkabausche Nagari in 1918 (quoted from “Mutiara Terpendam Sistem Pengelolaan Irigasi Tradisional di Sumatera Barat” by John S. Ambler, Center for Irrigation Study, Andalas University, 1990) as follows:

“Dibalah-balah patigo, si Rauik pambalah rotan, Luhak dibagi tigo, Adat dibaginyo salapan, nan ampek tabang ka langik, nan ampek tingga di dunia. Nan ampek tabang ka langik: aso Bulan, duo Mantari, tigo Timua, ampek Salatan. Nan ampek tingga di dunia: Rumah Gadang, Lumbuang Bapereang, Sawah gadang, Banda buatan.”

(Literally translated as: Splited into three, si Raut (a kind of knife) a rattan splitter, an area divided into three; tradition is divided into eight, four of them fly to the sky; four others stay on the earth. The four which flied to the sky were: first is the moon, second is the Sun, third is East, fourth is South. The other four which staid on the earth were: Rumah Gadang (traditional house); a Barn full of Ricel; large rice field; and constructed canals). West Sumatra province is lying in the central part of Sumatra Island. It covers a total land area of 49,778 square kilometers, or about 2.59% of Indonesia’s total land area. Based on population census in 2002, the total population of West Sumatra Province was 4,298,000 people with an annual average growth rate at about 0.63% between 1990 and 2000. Topographical conditions of this area are mostly undulating, ranging from medium to sharp. The plain in the west coast is very narrow. Therefore, it is impossible to develop large scale irrigation scheme in this area, for which, most of irrigation areas are consisted of small scale irrigation schemes. The main crop is paddy, which have been grown by application of irrigation technique for a long time and had been institutionalized, through generations, and yet still currently developing. The overall paddy fields areas in 2002, was noted as 244,406 hectares, consisted of 191,196
hectare of irrigated rice fields, and 53,130 hectare of rainfed paddy field. (See Table 7.2)
Table 7.2. Irrigated Rice Field Areas by Irrigation System, 2002



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No. Irrigation System Area(ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 37,149 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 59,130 3 Simple / Village Irrigation 94,917 4 Rainfed Paddy fields 53,130 5 Swamp Development Irrigation 80 Total 244,406

Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Bureau of Statistics.

Concerning irrigation development and management techniques in West Sumatra, it is evident from the past experiences that the province has a long history on irrigated-agricultural practices. In spite of the long term existence, the absence of historical evidence has not been allowing trace back the chronological existence of irrigation practice in this area, yet irrigation development and management is undoubtedly the most important heritage of Minangkabau Society of West Sumatra Province. Traditional irrigation has been developed quite amazingly, even though the technicality, materials, as well as agricultural practice were still fairly simple. For illustration, in Agam Regency, the local farming community had been managed to build an irrigation weir made of


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more than 6,000 bamboo trees of about eight meters length, with the weir dimension at about five meters height. In the mean time, a gabion weir was also constructed by kaing use of knitted root fiber, in Pasaman Regency. Another example is the simple water power engineering that has been practiced and developed by Minangkabau people since the middle of 14th century. Considering the the generally undulating topographical condition, the people has been quite skillful to application of watermill technique to turn the wheel which is made from bamboo or wood for generating energy for a number of domestic purposes, including rice milling, water lifting, even for household electricity. This water wheel technology had in fact been developed in line with the day to day demands for domestic livelihood, among others, the technique to take the advantage of the circling wheel to lift water from the river to the paddy field of higher location. In this particular example, the rotating bamboo wheel equips with bamboo tubes, set up wit a certain angle at the outer ring in such a way that the tube position allows to capture water from the river every time the tube submerged at the bottom position, then pour out the water to the wooden chamber, and subsequently flows to the paddy field through farm ditch network.

Water wheel Tubes on the rotating wheel



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The basic principle of this water wheel indigenous technology, has in fact, inspired some Indonesian engineers to develop large scale hydraulic pump for water lifting purposes (For example, see Supplement Paper entitled Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir, which demonstrates application of hydraulic pump to lift water from Curug Weir to Tarum Barat Main Canal, in West Java Province.

In spite of the present era modern technology, application of waterwheel for variety of purposes including rice milling, water lifting and grinding are still currently being applied in many areas of West Sumatra Province, including Limapuluh Koto, Solok, and Sawahlunto Sijunjung Regencies. In these regencies, there are still many skilled waterwheel technicians who are available to construct, setup, operate, and maintain on professional basis. Such the waterwheel-technicians could be paid in terms of cash or paid in kind (by means of shared crop production). However, the water discharge lifted by a water wheel is quite limited, therefore a waterwheel (based on research conducted by West Sumatra Provincial Water Resources Services) is only available to lift water at an average of about one per second,


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which convertible to the capacity to irrigate a paddy field area of about 0.7 hectare – and mostly are individually or privately owned. Another distinct characteristic of irrigated agricultural heritage in West Sumatra is the Paraku with Irigasi Takuak traditional irrigation management system which is still practiced today (see the detailed description in Supplement paper entitled Traditional Irrigation Heritage in West Sumatra). In principle Paraku is diversion structure that is made of grooved wooden bar installed across the canal. Takuak in Minang Language means groove cuts. Paraku has takuak as many clusters as the land plot that would be irrigated. The groove dimensions is subject to mutual decision through irrigation institution called Tuo Banda. Tuo Banda also stands for the Chairman who is responsible to conduct operation and maintenance of irrigation scheme. As the Chairman, the Tuo Banda is appointed by Ninik Mamak (informal leaders) and the Penghulu (Ethnic Group Leader). The Tuo Banda must be an experienced farmer who has a leadership capacity, honest, committed, sense of responsibility. To supervise Tuo Banda, Ninik Mamak and Penghulu appoint one Penghulu Tepatan (Coordinator) in every Nagari (equivalent to a Village). Tuo Banda must take care of the canal maintenance, and the beginning of every planting season, to coordinate farmers who are obligated to participate in the program to maintain irrigation infrastructure, especially to maintain Kapalo Banda (Weir) and main system. This rule is obeyed by all farmers, no matter how big their rice field is. Violation of the agreed rule by any one, such as water stealing, is subject to customary punishment by Penghulu Tepatan otherwise, violator could be expelled from the community. Related to this punishment, there is a local expression used by Minangese people for that sanction as follows:

“Kaateh indak bapucuak, kabawah indak baurek, ditangah digiriak kumbang”.

(Literally translated as: The top above without shoot; below under without root; and stem in the middle drilled by the beetle). Which meant, that anyone who got customary punishment would no longer had any appreciation from the community – like the tree which will soon die.

Since 1982, Tuo Banda institution under the Governor’s Decree no. 77/GSB/1982, Tuo Banda became part of P3A (Water User Association). In this decree the position of Tuo Banda has
been transformed into a member of Management Board of P3A.
7.3.2. EXAMPLE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT IN WEST SUMATRA

a) Batang Mimpi Irrigation Scheme The development of this irrigation scheme with intake structure was completed 1826 by the



149

Dutch Colonial Government. To support (Compulsory Agriculture Policy), the Dutch Government construct a weir in ‘Mimpi’ River, Darmasraya Regency, about 200 km from Padang, the capital town of West Sumatra Province. At the beginning, this weir was constructed as a very simple structure. The purpose was to irrigate 350 hectares of tobacco belonged to the Dutch Land Lord. With subsequent improvement and rehabilitation, this weir is still currently being well maintained until now. When independence war was over in 1950, ‘Batang Mimpi’ weir didn’t receive enough attention from the government, which caused the weir severely damaged.

MSRI and INACID Chapter VII. Examples Water Resources and Irrigation Development
150

Batang Mimpi Weir (2004) Inscription at Batang Mimpi weir stated of its construction completion in 1826

Rehabilitation of weir and irrigation networks were conducted firstly in PELITA-I (1969) and completed in 1992. Following the rehabilitation work, the irrigation area of Batang Mimpi was gradually expanded. In 1992, it covered some 739 hectares of paddy field. At the same time in1992, the government also included the scheme into rehabilitation, up-grading, and extension program to expand the command area into 1,034 hectares of paddy fields.

Under the most recent irrigation development program, some of the service area Batang Mimpi irrigation scheme will be incorporated into the Batang Hari newly developed irrigation scheme. After the entire area of Batang Hari irrigation networks become functioned, the Batang Mimpi irrigation scheme area would only serve 295 hectare irrigation command area, (see item c); more explanation about Batang Hari Irrigation Area).

b) Batang Selo Irrigation Scheme Batang Selo Irrigation scheme is located approximately five km north of ‘Batu Sangkar’, capital city of Tanah Datar Regency, or about 120 km from Padang, the Capital City of West Sumatera Province. This irrigation system was built by mutually by the community of three sub-districts in 1931. The canal alignment extends along the breccia rocks, so as the canal excavation by manual worker was extremely difficult, and yet only serving an area of 30 ha.
Since the Selo River was the only source of surface water to irrigate the three sub-districts,


150

Sand Trap Batang Selo Weir


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151

therefore, in 1957 the community continued to develop this scheme. Through strenuous efforts, the community members were managed to excavate 5.5 km of canal and rehabilitate the weir, free intake and the existing canal, and expanding the irrigation command area to a total of 150 ha. The subsequent support from the government the former weir structure was replaced with gabion, but the canal rehabilitation was still conducted by the farmers. In addition, between 1982 and 1990 extension of irrigation areas was continued, and the government provided financial assistance to extend the area to 705 ha, including 85 hectares of pumping scheme at the tail end of the main canal. During which, the gabion weir was replaced with broad crested type of weir by wrapping the old gabion weir with concrete.

c). Batang Hari Irrigation Scheme Batang Hari Irrigation scheme is located in Dharmasraya Regency, about 200 km eastward of Padang, the capital of the province. This project is located closed to Sitiung transmigration

Table 7.3. Batang Hari Irrigation Area

settlement from Wonogiri, Central Java. The Sitiung District is located close to the border of West Sumatra and Jambi Provinces. The total command area is 18,936 ha, including 2,555 hectares located in Jambi Province. Before this project was started, there were already three irrigation areas, in the vicinity areas, namely Batang Mimpi. Palangko-Piruko, and Siat Irrigation schemes. Because of the limitation of structural capacity, canal, and water resources, parts of the areas are currently incorporated to Batang Hari Irrigation Scheme. Scenic view of Batang Hari weir, (2004)



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No Name of Scheme Before Project (ha)

After Project (ha)

1 Batang Mimpi Irrigation 1,070 295 2 Palangko-Piruko Irrigation 5,629 725 3 Siat Irrigation 7,017 2,645 4 New Area 0 15,271 Total 13,716 18,936

Source: West Sumatra Province Water Resources Development Services.

With this project, the cropping intensity is currently projected to be about 230%, and the cropping pattern will be paddy-paddy-and-palawija (secondary crops). At present, the construction of weir, part of irrigation network, and land development have been completed. All of these works are scheduled to be completed in 2006.


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7.4. LAMPUNG PROVINCE

7.4.1. OVERVIEW OF LAMPUNG PROVINCE Lampung province is a vast located in the southern part of Sumatra Island. It covers area at a total

of 35,384 square kilometers, or

The total irrigated area (which categorized into technical and

semi technical) by administrative coverage in the province of Lampung is about 263,256 ha of potential area or about 200,600 ha of functional irrigation areas, scattered over eight regencial administrations including the inter-regency irrigation areas, operated and managed by the provincial irrigation services. The distribution of irrigation by regency as follows: (1) South Lampung Regency at a total of 24,090 ha; (2) Tanggamus Regency at about 19,225 ha; (3) Central Lampung Regency at about 25,343 ha; (4) East Lampung Regency at about 15,579 ha; (5) North Lampung at about 3,758 ha; (6) Tulang Bawang Regency at about 25,401 ha; (7) Way Kanan Regency at about 5,854 ha; and West Lampung at about 2,376 ha. Apart from these regencies, the inter-regency irrigation areas, which managed by Provincial authority, consists of the Sekampung Scheme at a total area of 58,783 ha, and the Way Rarem Scheme at a total area of about 20,191 ha.

GENERAL MAP OF LAMPUNG PROVINCE

Table 7.4. Irrigated Rice Field Area by Irrigation Type, 2002

1.87% of Indonesia’s total area. 2002 population was 6,889,000 people with an average growth rate 1.17% (1990 – 2002). East coast topography of the province is plain. In the west coast lies a narrow plain area. In the central to west part, there is Bukit Barisan Mountain with steep slope southward. The wet rice field area in 2002 noted as 176,457 hectares, consists of 165,489 hectares of irrigated rice field, 10,968 hectares of tidal swamp and polder paddy field, and 95,316 hectares of rainfed paddy field (see Table 7.2. for more detailed information)

Banda Aceh

Medan

Pekanbaru Tan jung Pinang

Pangka l Pinang

Padang

Bengku lu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Pa lu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Pa langkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Ternate

Jakarta

Pa lembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



152

No. Irrigation Type Area (ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 102,174 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 20,511 3 Simple/Village Irrigation 42,804 4 Rainfed Paddy 95,316 5 Tidal Swamp and others Irrigation 50,007 Total 310,812 Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Bureau of Statistics.


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7.4.2. Example of Irrigation System Development in Lampung Province. a) Early irrigation development in Tanggamus Regency: There are actually a number of

major irrigation schemes in
Lampung Province, including the large scheme, small and medium schemes, including the village irrigation schemes. Among the major schemes are located in Tanggamus Regency which was started in the vicinity of Gedong Tataan area in 1916, during the Dutch Colonial Area, including the Way Payung in Kota Agung, which was constructed in 1916, followed by the extension to Gading Rejo area in 1925 and Pringsewu area in 1928. The Dutch Colonial Government continued to pursue Headwork of Way Payung Irrigation Scheme at Kota


153

irrigation development by promoting irrigated paddy cultivation at the Way Semah

and followed by the extension in Padang Ratu Area.

Beside these technical irrigations, some irrigation area also developed through the own initiative of the farmers, the weir at the major rivers were supported by the government, while the irrigation networks developed by the farmers themselves. This category later defined as semi technical irrigation schemes.

Upon the success in the development of these irrigation schemes, the Dutch Colonial Government then continue to seek for irrigation extension beyond the vicinity of Gedong Tataan, as most of the suitable potentials were already developed. The result of the study then recommend to extend the irrigation based agricultural implementation in Sukadana Area, referred to by the Dutch as the “Colonisatie Sukadana”

b) Irrigation development in Central Lampung: The history of irrigation development in Central Lampung Regency is traceable to 1935 since the development of Argoguruh Weir located at the largest river in Lampung Province, the Way Sekampung River having a total catchment area of 2,150 km2 at the Argoguruh Weir. At the first stage, the weir was intended to irrigate an area of 10,000 ha, of secondary forest areas of the Punggur and the Raman Area. However the intake capacity was already designed for 25 m3/second for irrigating a total area of 25,000 bahus (0.7 ha/bahu). In 1936 the government decided to expand the intake capacity to be 35 m3/second for the providing irrigation water supplies for irrigation schemes at the downstream areas. With increasing demand for expanding irrigation area toward Punggur Utara Area, at the down stream, in 1968 the intake capacity of the Argoguruh Weir was further enlarged to 54 m3/second.

Agung, Tenggamus Regency constructed in 1916 during the Dutch Time (After Rehabilitated in 1990’s)


History in Brief 154

In order to provide a secure water supply for the entire area, several reservoir alternatives were planned at the upstream site of the Way Sekampung River. However, the planned was never realized due to severe economic crisis, and due to the war. The construction of Batu Tegi Reservoir, as one of the most feasible alternatives, was then started in 1990’s and successfully completed in 2004 after the idea had been launched in 1950’s or almost 50 years later.

The old main intake of Argoguruh Weir, constructed in 1935, at the background is the extended intake,

constructed in 1968

c) The Batanghari Utara Irrigation Scheme: This scheme was actually designed to supply water by utilizing the excess water form the Way Sekampung Scheme, and the feasibility study was completed in 1940. The weir itself was constructed in 1953 at the Gedong Dalam site, popularly known today as the Garongan Dam. The official inauguration of the dam was conducted at the site inspection of Drs. Mohammad Hatta, the first vice president of the Republic of Indonesia. The total irrigation commading area of Batanghari Utara Scheme is

The Spillway at the Garongan Dam for Batanghari Utara Irrigation Scheme, completed in 1953 for irrigating a total



154

5,817 ha.

d) The Raman Utara Irrigation scheme: Parallel with Batanghari Utara Irrigation Scheme, the Raman Utara was also designed to supply water for transmigration settlement at the downstream irrigation area by using the excess water from Way Sekampung Scheme, and the feasibility study as well as technical design was completed in 1939. For the same reason, the construction was postponed, and the transmigration settlement was conducted in 1955, and completed in 1958, totaling 2,871 families or 12,308 persons. The Weir at the Raman River was constructed in 1958, however, the construction implementation was hampered by the scarcity of Portland cement, and hence, the completion of the weir delayed for more than a year. The development of Raman Utara Irrigation Scheme was only completed in 1969, and inaugurated by the Governor of Lampung Province.

area of 5,817 ha

155

The headwork of Raman Utara Irrigation Scheme,

completed in 1955 for irrigating a total area of 5,096 ha

e) Punggur Utara Irrigation Scheme: The most dominant extension of Way Sekampung Irrigation Scheme was carried out in Punggur Utara Scheme at the downstream area of the Sekampung-Rumbia land plain. The irrigation exension was conducted by enlarging the

Punggur Utara secondary canal from a command area of 1,700 ha to a total command area of 25,353 ha. As the construction implementation of Punggur Utara completed in 1975, the overall command area of the Way Sekampung area became 60,000 ha having the following elaboration: (1) Sekampung Irrigation Scheme at 21,500 ha; (2) Raman Utara Irrigation Scheme at 6,259 ha; (3) Batanghari Utara Irrigation Scheme at about 7,000 ha, and Punggur Utara Irrigation scheme with a command area of 25,353 ha.

The Control Structure at the main canal of Punggur Utara Irrigation Scheme, with a command area of 25,353 ha



155

f) Way Seputih Irrigation Scheme: This irrigation had actually been planned since before the Second World War under the irrigation based transmigration settlement referred to as the Bandarjaya Transmigration Settlement, covering a total area of about 38,000 ha. The transmigration settlement was officially concluded in 1954 by dividing the area into two major parts, taking the National Road as the boundary between the two parts. The Western part refers to as the Seputih Bandarjaya, covering an area of 10,000 ha (settled by 4,294 transmigrant families with 12 villages, while the eastern part refers to as the Seputih Mataram Transmigartion settlement, covering an area of about 28,000 ha. The first stage of Way Seputih Scheme was developed for 10,000 ha, followed later to be 25,000 ha with “Golongan


History in Brief

156

System” or only available to irrigate 17,750 ha by continuous flow irrigation system without “Golongan”. The headwork of the Way Seputih, with a command area

g) Way Rarem Irrigation Scheme: The Way Rarem Dam takes it water from Rarem River through a dam called Way Rarem Dam, with a total irrigation command area of about 22,000 ha located within two regencies, namely North Lampung and Tulang Bawang Regency – previously only under the North Lampung Regency. Construction execution for Way Rarem

of 25,000 ha

Irrigation scheme was started in 1980, with construction of Way Rarem Dam as the second dam in Lampung after the Way Jepara dam in East Lampung Regency. With a total capacity of 22.20 m3/second, this irrigation scheme designs for a total irrigation command area of 22,000 ha having a total major canal length at 63.50 km. The irrigation area at the vicinity of Abung area was previously resettled with transmigrants from Java in between 1963 and 1964. The overall phase of construction implementation was only completed in 1984, marked with the official inauguration by Soeharto, the president of the Republic of

The Spillway at the Way Rarem Dam for Way Rarem Irrigation Scheme, completed in 1981 for irrigating a total



156

Indonesia. h) Way Semangka Irrigation Scheme: The Semangka irrigation scheme is located in the District of Wonosobo, Tanggamus Regency, with a total command area of about 1,550 ha. The construction implementation was started in 1974 with a free intake from Way Semangka River. The location of this irrigation scheme is somewhat geologically sensitive being adjacent with the Semangka Geological Fault. And with the loose soil along the main canal at the east foot of Bukit Barisan Ridge, the downstream channels often suffered from heavy

command area of 22,000 ha


History in Brief



157

157

sedimentation. To avoid occasional problems of sedimentation and debris, the main channel was modified into a close conduit, however, other problem became apparent when the local people continuously excavate sand and boulder for construction materials at the vicinity of Way Semangka weir. Hence the weir had been in jeopardy, till a groundsill was constructed at the downstream of the weir in 1994, then the weir became stabilized, and the water could even be utilized during the dry season. i) Way Curup Irrigation Scheme: The Way Curup irrigation scheme with a total command area of 5,323 ha is located in the District of Jepara, East Lampung Regency, with the water resources comes from the Kemuning Lake at the downstream site. The construction implementation was started in 1979 with a free intake from Way Curup River. The location of this irrigation scheme is often suffered from heavy sedimentation as well landslide. To avoid occasional problems of sedimentation and landslide, the main channel was modified into a piped scheme for about 1,254 ha. In 2004 a rehabilitation and reconstruction work was conducted in the Curup Scheme to maintain appropriate function of the scheme. After the rehabilitative works conducted, then the weir became stabilized, and the water could be utilized at the maximum extent. j) Rawa Seragi Irrigation/Drainage Lowland scheme: The Rawa Seragi Irrigation and Drainage scheme with a total command area of 23,000 ha is located in the District of Palas, South Lampung Regency, with the water resources comes from the inland swamp with appropriate drainage control making this area a lot more prospective than other irrigation scheme in the vicinity area. The majority of population in this irrigation scheme was originally resettled under the transmigration program. The construction was initiated in 1974-1975 by constructing flood protection levees along the downstream of Way sekampung at the Way Pisang Site. By 1978 the overall development of the Rawa Seragih was constructed by reclaiming the lowland areas and swamps at the Rawa Seragi I, II, III, and IV. In the 1997 and 1998’s Fiscal year, further extension of the Rawa Seragi Scheme was conducted by constructing the Jabung Rubber Weir at Way Sekampung Site for a total command area of 7,700 ha from the Right Main Canal of the Sekampung River. k) Rawa Mesuji-Tulang Bawang (Jitu, Pitu): The Rawa Mesuji-Tulang Bawang (Jitu, Pitu) Irrigation and Drainage scheme with a total command area of 20,000 ha is located in the Tulang Bawang Regency, with the water resources comes from the inland swamp with appropriate drainage control for supporting the previously implemented lowland irrigation and drainage control in other part of the province. The majority of population in this irrigation scheme was originally resettled under the transmigration program as well as the local transmigration settlement. The construction was initiated in 1984-1985 by constructing flood protection levees and drainage channel, which affected by tidal water. In the 1988 and 1989’s Fiscal Year, further extension of the Mesuji-Tulang Bawang scheme was further conducted by constructing the Rawa Pidada Tulang Bawang at an area of 11,100 ha as well as 20,730 at the Mesuji Atas scheme in 1991-1992 Fiscal Year. At the initial stage, the scheme encountered by socio-economic problems having the fact that the local transmigrants were not used to lowland farming. However, through time, adaptation to tidal swamp farming become internalized. The project will be further improved by constructing of flood control levees along the frequently overflow at the top bank of Tulang Bawang-Mesuji river. l) Batu Tegi Dam: The idea of dam construction at Batu Tegi site had actually been evident since the Dutch Colonial time, however, the feasibility study was only completed in 1990’s. The construction execution was started in the fiscal year of 1995-1996 at the upstream site of


area of 424km2. With the completion of this dam in 2004, there are currently three dams operate in Lampung Province. Beside for supporting irrigation scheme, the Batu Tegi dam also equips with hydro-electric generator at the capacity of 2 x 14 MW, also for providing drinking water for Bandar Lampung City at about 2,000 liter per second, 200 liter/second for the Metro Municipality, as well as 50 liter per second for Branti and Natar of the airport vicinity. The dam also functions
as flood control, water based tourism and inland fisheries.
7.5. WEST JAVA PROVINCE

7.5.1. OVERVIEW OF WEST JAVA PROVINCE Total land area of this province is 46,300 km2, equivalent to about 2.41% of entire land area of Indonesia area (before divided


158

the Way Sekampung River (about 60 km upstream form the existing Argoguruh weir. The dam itself is located at the Village of Way Harong, Pulau panggung District, Tanggamus Regency. The dam serves a total irrigation command area, the already constructed irrigation scheme of 66,573 ha (previously only 43,588 ha without dam). The effective storage capacity of this dam is about 690 million m3, with crest elevation at +274 m (MSL), 21 km2 inundated area, dam height at 120 m from river bottom, with a catchment

Batu Tegi Dam, at the upper reach of Way Sekampung River, providing water storage to be diverted downstream

to Argoguruh Weir, March 2004

into two provinces i.e. West Java and Banten Provinces). The population in 2002 was 37,157,000 people (not including Banten Province) with 2.3% of annual average growth rate between 1990 and 2000. This is the oldest provinces in Indonesia, established by the Dutch Colonial Government in GENERAL MAP OF WEST JAVA PROVINCE

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Palu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Terna te

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



158

1925, followed by Central Java and East Java Provinces in 1926. At that time, the West Java Province covers the tip of westward of Central Java to Cisanggarung River in the eastern part of Cirebon Town. Since 2000, this province has been divided into two, namely Banten Province in the western part and West Java Province itself.


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The northern part of the province consists of fertile plain while the central part southward to the sea also consists of a vast fertile upland area. Very large irrigated agricultural land lies in the north plain, while in upland part (hilly area) a large number of medium and small scale irrigation systems are scattered over the area. The major crops of the community are rice and

1. Technical Irrigation 373,695 2. Semi Technical Irrigation 125,278 3. Simple Irrigation/Village Irrigation 250,855 4. Groundwater Irrigation N.A 5. Other Irrigation (swamp, polder) 1,398 6. Rainfed 161,859

Total 913,355 Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics

The rice field area in 2002 was noted at 913,355 ha consisted of 750,098 ha of irrigated paddy field, 161,859 ha of rainfed paddy field and 1,398 ha others irrigated rice fields (swamp,
lowlands). See Table 7.5 above:
7.5.2. EXAMPLES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT IN WEST JAVA

a) Rentang Irrigation Scheme Rentang irrigation scheme takes water from Cimanuk River through intake structure named Rentang Barrage. The entire irrigation area covers some 90,000 hectares, the largest irrigation

palawija (secondary crops).

Table 7.5. Irrigated rice field area by irrigation types in 2002

No. Irrigation System Area (ha)

area in Indonesia served by one weir. This irrigation scheme was previously developed as simple small scale irrigation scheme and then developed into technical irrigation scheme later on. Rentang Irrigation area consists of three main areas, i.e.: i) Cipelang Irrigation Sceme with an area of 31,000 ha; ii) Sindupraja Irrigation Scheme with an area of 38,000 ha; and iii)

Gegesik Irrigation Scheme with an area of about 21,000 ha. The history of Rentang Irrigation scheme started in 1840, when a group of person from local community developed irrigation system on the right bank of Cimanuk River which was later named Sindupraja Irrigation Scheme. The irrigation water for this area was supplied from Cikeruh River, Cimanuk tributary by constructing a simple earth weir across the river and flowed through Sindupraja canal. In 1847, the colonial government constructed a free

Scenic view of Rentang Barrage (2004)

159


History in Brief



160

160

intake on the right bank of Cimanuk River. The Cipelang irrigation system was constructed on the left bank of Cimanuk River by diverting water from Cipelang River. In 1846 a wooden framed weir was constructed to replace Cikeruh earth weir, but it wasn’t last long. The new weir was constructed in the downstream of Cikeruh earth weir. In 1855, the wooden framed weir was totally collapsed.

In 1891, the free intake in Cikeruh River was constructed in order to replace the damaged Cikeruh Weir. This intake was built in the upstream of Cikeruh Weir included a connector canal from the new free intake to Sindupraja Canal.

In 1912, Rentang weir was constructed upstream of Rentang free intake and completed in 1917. The development and extension of irrigation networks were undertaken continuously to cover the entire command area of 90,000 hectares. The full development was completed in 1940, or 100 years since after the community started the construction work. In the subsequent PELITA-II the government constructed the new Rentang Barrage and completed in 1982.

b) Mentereng-Ciberes Irrigation Scheme This irrigation area is located in north-coast of West Java in the eastern part, and become the boundary of West Java to Central Java Province. The name of this irrigation area is derived from the name of two irrigation schemes; Mentereng Irrigation scheme with a command area of 7,700 ha and Ciberes Irrigation scheme with a command area of 3,030 ha; so that the total irrigation area of Mentereng-Ciberes area is 10,730 ha. The development of this irrigation scheme was firstly started in 1840, when the Head of Kuningan Regency constructed the Kuningan weir in order to irrigate the paddy field located in Cirebes Irrigation Area. In the same year, in 1840, Head of Cirebon Regency also constructed a free intake structure in Cisanggarung River and Mentereng main canal to irrigate Mentereng irrigation area. In 1878, in order to support the irrigation needs of Dutch Sugarcane plantation, government constructed the permanent weir called Mentereng Weir. Even though this weir was permanent, but the irrigation networks were still with simple scheme. In 1904, the government took over the management of Mentereng Irrigation scheme and conducted rehabilitation as well as upgrading of the existing scheme so that by 1924 all the schemes hade been up-graded to technical irrigation scheme. The main water source is Cisanggarung River and Ciberes River. Mentereng irrigation is supported by Mentereng Weir in Cisanggarung River, whereas Ciberes Irrigation is supplied by Ciberes River through two weirs, i.e. Ambit Weir and Cangkuang Weir. As the need of water for the sugarcane plant increased, three reservoirs were built, these were: i) Sedong Reservoir, completed in 1921; ii) Setupatok Reservoir, completed in 1924; and iii) Dharma Reservoir, construction started in 1938, but halted because of the World War II, resumed again in 1957 and completed in 1962. These reservoirs are the main water sources for Mentereng-Ciberes Irrigation Area and its surrounding areas.

c) Cihea Irrigation Scheme Cihea Irrigation system is a medium scale irrigation system having a command area of 6,140 ha which is located in a highland area of Cianjur Regency and recognized as the first irrigation scheme in West Java built by Dutch Colonial Government. The development of Cihea Irrigation Scheme was started in 1891 right after the establishment of Water Resources


History in Brief

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and Irrigation Services within the Public Works Department and completed nine years later i.e. in 1900. However, there were some areas which were not included in the 1891 development. The said areas covered by extension program which was completed in 1910. Due to undulated highland, Cihea Irrigation network has many drop structures, steep canal, and three irrigation tunnels with the total length of 981 meters altogether. The Water source of this irrigation command area is supplied from Cisokan River, a tributary of Citarum River, which considered as the largest river in West Java where the three cascading large reservoirs are located (see Supplement Paper entitled: Jatiluhur Multi Purposed Reservoir).

d) Walahar Irrigation Scheme Walahar Irrigation Scheme located in northern plain of West Java known as Karawang Plain, as a part of the Jatiluhur irrigation area. It covers 80,000 hectares of irrigated agricultural land which is recognized as the second largest irrigation area in Indonesia after Rentang Irrigation scheme (see Supplement entitled Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir). In 1930, immediately after the so called Java War, the Dutch Colonial Government sold all the agricultural lands at northern part of West Java to private sectors excluded the Karawang Plain. However, there were nor records concerning the reason why this plain was not sold. For some time, there was a doubt in developing this area due to some difficulties in diverting water from the large Citarum River. Nevertheless, it was evident that local farmers, have developed part of the area for irrigated agricultural land mainly for paddy field. The areas which were developed by the farmers were: 1) Right bank of Citarum River, was developed by diverting water from the river through wooden pipes. In 1905 the government constructed a masonry gated free intake to irrigate 4,600 hectares of land. A canal was also constructed named Sasak Canal. After development of Walahar scheme, this area incorporated to Walahar area as a secondary block and the free intake was closed. 2) Waduk Kemojing Irrigation scheme; Local people have developed soil embankment across the river channel forming ponds/small reservoir since long time ago. They built such small reservoir in Cikarang Gelam River, a small river flowing in the area, to irrigate 4,260 hectares, but only about 50% was managed to be well irrigated. After completion of Jatiluhur

Irrigation Scheme and Curug Weir, the whole area of this Kemojing cheme was incorporated in the commanded area of West Tarum Canal. 3) Lemah Abang Swamp Irrigation; Lemah Abang swamp formed by over-topping of Ciherang Nungali River. Water from the swamp used by the farmers for irrigation. In 1905, at the same time of construction of Sasak Canal, this swamp land was improved. The improvement works including embankment,

Bird’s eye view of the Walahar Barrage



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construction of spillway, and gates. After improvement, some 4,260 hectares of paddy field became fully irrigated. Later, after completion of the whole of the Walahar Irrigation Scheme development, this area was incorporated into Walahar Scheme.

4) Cilamaya Irrigation Scheme; This area lies in the eastern part of Karawang Plain. The local farmers had previously constructed a number of simple weirs in this are. Even water supply was not well regulated and always threatened by flood the simple weirs were able to supply irrigation water for 12,800 hectares of paddy fields. In 1920, the government implemented the Development of Cilamaya Irrigation Scheme by constructing a weir in Citarum River as indicated by original design. Later, during the construction implementation, the weir was changed to a barrage.

All areas indicated in point 1) and point 3) above and some newly developed areas having a
total command area of 80,000 hectares were incorporated altogether under the service area of Walahar Irrigation Scheme.
7.6. CENTRAL JAVA PROVINCE

7.6.1. OVERVIEW OF CENTRAL JAVA Central Java Province has a total area of 34,206 km2, equivalent to about 1.78% of the entire land area of Indonesia. Population in 2002 was 31,786,000 people with an annual average growth rate of 0.94% within 1990 to 2000.

This province is one of the oldest provinces in Indonesia, established by the Dutch Colonial Government in 1926, at the same time with East Java Province. Central Java Province covers most of the central parts of Java Island except Yogyakarta Special Administrative Province. The west boundary is West Java Province, and east boundary is East Java Province. In the southern part, Central Java is bordered by Yogyakarta Special Administrative Territory.

Most of the northern part of this province consists of fertile land plain. From the central part
to the sea in the south consists of fertile upland area. This hilly area has medium and small scale irrigation schemes. From central part northward to the Java Sea, large paddy fields are expanded over the area.
The total area of paddy field in 2002 was 985,810 hectares consisted of 709,751 hectares of irrigated paddy fields, 273,973 hectare of rainfed areas, and 2,086 ha of others irrigated paddy field such as swamps and lowlands. See Table 7.6. for further details below. GENERAL MAP OF CENTRAL JAVA

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Pa lu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Terna te

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



162



No. Irrigation System Area (ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 390,147 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 124,532 3 Simple / Village Irrigation 195,072 4 Ground Water Irrigation *) N.A. 5 Other Irrigation 2,086 6 Rainfed Irrigation 273,973 Total 985,810

Source: Agricultural Survey, Central Board of Statistics, 2002 *) Referring to Irrigation Primary Data 2000, Central Java Provincial Government, there were

650 well-pumps to irrigate 16,307 ha of paddy field. With regards to water storage facilities, the Central Java Province has a large number of dams and Setu (small reservoir popularly called field reservoir). There are 39 reservoirs in the entire province, with various capacities, starts from 136,000 m3, to the largest of 730,000,000 m3. The largest reservoir is Wonogiri Dam located in the famous Bengawan Solo River. There are 176 setus/field reservoirs, in the province. The capacity of which varied from 1,000 m3 to 550,000 m3. Most of these setus are used for irrigation and some others are used for domestic

3

No. Name of Reservoir Name of River (10-6 m3) Year of Construction

1. Malahayu Kabuyutan 60 1932-1937 2. Cacaban Cacaban Wetan 90 1952-1958 3. Rawa Pening Tuntang 45 1936-1938 4. Kedung Ombo Lusi/Serang 723 1985-1991 5. Wonogiri Bengawan Solo 730 1976-1981 6. Mrica/Sudirman Serayu 137 1981-1989 7. Sempor Glagah 52 1974-1978 8. Wadas Lintang Badegolan 443 1982-1988
Source: Central Java Provincial Water Resources Service, 2002
7.6.2. EXAMPLE OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN CENTRAL JAVA

a) Semarang-Demak-Kudus Plain Irrigation Schemes Irrigation schemes in this area consist of five systems. These are: i) Glapan scheme, ii) Sedadi Scheme, iii) Weduk Scheme, iv) Babalan Scheme, and v) East Semarang Scheme.

Table 7.6. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation Type, 2002

water supplies as well. Table 7.7 lists reservoirs with the capacity of more than 40M m .

Table 7.7. List of reservoirs in Central Java with the capacity of more than 40 million m3

Capacity



163

The first two scheme, i.e. Glapan and Sedadi Schemes are highlighted below:

1) Glapan Irrigation Scheme After famine disasters in 1848/1849, the Colonial Government gave special thought about a program to increase food production in the area. In 1852, four years after such famine disaster, the Dutch Colonial government constructed a weir in Tuntang River, named Glapan Weir, taking the name of the village where the weir is located. Besides construction of weir,


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two main canals were also constructed i.e. East Glapan Main Canal to irrigate some 10,700 hectares of land, and West Glapan Main Canal to irrigate some 5,000 hectares of paddy field. This weir was the first weir constructed by the Dutch Colonial Government in Central Java. In 1859/1860 Glapan Irrigation Scheme was completed and fully operated. Meanwhile, development of irrigation

scheme was not covered the drainage scheme, so that the development of Glapan Irrigation

Scenic view of Glapan Weir

Scheme was not achieving the main objective i.e. to increase food production. It was not surprise that other famine disasters occurred again in 1872, causing tens of thousands of people died of starvation during the time. In an attempt to maintain constant productivity of the scheme, immediately after independence, the Government of Indonesia undertook the first rehabilitation works within the period of PELITA-I and PELITA-II i.e. between 1969 and 1979, followed by the second rehabilitation program between 1987 and 1990.

2) Sedadi Irrigation Scheme After a series of rehabilitative and improvement works, today the total area of Sedadi Irrigation Scheme is currently 21,330 hectares, consists of three sub-schemes i.e.: i) Upper Serang with an area of 4,700 hectares; ii) Tuntang-Serang with an area of 10,180 hectares; and iii) Lower Serang with a command area of 6,430 hectares. It was reported that ten years after the 1872’s famine disaster, i.e. in 1882, the Dutch Colonial Government prepared a plan named Demaksche Werken (Demak Irrigation Project), which consisted of: i) Improvement/up-grading of East Glapan Irrigation Scheme; ii) Development of Sedadi Irrigation Scheme; iii) development of Weduk Irrigation Scheme; iv) Flood control and drainage improvement in Demak Plain; and v) Lower Serang River Improvement works.

MSRI and INACID Cover List of ContentHistory in Brief

In 1908, a flood diversion weir was constructed in Serang River to divert flood water from

Sedadi Weir Main Canal Intake

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Serang River to Babalan River and to irrigate Babalan Irrigation area as a part of Sedadi Scheme. After the completion of Kedung Ombo Reservoir, Babalan scheme incorporated into Kedung Ombo commad areas served by Klambu Barrage. See section 7.12. Illustrating further details about flood control works. Sedadi Irrigation Scheme and Wedung Irrigation Scheme receive water from Serang River through Sedadi Weir and a free intake. In case of inadequate water source available in Serang River to irrigate those two systems, a canal was constructed to connect East Glapan Main Canal described in 1) above and Sedadi Main Canal. This was considered as a type of inter-basin transfer from Tuntang River to River Serang.

b) Pemali-Comal Irrigation Scheme The Pemali-Comal Irrigation Scheme lies in the north coast of western part of Central Java Provinces from Cisanggarung River in the west to east of Pekalongan Town in the east. There are a number of rivers flowing in the area; the largest are Pemali River and Comal River. This was the reason why the Pemali-Comal term was used for the name of the scheme. The scheme consists of 11 sub-schemes and a number of small scale schemes as listed in Table 7.8. below:

Table 7.8. Irrigation sub-schemes in Pemali-Comal Irrigation Scheme



165

Year of Construction No. Name of Sub-System Area (ha) Intake Canals

1. Jangkok 7,135 1910 2. Kabuyutan 3,913 1905 3. Babakan 2,723 1904 4. Pemali 30,793 1905 5. Kumisik 7,140 1924 6. Gung 18,431 1930 7. Rambut 8,666 1905 8. Waluh 8,484 1888 1890 9. Comal 9,429 1900

10. Genteng Sragi 12,593 1909 1920 11. Sengkarang 11,802 1900 12. Small Scale 4,711

Total 126,000 Source: Ir. Subandi Wirosumarto, 1997/1998; The Chronological Proces of Water Resources

Development in Indonesia The subsequent irrigation development in this area was conducted to fulfill irrigation demands for the Dutch sugarcane plantation. In this context the local people have previously constructed their own irrigation scheme before the period indicated in the above Table 7.8.

There are three Reservoirs in Pemali-Comal Irrigation Scheme to control the water supply (mainly for irrigation). These three reservoirs are:

1) Malahayu Dam, with a storage capacity of 60 MCM, constructed between 1932 and 1937; 2) Penjalin Dam, with a storage capacity of 9.5 MCM, constructed in 1934; and 3) Cacaban Dam, with a storage capacity of 90 MCM, constructed between 1952 and 1958.


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During the period between 1960 and 1968, or before PELITA-I, four weirs in Pemali-Comal suffered from severe damages and have to be reconstructed. For that reason in 1970 i.e. the second year of PELITA-I, the government set up program to undertake rehabilitation works of irrigation schemes including canals and structures. These works cover rehabilitation of 43 weirs, construction of seven new weirs, rehabilitation of 1,799 hydraulic structures in the main and secondary canals, rehabilitation of irrigation canals; construction of 183 km of main canals, and 767 km of secondary canals.

c) Serayu Valley Irrigation Scheme This area called Serayu Valley Irrigation because of it lies in Serayu River valley. Serayu River has the best flow regime in Java Island. Its spring begins from Mount Perahu, Mount Sindoro, and Mount Sumbing. The total length of the river is 176 km, and the catchment area is 363 km2.

Serayu valley Irrigation area divided into two part; upstream course and downstream course. In the upstream course, since the topography condition is undulating, the irrigation area consists of small and medium scale. Irrigation development in this course is considered to be cheaper and easier relative to the downstream parts. In the upstream course, the water can be diverted from the small rivers; even these rivers can be used as conveyance canal as well as drainage canal. The downstream part which is flat area needs higher investment and higher technology because it has to divert water from the large Serayu River. Irrigation network in the upstream course has been developed since the end of 19th Century, i.e. in 1883, while the downstream part was developed in 1930.

This area consists of four medium and large irrigation networks i.e.: i) Singomerto Irrigation Scheme; ii) Banjar-Cahyana Irrigation Scheme; iii) Gambarsari-Pesanggrahan Irrigation Scheme; and iv) Banjaran Irrigation Scheme. The first three of these irrigation schemes are highlighted hereinafter:

1) Singomerto Irrigation Scheme

Before 1880, this irrigation scheme was a small scale irrigation scheme constructed by the farmers by diverting water from the small streams, the tributaries of Serayu River. Gradually, the farmers develop irrigation scheme by to diverting water from larger rivers. As a result the local farmers had been managed to supplying adequate water for 1,800 hectares of paddy fields in the area.

In 1880, before the establishment of Water Resources and Irrigation Services under the Public Works Department, the government rehabilitated and upgraded irrigation system in Singomerto. This works covers the construction of free intake in Serayu River (Singomerto Village), and free intake in Blimbing River with a canal named Blimbing Canal. Blimbing Canal recieves additional water supply from Singomerto Weir. Given this up-grading and rehabilitation works some 5,100 hectares of paddy fields obtained regular irrigation water supplies. These works were completed in 1884.

In order to have better development of Serayu valley irrigation, Irrigation Brigade was established by the Dutch Colonial Authority in 1885. This brigade was the embryo of Water Resources and Irrigation Services. Under the new brigade, Singomerto irrigation network was rehabilitated, remodeled, and upgraded into technical irrigation. These works began in 1886 and completed in 1903. After the completion of this works, irrigated area has increased from


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5,100 ha to 6,600 ha. To support the so called rising of food production program, in 1970, at the second year of PELITA-I, Singometo intake equipped with permanent weir.

2) Banjar-Cahyana Irrigation scheme

Banjar-Cahyana Irrigation is located in Banjar and Cahyana Districts, lies between three rivers; Pekacangan River, Klawing and Serayu Rivers. Therefore, the scheme named after Banjar-Cahyana Irrigation scheme. Several efforts to provide water for irrigation of this area have been conducted by the local people by constructing intake structures at Pekacangan River and at Merawi River (Serayu River tributaries). Water of both rivers contained refined sediment which decreased the soil fertility and contributed to the decrease of rice production. Given the inability of the local people to divert water from the large Serayu River, they still make effort to improve water quality by making sediment pouch. Water tapped from the river and flows through sediment pouch, so as that the impacts of harmful sediment were minimized.

Banjar-Cahyana Irrigation Development Plan has been programmed since 1891, but because of occasional transfers of government officials, the program did not run well. In the general plan, there were two options, first wasto separate Banjar and Cahyana irrigation schemes and second was to keep them united. After comprehensive considerations, it was eventually decided to unite Banjar and Cahyana but intake structures moved to the upstream of the junction point of Merawu and Serayu Rivers. This was meant to avoid the high sediment transport of the Merayu River flowing into irrigation canal. The decision for combining Banjar and Cahyana was made in 1909, and irrigation network development was successfully completed in 1920.

In line with the above development endeavors, the Mrica Dam (also known as Sudirman Dam) in this area had also been constructed between 1981 and 1989. However, the impact of this dam was quite unexpected, the Banjar Cahyana Weir and the upper course of Banjar-Cahyana Main Canal were sank below water level of the reservoir. For this reason, the intake gates moved further downstream of the new constructed dam decreasing the length of main canal by about seven km.

3) Gambarsari – Pesanggrahan Irrigation

Irrigation Brigade which was established in 1885, conducted topographic surveys in order to prepare irrigation development plan of for South Banyumas Plain, where this area is located, covering a total area of about 35,500 hectares. This project called Serayu Raya Development Project. For this purpose a weir is planned to be constructed at Serayu River.

Besides Serayu Raya Development Project, at the same year in 1885, Tajum Irrigation Development (Tajum River is Serayu River tributary) was also implemented by constructing a weir at Tajum River to irrigate an area of about 18,000 hectares. However, the implementation of both programs, were canceled due to the high costs and due to the fact that Tajum water was not enough to irrigate the planned 18,000 hectares.

During PELITA-I, rehabilitation of irrigation scheme including the replacement of pumps was conducted. Replacement of pumps was completed early in 1973 while rehabilitation of main system was completed in 1977.

In 1968, before PELITA-I was started the Government of Indonesia reviewed Tajum Irrigation Development Program (which was planned in 1885). Based on the review, Tajum


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Irrigation was then implemented and completed in 1972. However, the development was not for 18,000 ha, as previously planned, instead, only about 3,200 hectares was implemented by means of gravity flow and 700 hectares by means of pump irrigation.

In 1990, i.e. the second year of Pelita V, the government implemented rehabilitation of Gambarsari-Pesanggerahan Irrigation scheme consisted of: i) replacement of pumping station with a barrage in Gambarsari Village and then named the barrage after Gambarsari Barrage; ii) combining the Gambarsari Scheme with Pesanggerahan Scheme; and iii) river improvement works and improvement of drainage works.

d) South Kedu Plain Irrigation South Kedu plain is located in the southern part of Central Java, west of Yogyakarta to the border of Serayu catchment area in the west. There were several internal drains, rivers, and canals, constructed after the 1861 large flood.

This area has been developed as irrigated paddy fields since Mataram Kingdom at the 19th Century by utilizing small rivers as source of water. In 1830, when the Compulsory Agricultural Policy was imposed, irrigation canals have to be rehabilitated by the farmers in order to support the said compulsory policy. After the extreme flood occurred in 1861, which was noted as the most devastation flood at that time, the Colonial Government paid attention to the rehabilitation of existing irrigation network. After the said flood, the government started to rehabilitate and up-grade the irrigation systems, which was previously constructed by the farmers. Besides irrigation rehabilitation, the government also conducted flood control works by constructing four canals flowing directly southward to Indian Ocean.

The rehabilitated irrigation network (after the 1861’s flood) consisted of nine schemes (having a total command area of 33,120 hectares). The unit command area varied from 1,500 ha to 6,000 ha and 7,000 ha of small scale irrigation schemes. This works were completed at the end of the 19th Century.

At early the 20th Century, part of the networks had been up-graded to technical irrigation systems and the other parts to semi technical systems.

At the beginning of PELITA-I in 1969 the government gradually rehabilitated irrigation schemes in this area and the whole network had been up-graded into technical irrigation systems. Early at the beginning of PELITA-II in 1974, construction of Sempor Dam was started. The effective storage capacity was designed at the magnitude of 52 MCM, which was considered to be adequate for irrigating 8,000 ha of paddy fields. This dam was completed in 1978. In line with this, in 1982, i.e. within PELITA-III, Wadas Lintang Dam was also constructed which a total capacity of 443 MCM of effective storage capacity for providing irrigation water for a total of 33,000 ha of paddy fields.


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7.7. EAST JAVA PROVINCE

7.7.1. OVERVIEW OF EAST JAVA PROVINCE The total area of East Java Province is 47,921 km2 or 2.5% of entire Indonesia area. In 2002,

the province was populated by 35,225,000 people with an Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Palu

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak Terna te

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Papua

of 903,154 hectares of irrigated rice field, 242,562 hectares of rainfed paddy fields, and 1,291 ha others rice fields (swamp polders). See Table 7.9 below for further details:

No. Irrigation System Area (ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 670,927 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 113,036 3 Simple / Village Irrigation 119,191 4 Ground Water Irrigation NA 5 Other Irrigation 1,291 6 Rainfed Irrigation 242,526 Total 1,147,007

Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics. East Java is well-known with its soil fertility due to frequent supplies of volcanic ash from Mount Kelud Volcano. During the earlier Colonial Period the area had always been attractive to sugarcane investors for development of sugarcane plantation. Within the Brantas Delta and
the Brantas River Valley, for example, during the Colonial Period, it was recorded that there were 36 sugarcane estates and sugar factories in East Java Province.
7.7.2. EXAMPLE OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN EAST JAVA Like other major provinces Indonesia, the East Java Province also has large number irrigation schemes that cannot be described one by one. Therefore, only several important irrigation areas would be highlighted to represent the general illustration of irrigation works in this

Table 7.9. Irrigated rice field area by irrigation type, 2002

average growth rate of about 0.70% between 1990 and 2000.

This province is one of the oldest provinces in Indonesia, established by the Dutch Colonial Government in 1926 at the same time with the establishment of the Central Java Province. East Java Province covers the eastern part of Java Island. The western part of the province bordered with Central Java and Bali Province eastward.

The total paddy field area in 2002 was 1,147,007 ha consisted

GENERAL MAP OF EAST JAVA PROVINCE

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

Ujung Pandang

Kendari

Jakarta

AUSTRALIA

P. Jawa



169


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170

province. However, the small scale irrigation scheme in Madura Island (part of this province), will briefly be highlighted due to its specific characteristic.

a) Delta Brantas and Brantas Valley Irrigation Schemes The Brantas Delta is located in the fertile area at the downstream part from bifurcation of Porong and Surabaya Rivers to the sea, classified as amongst the best soil classifications for sugarcane plantation. For this reason, during the Dutch Colonial Era, many agricultural investors from Europe competed to invest substantial amount of capitals for development of sugarcane plantation, even many of them took over the sugarcane plantation developed by the local people. Parallel with this competition, the Dutch Authority also imposed the so called Compulsory Agricultural Policy, in which the local people were forced to plant the pre determined cash crops’ commodities in condition that 20% of the crop production shall be surrendered to Colonial Government Authority, in lieu of the 20% of tax obligation as previously determined by the Government. Thus, irrigation development in the Brantas Delta began with irrigation water requirement assumption for sugarcane plantation as the principal parameter for structural design. In the later stage, it was recorded at the early 19th Century that there were some 33,000 hectares of irrigated sugarcane areas, served with at least 16 sugar factories in the entire Brantas Delta of the East Java Province. Concerning the development chronology of the Brantas Delta Irrigation Scheme, the initial program implementation was started in 1852 by constructing Lengkong Weir. The construction was completed in 1857, but soon after completed, this weir was damaged and immediately to keep it operational. The follow up development of irrigation system was initially conducted by means of simple irrigation system and gradually, upgraded into technical irrigation system. The up-grading of this system was started around the second decade of the 20th Century. During PELITA-III between 1979 and 1984 and continued at the follow-up PELITA-IV, the constructed Lengkong Weir was replaced with Barrage type headwork. During the same period, the Brantas River valley was also developed for sugarcane plantation. At the end of the 19th Century there were 36 sugar factories including the 16 units in the Brantas Delta. The development of Brantas valley was conducted as the subsequent follow-up of Delta Brantas development implementation. Under the development program, there were many of irrigation schemes developed in this valley, including the three most notable ones: 1) Kedung Kandang Irrigation Scheme; 2) Molek Irrigation; and 3) Warujayeng-Turi Tunggorono Irrigation schemes.

1) Kedung Kandang Irrigation This irrigation scheme was firstly developed in 1854 taking its water from Amprong River, a Brantas tributary, through a simple earth weir across the river, equipped with spillway. This weir has a total commanded area of 1,100 hectares. The Dutch Colonial Authority started to put special effort for the development of this irrigation scheme in 1875 by constructing stop logs on the spillway together with the provision of a number of hydraulic structures, and extension of irrigation areas. These works were completed in 1877. In 1893, rehabilitation works were conducted with subsequent rehabilitation and structural improvements. After the said 1893’s rehabilitation work, the total irrigation command area increased to 1,750 hectares. In 1904, comprehensive rehabilitation of


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Kedung Kandang Irrigation was conducted to cover a number of construction works such as: i) construction of new weir; ii) extension of irrigation area southward up to 4,550 hectares; iii) permanent structures equipped with discharge measurement devices; iv) additional water supply facility from the nearby river. These works were completed in 1911 with a total of 4,550 hectares of simple irrigation system up-graded to technical irrigation systems. Today, however, much of the technical irrigation command area in the vicinity Malang Municipality has been converted to urban and industrial areas.

2) Molek Irrigation

Molek Irrigation area was the first area irrigation scheme constructed by means of simple weir taking its water directly from Brantas River. The construction implementation was started 1830 by developing a small scale of simple irrigation system, following the previously developed Palakan Irrigation System, which was constructed in 1828 with a total command area of 600 hectares. In 1900 Colonial Government started to develop the Molek irrigation network by including the extension of the existing irrigation command areas. Under this extension program, all the schemes were developed into technical irrigation systems and the simple weir was replaced with permanent masonry weir. As a result, the total command area of Molek Irrigation scheme has increased to 5,000 hectares.

3) Warujayeng-Turi Tunggorono Irrigation.

This area as a part of Brantas Valley Syatem located at the center of Brantas River catchment area. The area consists of two systems i.e. Warujayeng Irrigation System on the left bank westward and Turi-Tunggorono Irrigation System on left bank northward. Warujayeng system diverts water through the Mrican free-intake, close to Kediri Town, and Turi-tunggorono diverts water through Turi free-intake. The initial development of this area was started in 1901 and completed in 1911. The total irrigation command area after completion of development of both Warujayeng and Turi-Tunggorono schemes were 16,750 hectares. Turi-Tunggorono was previously in-land swamp areas named Watudakon Swamp.

In 1900 the Dutch Colonial Government conducted improvement work for the Lower Brantas and Watudakon Reclamation Works. During which, sugarcane plantation suffered from difficulties to provide their-own irrigation and drainage as well as flood protection infrastructures. Therefore, irrigation and flood prevention facilities in this region were mostly severely deteriorating. To overcome this condition, in 1913 the Dutch Colonial Government developed a polder system in Watudakon Swamp area named Watudakon Polder. To control the water inflow to the polder, a ring canal was constructed. This ring canal was connected to a tributary of Brantas River. For providing irrigation water supply to this polder area, with a total irrigation command area of 9,800 ha, a free intake adjacent with the Turi Village was constructed. It was discovered later on that the polder system suffered from severe problem of sedimentation in the canals due to heavy sediment transport carried into the canals through the river free intakes. As a result, the carrying capacity of canals decreased sharply within a short time after irrigation implementation.

To overcome this problem, after Indonesia’s independence, the Government built a new barrage named Mrican Barrage to replace two free intakes previously constructed by the Dutch Colonial Authority. The succeeding irrigation water supply for Turi-Tunggorono area was conducted by constructing a conveyance canal through the right bank of Brantas River. By constructing a permanent barrage with its related conveyance canal and hydraulic


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infrastructures a new irrigation scheme with a total area of 14,700 hectares named Papar-Peterongan, was managed to develop. Parallel with this new irrigation development, rehabilitation and upgrading works for Warujayeng and Turi-Tunggorono were also conducted. The overall construction activities including barrage, conveyance canal, and rehabilitation of irrigation systems was started in 1984 and only completed after 10 years later at the end of 1994.

b) Bedadung-Bondoyudo Irrigation Scheme This area located in South Jember Plain, at the southern part of East Java. At the end of 19th Century, this area was still under the primary forest. Development of this area initiated by government at the end of 19th Century after the spontaneous migration and European investors obtained estates concession for sugarcane estates around Jatiroto Region. Preparation of irrigation development was started in 1887 and three years later in 1890 obtained support from ‘Kommisi Rentabilitas’ (Remunerative Committee). This was the starting point of Bedadung-Bondoyudo Irrigation Development.

Irrigation development consists of five components: 1) river improvement works to improve flood control system and drainage systems; 2) Bedadung irrigation development; 3) Tanggul-Bondoyudo irrigation development; 4) Mayang irrigation development; and 5) Mrawan irrigation development. See Table 7.10 for more detailed irrigation command area of the Bedadung-Bondoyudo Irrigation Scheme.
Table 7.10. Irrigation area of Bedadung-Bondoyudo


172

No. Irrigation Sub-section Area (ha) 1 Bedadung 21,000 2 Tanggul Bondoyudo 30,130 3 Mayang 11,500 4 Mrawan 2,100 Total 64,730

1) Bedadung Irrigation Development

In 1905, five years after having approval from the government in 1900, a Master Plan of Bedadung Irrigation Development was prepared. Construction was started in 1908 initiated by the construction of weir and completed in 1925. Progress of land development and irrigation facilities was very low. Therefore land development and construction of irrigation facilities were only completed before the break up of the Second World War. After completion of that works, some 16,400 hectares of irrigation command areas were managed developed. Under this program, a total command area of 4,600 ha at the up-stream of Bedadung irrigation scheme, which was previously developed by the farmers, was incorporated in Bedadung system.

2) Tanggul Bondoyudo Irrigation Development

Planning of Tanggul Bondoyudo Irrigation Development prepared in 1913, followed by construction implementation of irrigation facilities in 1916, and was completed in 1922. Under the follow-up operation, it was discovered that the annual progress of land development was going sluggish and was only managed to be completed in 1930. Upon


History in Brief



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completion, Tanggul Bondoyudo Irrigation Scheme has six weirs and seven sub-systems with a total command area of 25,930 hectares of rice field and 4,200 hectares of sugarcane area.

3) Mayang Irrigation Development

There were two existing irrigation scheme in this area developed by local community i.e. Kertosari scheme, and Wonojati scheme. Each of the schemes has a weir. The Total area of these two schemes is 5,400 hectares. The Development implementation of these systems started in 1919 having two stages. The first stage was construction of a barrage in Mayang River named Talang Barrage, followed by the second stage by rehabilitation and remodeling of existing scheme, followed by the subsequent land development with a total command area of about 6,100 hectares. The total area under this developed system was 11,600 hectares, however no record concerning the year of completion of this development work.

4) Mrawan Irrigation Development

Through the initiative of local community, construction of simple weir and irrigation network infrastructures were conducted in Mrawan area before 1900. However, the simple weir was washed away by flood in 1906. In 1908 a new weir was constructed to replace the damaged structure and only completed in 1911. Upon completion, the total area served by this weir was 2,100 hectares.

c) Irrigation Development in Madura Island Administratively, Madura Island includes in the territory of East Java Province. This Island is an arid island. In Madura there are two main rivers which have potential for irrigation development namely, Samiran River and Jepun River. These two rivers provide water for irrigation of two irrigation schemes i.e. Samiran and Sumenep Selatan Scheme. These two systems are highlighted to give a general overview of irrigation system in Madura Island as follows:

1) Samiran Irrigation Scheme

There were two simple weirs constructed by local community i.e. Samiran Weir with an area of 700 hectares, and Pademawu Weir located downstream of Samiran Weir with irrigation command area for paddy field at 250 hectares. During irrigation operation, Samiran Weir frequently damaged because its location at the narrow and steep river course, having simple construction with highly susceptible to flood strike. For the case of Pademawu Weir, since the location on the flat area, during the rainy season, the weir often flushed by flood, and hence the farmers have to rebuild the weir soon after flood season over. Soon after establishment of Water Resources and Irrigation Service in 1898, Department of Public Works put special effort for development of irrigation infrastructures in this area. Under the scrutiny of the Department of Public Works, preparation works for irrigation development was started 1891, and the construction of Samiran Irrigation System completed in 1899, followed by the completion of new weir in 1900. This development has increased the total service area of Smiran system from 950 hectares to 2,500 hectares.

2) Sumenep Selatan Irrigation Scheme Sumenep Selatan Irrigation System has been developed by local community long time ago. The community diverted water from Jepun River and its tributaries by constructing simple


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weirs and simple irrigation scheme. At that time the farmer had developed an area of 1,050 hectares of paddy field under the simple irrigation scheme. During irrigation operation, the simple weir was frequently damaged due to flood, and hence the command area decreased to only 185 hectares. In addition to the simple irrigation scheme, a permanent masonry weir was built by the community named Sultan Weir for the purpose of flushing of Sumenep town and water supply for Sumenep Prison.

In 1914 construction of Sumenep Selatan Irrigation Scheme continued through contracted
works by improving drainage works followed by improvement and development of irrigation systems. The total area irrigation area covered by this development work was 6,230 hectares.
7.8. BALI PROVINCE

7.8.1. OVERVIEW OF BALI PROVINCE Bali as an island Province of Indonesia with a total land area of 5,561 km2 or 0.29 % of entire Indonesia’s region, was populated in 2002 with about 3,230,000 people with an average

growth rate of 0.70% between 1990 and 2000.

Having the distinct geographical as well climatic pattern between northern parts of the island, which has steeper topography and less rainfall relative to southern part, the development of irrigated agricultural land in the southern area has been more intensive than the northern area. The community of Bali developed the undulating areas in southern areas in the form of terrace paddy fields. This rice terrace view has become one of the distinct land marks of Bali. GENERAL MAP OF BALI PROVINCE

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Pa lu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Terna te

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



174

The total irrigated agricultural land of Bali in 2002 was 82,238 hectares, consisted of 81,431 hectares irrigated paddy fields and the rest was in the form of rainfed and pond, as well as swamp irrigated land. For more details, see Table 7.11.

Through generations, the farming skill of Bali community has been maintained consistently at a distinct application performance. Land development, construction of water intake, tunnel and canals, as well as operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures are fully conducted and managed by the community on self propelling basis. All of these irrigated agricultural activities are conducted by traditional water user’s association popularly known as Subak. The term Subak, beside means as community institution, it is also referred to as the system which operates under the control of Subak as an institution.


No. Irrigation System Area (ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 2,882 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 64,871 3 Simple / Village Irrigation 13,678 4 Ground Water Irrigation 0 5 Other Irrigation 6 6 Rainfed Irrigation 801 Total 82,238

Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics.

Concerning the time when the Subak was established, there is evidence that could give an date about the first time of the existence of Subak in Bali. Some scholars argue that Subak has already existed since the era of Resi Markandia, an Indian yogist, came to Bali at the first year of ‘Saka’ Calendar or 78 AD. While R. Goris a Dutch anthropologist stated in his manuscript that irrigated agriculture has been practiced by the Balinese farmer’s community before 600 AD. According to ancient inscriptions unearthed in Sukawana dated back to 878 AD, and in Trunyam dated back to 891 AD, both mention about the terms huma, which means paddy field and the term pakaseh, which means irrigation water masterin local language. Meanwhile, the term Subak also found in the ancient inscription of King Purana in Klungkung dated back to year 1072 AD. In Badung and Tabanan Regencies the term of Subak originally came from the word Seuwak, which literally meant as “better water distribution system”. (See Supplement Paper on “Subak Irrigation System in Bali” for more details). Despite that the evidences do not provide an exact date of the first establishment of Subak, but they did indicate that the system had been known and practiced in Bali since before the ancient Hindu Era. As a matter of fact, all the suitable area for irrigated agricultural purposes had already been completely developed, with all the necessary appurtenance structures, before Dutch Colonial Era. During the Dutch Colonial Era, there was no further development of new irrigation systems conducted in Bali. The government only gave support for rehabilitation and improvement of the existing irrigation infrastructures, as far as possible to restore the damaged headwork structures or to replace them with new permanent headwork structures. To prevent the system from alien technical intervention, the Dutch Colonial Authority did not make any attempt to involve in modifying or replacing the schemes under the Subak system. Earlier in 1980’s, however, there was an attempt to introduce modern irrigation concept in the development and management of the Subak system, but it was not applicable, because the farmers were
apparently reluctant to replace or to modify the irrigated agricultural techniques that have been practiced by them from generation to generation since the ancient era.
7.8.2. EXAMPLES OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN BALI Being constrained by topographical and traditional practices, all of irrigation schemes in Bali are of small scale, unlike irrigation scheme on Java or other major islands of Indonesia. In


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Table 7.11. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type in Bali Province, 2002



175

addition, the development and management of irrigation schemes under the Subak System also accommodate the local topographical, climatic characteristic as well as social and traditional practices, and hence, each particular scheme has its own distinct characteristic, despite the similarities in irrigation management approach.


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Earlier at the beginning of Dutch Occupation, the authority found that irrigation schemes had already been developed within Bali Island, which leaved almost no more remaining land and water sources to be further developed. Most irrigation schemes were found to be of small schemes except in some schemes with the command areas at an average of about 1,000 hectares. Within the subsequent period during Colonial Era, practically there was no development of Subak irrigation schemes conducted in Bali. During which, all of irrigation operation and maintenance, including the related repairs and reconstructions are conducted by the farmers themselves on mutual basis. In some cases, the government provided assistance in rehabilitation of major structures.

Considering the demand for appropriate irrigation governance in Bali and Lombok Islands, in 1912, the Dutch Colonial Authority established Irrigation Services of the Bali-Lombok Kresidenan (Residency Government Administration). Within the following year (1913) the government provided financial assistance to rehabilitate the damaged irrigation schemes, including among others: Sronga Weir in Tukat Daat; A weir in Tukat Sangsang; Ubud Weir in Tukat Oos; Badung Weir in Tukat Pekrisan; Oongan and Praupan Weirs in Tukat Ayun; and Rehabilitation of some weirs and tunnels.

During the post independence period till the implementation of the First Five Year Development Program, most of irrigation repairs as well as rehabilitation works were carried out by the farmers themselves under the coordination of Subak organization. Within the First Long Term Development Program (PJP-I) i.e. 1969-1994, however, there were some new development and the subsequent establishment of Subak organization. See Table 7.12 below for the growth of irrigation areas as well as additional number of Subak organizations in Bali between 1971-and 1993.

Table 7.12. Growth of irrigation area and additional number of Subak organizations in Bali between 1971 and 1993



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No. Year Area (ha) Number of Subak Area/Subak 1 1971 98,689 1,193 83 2 1979 103,279 1,274 81 3 1993 108,494 1,612 67

During the beginning of PELITA-III, i.e. 1979 until the end of PELITA IV i.e. 1989 the government conducted a comprehensive development and rehabilitation programs. Under this program, all of irrigation scheme having more than 100 hectares were included in this program, including some selected schemes in Bali. The total area covered by this program in Bali was 45,000 hectares. Planning, design, and implementation of irrigation networks were conducted in accordance with modern technical criteria without disregarding the underlying traditional Subak practices. In addition, training for Subak was also conducted in the field of technical, managerial, as well as organizational aspects of irrigated agricultural implementation.


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7.9. WEST NUSA TENGGARA; LOMBOK ISLAND

7.9.1. OVERVIEW OF LOMBOK ISLAND Lombok Island, the immediate neighboring island in the eastern of Bali, is part of the West Nusa Tenggara Province with the

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung

BandungBantenSemarang

Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Palu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Pa langkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Terna te

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua

at about 1.82% within the period from 1990 to 2000. Based on the 2002’s Agricultural Census, the province has a total paddy field at 184,638 hectares, consisted of 179,638 hectares of irrigated paddy fields, 33,839 hectares of rainfed paddy fields, and only 19 ha of lowland irrigated field. More than 65% of the total irrigated agricultural land in the province is located in Lombok Island. (See Table 7.13 for further information).

Table 7.13. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type, 2002

capital town of Mataram located on this island. During the Colonial Era, both Bali and Lombok Islands were under the one Kresidenan Government Administration.

The total are of West Nusa Tenggara Province is 20,177 km2, or about 1.05% of the entire Indonesia’s land area. The overall

population of this province in 2002 was 4,152,000 people with the average annual growth rate

GENERAL MAP OF LOMBOK ISLAND



177

Area (ha) No. Irrigation Type West Nusa

Tenggara Province Lombok Island

1 Technical Irrigation 66,826 42,071 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 80,686 50,378 3 Simple / Village Irrigation 37,126 13,471 4 Ground Water Irrigation N.A N.A 5 Other Irrigation (swamp, lowland) 19 0 6 Rainfed Irrigation 33,839 14,910 Total 184,638 120,830

Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics. The geographical and topographical characteristic of Lombok Island is divided into three regions namely North Region, Central Region, and South Region.

North Region starts from the top of mountain extending from west eastward to the north coast. There area has three major mounts, Mount Punikan (+1,490 m), Mount Kondo (+2,946 m), and Mount Rinjani, the highest in the Island (+3,775 m). The topographic condition of the north region classified as steep and very steep with narrow plain on the coastal zone. Rainfall in this region is low in the western side and very low in the eastern side.

Central region stars from the top of the above-mentioned mountain to the top of the low mountain lies in the central part of the island. The western part of this central region has high


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rainfall with the topographical condition relatively flatter than the northern region. The rivers flowing in the western side to the western are mostly having stable regime with much water resource potential. The rivers flowing in the eastern side to the southern and eastern coasts are mostly having lower water sources due to small rainfall. Therefore, development of irrigated agricultural land was mostly concentrated on the western part of the central region. The eastern part of this central region also has a low water resource potential, but the topographical condition is fairly suitable for irrigated agricultural development.

Southern region starts from the top of the low mountain (the boundary of Central region)
southward to the southern coastal zone. This region has a low potential of water source as it has very low rainfall. 7.9.2. EXAMPLES OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN LOMBOK Introduction of technical irrigation system in Lombok Island started since the involvement of Dutch Colonial Government in irrigation development in 1916. The first irrigation development in eastern part of central region was started with construction of a weir in Palung River for supplying irrigation water to a command area of 2,400 hectares, and the second was


178

‘Gebong’ Irrigation System, both were constructed in 1919.

After intensive irrigation development and management implementation, since 1937-38’s Fiscal Year, Lombok has exported significant amount of rice to other places in Indonesia and the Netherlands. It was recorded that in 1937-1938’s Fiscal Year alone some 46,600 tons of rice were shipped to other places from Mataram Harbor, of which some 23,000 tons was exported to the Netherlands.

In 1920 a study was conducted for preparing a comprehensive water resources and irrigation development planning. The study concluded identification of potential development as the following:

i) The Potential land in the central region of the island amounting to 43,000 to 50,000 hectares;

ii) The western part of central region has a substantial amount of water sources; with potential of inter basin water transfer from west to eastern region.

iii) Considering the traditional irrigation practices the potential water transfer from west to eastern region, could only be done by upgrading the existing Subak irrigation schemes from simple to technical systems for the more efficient water use, and hence, the excess water in the western region can be transferred to the eastern region.

a) Jurang Sate Irrigation Development ‘Jurang Sate’ Irrigation System covering an area of about 27,000 hectares consists of six schemes located on the west and central parts of the central region. The development covered the improvement and up-grading of the existing areas and facilitated the transfer of water by constructing a feeder canal from Sesaot River to Babak River.

Implementation of Jurang Sate was started in 1927 and completed in 1940. Construction of feeder canal from Sesaot River to Babak River by utilizing the Sesaot Main Canal and expanded to Babak River was started in 1938.


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b) South Lombok Irrigation Development Development of eastern part of South Lombok was implemented under the South Lombok Irrigation Development Project. While the development of eastern part of Lombok, was considered by facilitating inter-basin water transfer from west to eastern region. South Lombok Irrigation Development consisted of the following components: i) Construction of Batujahe Reservoir to irrigate a total command area of 3,500 hectares,

completed in 1982; ii) Rehabilitation and up-grading of Jurang Sate Irrigation Scheme covering an area of about

10,450 hectares was completed 1984; iii) Construction of two High Level Diversion Canals (HLD), at total of about 23 km length

with a capacity of 6.00 m3/second, for irrigate about 10,800 hectares in eastern part of South Lombok, completed in 1982;

iv) Construction of Mujur Reservoir as well as rehabilitation of 8,300 hectares of irrigated land; and

v) Construction of Swangi/Pandanduri Reservoir as well as rehabilitation of 10,400 hectares of irrigated land.

Implementation of point iv), and v) (which was planned in 1997-2001), were postponed due to financial constraints faced by the Government. While the implementation of Babak-Renggung HLD extension was successfully completed in 1992, and the extension of Jangkok-Babak HLD was completed in 1996. For more detailed information on HLD, see Figure 7.9.1. and 7.9.2. below.



179

Figure 7.9.1. High Level Diversion Canal

Chapter VII. Examples water Resources and Irrigation Development


180

180

Weir

atic Diagram of Inter Basin Transfer in Lombok Island

Diversion Dam

Temusik

Lenek

Tb. Nangka

Sakra

JKG/PKG

Peloat

TeraraBendungRutus

Pd. Duri

SwangiPlapak

Tundak

Penendem

Plambik

Kulem

EP-BRMujur-2

Mujur-1

Pengga

Batujai

Surabaya

Katon

Renggung

Otak Desa

Otak Desa

HLD BABAK-RENGGUNG-RUTUS

Gde BongohBR-SRIR HLD

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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID

History in Brief


Figure 7.9.2. Schem

Sesaot-GEB

Ses-Fed

Ds. Tereng

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k U

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Sidemen

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7.10. SOUTH KALIMANTAN PROVINCE

7.10.1. OVERVIEW OF SOUTH KALIMANTAN PROVINCE South Kalimantan province is located in the southern part of Kalimantan Island. It covers a total area of 43,546 square

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Pa lu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Terna te

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua

No. Irrigation Type Area (ha) 1 Technical Irrigation 19,455 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 4,590 3 Simple/Village Irrigation 29,887 4 Rainfed Paddy 118,373 5 Tidal Swamp Irrigation 157.118 6. Others Irrigation (polder etc) 90,954 Total 420,377
Source: Agriculture Survey 2002, Central Board of Statistics.
7.10.2. EXAMPLES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

a) Alabio Polder

1) General Condition The Alabio polder located in Amuntai Regency, South Kalimantan Province, about 180 km

Table 7.14. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type, 2002

kilometers, or 2.30% of Indonesia’s total area. 2002 population was 2,597,000 with an average growth rate of 1.45% (1990 – 2002).

East and south-east as well as west and south-west part of the province are large plain. In the west coast lies narrow plain area. In the central part from the south coast to north-east lies Meratus Mountain where a number of large rivers flowing to east, south-east, and south-west coast.

The wet rice field area in 2002 noted as 302,004 hectares, consists of 53,932 hectares of inland swamp irrigated rice field, 248,072 hectares of tidal swamp and polder rice field, and 118,373 hectares of rainfed paddy field (see Table 7.14. for more detailed information) GENERAL MAP OF SOUTH KALIMANTAN PROVINCE

AUSTRALIA



181

northward from Banjarmasin. The total area of Alabio Polder is about 6,000 ha (see Figure 7.10.1), which previously included in lake Amuntai Swamp with a total area of 38,000 ha. This Polder lies at about 3.25 m above sea level, between two rivers, Negara River and Alabio River bordered by Sungai Pandan District in the North and East part, Babirik District in the


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182

South and Danau Panggang District in the West part. In addition, Alabio Polder is located in
Hulu Sungai Utara Regency not to far from Amuntai City within the distance of about 8 km.
Figure 7.10.1. General layout of the Alabio Polder, South Kalimantan Province

Intake Sei Mahar 02° 28,23’S 115° 12,68E

Outlet Pump, Sei. Kelumpang

02° 31,43’S 115° 07,93E



182

The climatic condition of the Alabio Polder affected by rainy season on Oktober to May and dry season from May to September. The physical shape of the Alabio Polder is like a large pond surrounded by constructed earth embankment. In the dry season, the Polder allows constant water condition by pumping system, so that a total area of about 4,500 ha can be maintained properly for irrigation, however, in the wet season the whole area is entirely inundated,

The average annual rainfall based on the data record in the year 1980-1990 is about 2,158 mm, and the average rain-days is 93 days with the average rainfall intensity of 23 mm/day.

The objective of Alabio Polder development is to manage water system for serving agricultural land by constructing a dyke equiped with pump station. 2) Historical Development of the Alabio Polder

In the year 1929, Ir. H.J. Schophuys in his capacity as the Head of Agricultural Services of South and East Kalimantan Provinces designed a polder system in the inland swamp area of Alabio by constructing a dyke around the polder as flood protection from Negara river. However, the work can not be implemented continuously due to limited fund, experties and also due to the break up of the Second World War. Subsequently, the development implementation was conducted step by step as follows:

From 1933 to 1936: Construction of a dyke around the existing polder area, and replacement of the flap gate made of ulin wood.

In 1948: Review the existing plan and continuation of further research investigation


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183

In 1949: Design preparation of the Alabio Polder Pilot Project as the first polder project in Indonesia.

In 1952: Construction implementation conducted by Directorate General of Water Resources, Department of Public Works and Energy, and setting up a unit of pumping station at the Babirik site.

In 1963: Construction implementation conducted by South Kalimantan Irrigation Project (AIRMANTAN): - Intake water pump station Sungai Mahar Atas with five pumps. - Main Conveyance Canal Sei Mahar and related diversion structures.

In 1968: Handing over of AIRMANTAN project to P4SA, however, the project was terminated due to the lack of financial resources.

From 1974 to 2001: Handing over of the project to the South Kalimantan Public Works Services for completing miscellaneous structures, canal, and rehabilitation works, as well as operation and maintenance of the polder system.

From 2001 till present: Entrusted to local government of Hulu Sungai Utara for O&M, following the Regional Autonomy Policy, including the network management and water control against the negative impacts of
impounding water at the Alabio Polder.
3) Water Management System of Alabio Polder

Soil investigation during the design stage of the Alabio Polder (1970’s)

Groundwater investigation at the Alabio site during the design stage (1970’s)



183

The underlying water management of Alabio Polder is conducted by supplying water for irrigation by using intake structure of Negara River (tributary of the Barito River) through main canal (as shown in the photograph below), and then using intake pump through secondary and tertiary canal for maintaining constant water flow for agricultural purposes. On the other hand, when the Polder has been over irrigated especially at the end of the rainy season, excess water pumps out through the drainage canal to the down stream of Alabio Polder, i.e through Klumpang pump station.

184

Mr. Y. Sudaryoko (right) former Director General of Water

Resources Ministry of Public Works on site discussion with

Mr. H.J. Schophuys (left) at the site office of Alabio Polder

Intake gate of Alabio Polder System in Negara River, visited

by former Minister of Public Works, Dr. Ir. Suyono Sosrodarsono in 1978.



184

Complimentary to the Negara River intake operation, the excess water at the down stream site, pumps out from Sei Kelumpang (02° 31,43S; 115° 07,93E) dewatering pump from main canal (see photograph) with the total capacity of 5 x 150 m3/minute. Under this operation, about 1,750 ha of rice field can be irrigated annually, while the rest of 1,500 ha can not be irrigated due to the difficulty to lift up the water to higher land area. Therefore, out of the 6,000 ha command area of Alabio Polder, only about 4,500 ha of rice field can be planted in the dry season.

Based on the data record from Water Resources Services of Hulu Sungai Utara Regency, the total potential area of the Alabio Polder illustrated in Table 7.15.


History in Brief

MSRI Irrigat

185

Tabel 7.15. Potential area of Alabio Polder for agricultural development

The main canal below the pumping station

The routine operation of intake gate is conducted by manual

labor

and INACIDion History of Indonesia

Cover List of ContentHistory in Brief185

Area (ha) in the year No. Area / type of plant 1988 1989 1990 1991

1. Rice 4,059 4,699 4,596 4,776 2. Corn 3 7 63,5 18 3. Cassava - 6 28,3 12 4. Vegetables 11 6 79,1 33

Note: in 1990, number of farmer is 7,602 family


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b) Tidal Swamp Development

Indonesia has a total of over 39 million hectares of coastal lowlands, including tidal and non-tidal swamps, The South Kalimantan Province possesses the most dominant swamp areas such as Anjir Tamban, Serapat, Besarang, Kelampan and Marabahan. In these areas, lowland developments for agriculture are conducted by means of canal excavation referred to as canalization system. Basically these canalization works were previously intended for water transportation to access the isolated areas in South and Central Kalimantan Provinces. As the availability of appropriate lands for agriculture has become increasingly scarce, therefore, during the First Development Plan, PELITA I (1969-1974) the government established a special Project Unit for Tidal Swamp Reclamation (P4S) under the control of Ministry of Public Works. In South Kalimantan, some area developed as tidal swamp category, can be seen on Figure 7.10.2.



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Figure 7.10.2. General map of irrigation under the Tidal Swamp Development in South Kalimantan Province

In South Kalimantan Province, there are several dominant river basin areas including Cengal and Batu Licin, which contribute significantly to the availability of water for agriculture.

Comb Type

Fork Type


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Considering these agricultural land and decided to develop the area for one of transmigrant destination areas, see also the supplement paper entitled “An Outline Review of Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia” for more information about Transmigration Program. Based on the time frame, of transmigration implementation, which was estabilished in 1934, then in the year 1939 development of irrigation by means of tidal swamp with canalization for transportation basis. Subsequently, nowadays this system is still being developed by private sector in an attempt to support the irrigation based human resettlement program. In South Kalimantan two types of tidal swamp have been developed, these are “Comb” and “Fork” types. The underlying difference of the two principles lies on the utilization function of water transportations through the existing channels. The Comb type of tidal swamp gives special importance on the use of major channel as water transportation facility apart from agricultural purpose, while the Fork type gives special importance on the use of canalization networks for supporting the internal water control of agricultural development.

The strategy for swamp reclamation during the Fifth Five –Year Development Plan (PELITA-V) in the year 1989-1994 focused on second stage development activities including the upgrading of hydraulic structure, promoting integrated agricultural development by virtule of introduction of new technological packages and strengthening of agricultural support services.

1) Comb Type Tydal Swamp Irrigation System

Based on information provided by the South Kalimantan Special Priority Project (Proyek Irigasi Andalan), the initial initiative of Comb type tidal swamp irrigation system had been introduced in Anjir Tamban area during the Dutch Colonial Government. Based on this experience, the South Kalimantan Irrigation Project developed Dandan Besar and Terantang Comb type projects few years later.

In actual operation, the Comb type tidal swamp irrigation system has been proofed to be least effective for drainage function due to into smaller ratio of drainage canal density relative to the Fork type drainage density.

In addition, the comb type tidal swamp irrigation system demands for large canals, which make it relatively difficult for the farmer to develop the scheme by themselves without adequate support from the government.

The Comb type, however has special advantage to control the water level and tidal back water by using hydraulic structures such as automatic Flap gate. For illustration, the Anjir Tamban Comb type tydal swamp irrigation scheme is currently supporting agricultural land of 4,400 ha out of 5,056 potential The main channel of Anjir Tamban



187


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area at the Jelapat Purwosari District (see the picture illustrating the main channel of Anjir Tamban). 2) The Fork Type Tidal Swamp Irrigation System The Fork type of tidal swamp irrigation is essentially developed based on transportation requirement. Moreover, most of the canals networks dimensions are so large that it should be developed using heavy equipment and also demanding large amount of budget because of the special construction requirement as well as its function for transportation. Therefore, it is mosty developed by government to support transportation system in lowland area instead of using sea transportation. Example of Fork type as shown in the following photographs are the lowland channels that pasesses double function for agricultural supports on the one hand and for transportation, on the other. This type has large channel dimension especially on its width canal depth, it can not
controlled by weir, gate and others structures because of water transportation reason.
Example of homogeneous paddy cultivation at Anjir Terantang

Mixed crops cultivation (paddy and Citrus) at Anjir Terantang Fork Type Tidal swamp



188

However, this type has disadvantages using hydraulic structures to control tidal back water because it would disturb the water transportation traffic. Accordingly, the Fork type would be more effective in the dry season without causing intervention on water transportation traffics. The photograph (Anjir Terantang) below shows homogeneous type of plantation compare to the next foto showing the mixed system of plantation.

Although Fork type (main system) using large dimension of canal, in supporting system can also using wooden hydraulic structures to control water level and discharge as shown in the photograph below.

irrigation scheme


History in Brief

7.11. SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE

7.11.1. OVERVIEW OF SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE South Sulawesi Province, represents the eastern regions of Indonesia with varying topographical and climatic conditions. The provinces represent the area with a long history of

189

An example of wooden control structure for Fork type at anjir

Terantang tidal irrigation scheme

traditional kingdoms with various traditional irrigation practices, previously with vast shifting cultivations. South Sulawesi Province, as a province at the south west peninsula of Sulawesi Island has an unofficial name as: ‘Rice barn of Eastern Indonesia’. This unofficial name is not without reasons. Development of paddy irrigation system started in 1842, initiated by King ‘Aru Mampu’. During the second and the third decades of the twentieth century, the Dutch Colonial Government had introduced “Irrigation-Based Transmigration Program” in South Sulawesi by constructing a number of medium scale irrigation schemes in line with a large barrage for agricultural, and power generation in Sadang River. Several reservoirs were developed in the area during the Five Year Development Period with a distinct multiple purpose GENERAL MAP OF SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE

Banda Aceh

Medan


Pangkal Pinang

Padang

Bengkulu

Bandar Lampung


Yogyakarta

Surabaya

DenpasarMataram

Kupang

AmbonFakfak

JayapuraNabire

ManadoGorontalo

Palu

Ujung Pandang

Banjarmasin

Samarinda

Palangkaraya

Pontianak

Kendari

Ternate

Jakarta

Palembang

Jambi

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

PHILIPINA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPURA

P. Sumatera

P. Sulawesi

P. Kalimantan

P. Jawa

P. Papua



189


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dam for raw water supplies, power, agriculture, and flood protection in the Jeneberang River. The province today, is amongst the most developed areas in the eastern region, with the support of strong traditional water user’s association (Popularly known as “Tudang Sipulung”), making the area as one of the major rice producing areas in Indonesia.

In 1912 the Dutch Colonial Government started its effort to implement substantial irrigation development in this area. The development of ‘Bantimurung’ Irrigation Scheme was the first medium scale irrigation project implemented by the Dutch Colonial Government, followed by the Saddang Irrigation Development in 1930. The Saddang Irrigation Scheme of 62,000 ha is the largest irrigation scheme served by one single weir out site of Java Island, or the third largest in entire Indonesia after Rentang at 90,000 ha and Walahar at 80,000 ha.

Before the Benteng Barrage, the main headwork of the scheme, was constructed there were some small schemes previously developed by the Dutch Colonial Government in this area.

At present (2004), the total irrigated agricultural lands in Souths Sulawesi, including swamps and raifed aeas is currently at 991,545 hectares consisted of 511,015 hectares of irrigated paddy fields, 231,810 hectares of rainfed paddy fields, and 248,720 hectares of others

1 Technical Irrigation 234,413 2 Semi Technical Irrigation 75,913 3 Simple/Village Irrigation 200,689 4 Ground Water Irrigation N.A 5 Other Irrigation (Swamps, Fish Ponds) 248,720 6 Rainfed paddy field 231,810
Total 991,545
Source: Agriculture Survey 2003, Central Board of Statistics. 7.11.2. EXAMPLES OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE To give a general feature about irrigation development in South Sulawesi Province, the examples below are presented without necessarily representing irrigation characteristic in the

irrigated paddy fields category. See Table 7.16 below for further details.

Table 7.16. Irrigated paddy field area by irrigation type in South Sulawesi, 2002

No. Irrigation Type Area (ha)



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area. The examples only give highlight of some of the large and medium scale irrigation schemes with large barrage for agricultural, as well as multiple purpose dams for raw water supplies, power, agriculture, and flood control that has been developed in the province during the Colonial Era and during the Five Year Development Period.

a) Lerang waterleiding, Pattiro, and Palakka Irrigation Schemes The first weir and irrigation canal developed by the Dutch Colonial Government was Lerang Waterleiding Irrigation scheme in the Kingdom of Bone, with a command area of 100 ha, located at about 22 km from Watampone Town. The scheme was built in 1919 as a pilot model and a precondition of settlement of the people suffered from leprosyrous disease in the area.

Following this pilot scheme, in 1923 two irrigation shemes further initiated. These were Pattiro and Palakka Irrigation schemes, which were only completed in 1925.



The marble inscription of Lerang Waterleiding

Irrigation Scheme, noted the construction of this scheme

in 1919

b) Bantimurung Irrigation Scheme



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Bantimurung irrigation scheme is located in the south region of the province within the vicinity of Makassar Peninsula. This, in fact is one of the oldest medium scale irrigation schemes built by the Dutch Colonial Government in the Outer Islands. The total command area of this irrigation scheme is about 7,100 hectares, but currently only 6,513 ha under the fully effective irrigation condition. Based on local manuscript, the development of this area was initiated by King ‘Arung Mampu’. In the notes of the King, the construction implementation was started in 1824 by excavating a canal from resourceful springs near the famous Bantimurung water fall, extended through the limestone canal alignment. Having the fact that the canal alignment extended through the limestone area, it was found that the water conveyance losses was substantially high. In an effort to maximize the water potential of this scheme, in 1912 the Dutch Authority took initiative to construct a weir in Battimurung River at about three km downstream of the water fall. This location was selected in attempting to avoid canal excavation at the limestone alignment. Subsequently, the construction of the weir followed by construction of irrigation canals, diversion structures, as well as other related appurtenance structures. Eventually, the development of the entire area of Bantimurung with a total irrigation command area of 7,100 hectares was completed in 1920. Given the physical feature that most of the command area Bantimurung area is situated at the flat plain, after a number of years irrigation practices it was discovered that the area must be facilitated with drainage and flood control infrastructures to make the area more reliable. For this reason, the Dutch Colonial Authority undertook subsequent drainage and flood control works for this scheme 1925.

c) Saddang Irrigation Scheme Saddang Irratigation Scheme is located in the west side of central part of the province covering a total command area of 62,000 hectares. This scheme is considered to be the largest irrigation area served by one individual weir in the Outer Islands, the third largest single irrigation scheme in Indonesia. Irrigation water for this scheme is diverted from Saddang


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River through Benteng Barrage (after the name of the Benteng Village, in which this weir is located. With regards to the chronological process of this irrigation scheme, the initial project study ion was conducted in 1910, which concluded that the area has a resourceful potential area for irrigated agricultural development. In 1913, J.A.M van Bruuren, a Dutch Study Team Leader,

hence the project left abandoned. Nevertheless, some 28,000 hectares out of the planned 62,000 hectares were completed and functioned.

In the context of irrigation management, the water Water from Benteng Barrage is regularly diverted to the paddy fields’ command area through three main canals, i.e. North Saddang Main Canal with a command area of 5,000 ha, Rappang Main Canal and Sawitto Main Canal with a total command area of about 57,000 ha. The subsequent construction of North Saddang Main Canal was only started during the period after independence and rehabilitated within the First Long Term Development (PJP-I), between 1969 and 1994. Within the said PJP-I all of the remaining works were completed and a total of 62,000 hectares of paddy field (as planned) has been under the well managed irrigation area.

For sustaining the effective function of this scheme, comprehensive rehabilitation works were conducted in 1972 with special emphasis on irrigation canal networks, without including the drainage networks. In the context of drainage potential, a separate study was conducted in 1977 and concluded that drainage works for Saddang Scheme has but only low economic viability. In turned, similar conclusions were also resulted with other drainage projects financed by the World Bank in Indonesia, e.g. Ciujung-Cisadane, and Pemali Comal
Irrigation Schemes. Nevertheless, the Ciujung drainage works was though constructed with special non-technical consideration.
7.12. GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT The exploration of groundwater for irrigation and domestic water supply has been implemented since long time ago particularly in densely populated areas in Java, Madura, and Bali Islands. The farmers had made various structures for extracting groundwater, such as

reported that the total potential area of this scheme suitable for irrigated agricultural development was about 120,000 ha.

In 1930, the planning phase of Saddang Irrigation Development was initiated. However, due to economic crises, the progress of technical design works was very slow. Topographic survey works were completed in 1933 and all of the design works were only completed in 1936.

At the following year, in 1937 the construction implementation was started, and scheduled to be completed in 1942. In turned, however, it was happened that in 1942 the Dutch Colonial Ruler was surrendered to the Japanese Soldiers, and

Benteng Barrage at Saddang River



192

shallow wells, water ponds, small boreholes, ordinary household well and the likes.


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193

Since early 1971, Directorate General of Water Resources Development (DGWRD), Ministry of Public Works (MPW) has initiated several activities in groundwater development. It was noted that the potential of groundwater for irrigation presently estimated at about 281,750 hectares. The government establishes a Sub-directorate of Groundwater Development (PAT) under the Directorate of Irrigation, DGWRD who was responsible for groundwater development. Presently PAT managed by Directorate of Technical Guidance, DGWRD. At early 1990’s groundwater projects had been established in seventeen provinces. In the implementation of groundwater development for supporting irrigated agriculture, the following criteria are applied: i) It should be intensive cultivation and densely populated areas; ii) It should be dray land or rainfed areas, where no surface water irrigation practiced; iii) Good water quality and with adequate quantity; iv) Soil type should be suitable for paddy or other high value crops; v) There would be no problem of land for constructing irrigation schemes; vi) There should be good respond from farmers and local government; vii) There should be easy access for marketing of agricultural products; viii) The area to be irrigated should not be so far from the main road;
ix) The area should not be flood prone area; and x) Instrumental for of alleviating poverty. 7.12.1. TUBE-WELL MANAGEMENT For appropriate implementation of tube-well, routine maintenance of wells, pumps, and engines have to be conducted on regular basis. For the case of groundwater tube-well under the Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, regular


193

maintenance works were performed by the staff of Groundwater Development Project (P2AT), such as daily checking, refueling and lubricating of pump engine. Each tube-well must be properly checked every 250 hours operation. If during the regular checking some demands for resolving minor operational problems are identified, the pump operator will notify the workshop and mechanics team to dispatched operation and maintenance mechanic as soon as possible, to avoid subsequent major problems. In case major repair and/of overhaul of engine or pump are demanded, then the repair must be undertaken by special mechanic at the central workshop. For the purpose of appropriate water distribution management, each individual water user must apply for water delivery request through chief of irrigation block to the Water Master who will subsequently convey the request to the pump’s operator for operating the pumps in accordance with the previously agreed water delivery schedule. In this regard, the pump’s operator should keep the logbook records of the pump operation for further water management evaluation. Depending upon the nature of groundwater utilization, the provincial government may set up some sort of regulatory instrument for appropriate groundwater management in the province in questioned. For instance, in East Java Province, the development and management of groundwater for irrigated agriculture has been formally constituted through the Governor’s Decree No. 700 of 1992 followed by Provincial Irrigation Services’ Decree regarding technical guidance of implementation of groundwater development and management.


History in Brief

194

7.12.2. TUBE-WELL OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE Considering the levels of technology that are required for development and management of tube-well, it is obvious that operation and maintenance (O&M) requirement of tube-well is practically more complicated relative to O&M of conventional surface irrigation. The rationales for this complication explained as follows:

i) Tube-well O&M involves large diesel engine and pump, which must be maintained by manual operation;

ii) O&M of pumping irrigations are mostly of new experiences for farmers; iii) Operation cost per hectare is quite high, continuous financial supports might be required;

at least until the farmers have developed adequate financial capacity; iv) In line with the government policy, the O&M of tube-well and other equipment should be

taken over to the water user’s association after two years initial period.

For these reasons, O&M procedures of tube-well, has to be formalized subject to prior agreement with the water user’s association, stating their willingness to participate in maintenance and operation of the installed tube-well schemes. Based upon the past experiences, some constrains have been faced in O&M of tube-wells, among others: i) Most of pumps are ex-import and not easily available in the local market; ii) After-sale maintenance workshops are mostly remote from the pump location; iii) Tube-well has to be cleaned and serviced periodically, while the knowledge and capability

of the farmers are limited; and iv) Recovery capital and O&M costs are beyond the ability of the farmers to pay.

Given the above rationales, the concept of O&M of tube-wells has currently been recommended, at least until the farmer have developed adequate financial capacity, the O&M of canals and pump stations will be under the responsibility of the beneficiaries, while the
major repairs, tube-well maintenance, replacement of pumps and engines to be supported by the government. 7.13. FLOOD CONTROL WORKS In an attempt to minimize the impacts of flood disaster, a series of flood control works in terms of structural approach have been carried out in some of the flood prone areas in


194

Indonesia. The flood protection works varied from the most urgent repressive priority preventive measures, as well as emergency works for improvement of the behavior and regime of the rivers. Due to the fact that most of rivers in Indonesia are of unstable categories, the frequent flood incidents have almost been brought about severe damages to the river regimes, even under the low floods. Therefore, most of flood prevention works in Indonesia are mostly associated with rehabilitation and regular improvement of the river regimes. The damages of river channels occurred quite frequently and such urgent works have almost become routine flood prevention activities – and hence such urgent works are considered as the first category of flood control works. The second category of structural flood control works usually associates with the scattered river damages that have immediate impacts to particular human settlement, agricultural or industrial areas. The criteria for determining the priority are dictated by the magnitude of the


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195

damages, scope of works, including the nature of repair works as well as budgetary requirements. Base on the criteria, the budget allocation might be placed at annual program, contingency budgetary program, or to be included in the special development projects. The third category of flood control works is associated with comprehensive river improvement works, including among others, river short cuts and channel improvement works. In fact, river short cuts hade been initiated in Indonesia since 1830’s at Citandui River improvement works, West Java Province.

Following the structural flood control works categories, a series of comprehensive flood control works have been implemented in Indonesia during the period of the First Long Term Development (PJP-I), between 1968 and 1994, as listed below:

i) Krueng Aceh Flood Control Project in Aceh Province, for protecting Banda Aceh Town, the capital town of the province, from regular floods of Krueng Aceh River;

ii) Arakundo Flood Control also in located in Aceh Province, for protecting Jambuaye Irrigation Area and some public roads in the vicinity areas;

iii) Sungai Wampu-Sarangan Flood Control in North Sumatra Province, for protecting oil palm and rubber estates;

iv) Sei Deli Flood Control also in North Sumatra, for protecting Medan, the Capital City of the province.

v) Sei Ular Flood Control in North Sumatra, for protecting the famous ‘Deli’ tobacco and oil palm estates;

vi) Padang Flood Control in West Sumatra, for protecting Padang City, the capital of West Sumatra Province;

vii) Jakarta Flood Control, for protecting Jakarta Metropolitan City, the capital of Indonesia – this flood control work is still underway for the long future;

viii) Citarum River Basin and Cimanuk River Basin Flood Control in West Java; ix) Kali Serang and Bengawan Solo Flood Control in Central Java; x) Kali Brantas River Basin Flood Control in East Java; and xi) Jene Berang Flood Control in South Sulawesi Province. Due to the constraint faced by the government to provide adequate budgetary support during the past development phases, the project priorities were only set up for the urgent works, and postponed the least urgent one, and hence, most of these projects are still currently needing for continuous improvement to be able to perform their function in accordance with the
previously intended protection level. For illustration, some examples of Flood Control works in Indonesia are outlined hereunder:
7.13.1. SEMARANG FLOOD CONTROL The vast growing of Semarang, the capital of Central Java Province, began after the Compulsory Agricultural Policy applied in Indonesia by the Dutch Colonial Government in 1830. At that time, the vast growing of Semarang was also accelerated by the support of



195

import as well as export activities through the Semarang Harbor. Since then, Semarang and its vicinity areas have been expanding significantly both for urban settlement, industrial as well as agricultural trades. The topographical condition of Semarang consists of hilly areas at the upper region and low lying areas as approaching north to Java Sea coastal areas.


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196

The upper regions, which free from flood problems, are resided by the high and middle level societies. While the lower regions of the town are mostly for public utilities and residential areas, where mostly resided by middle and low level societies. In the western part of the lower region, a river named Semarang River flowing eastward and at the center of the town, the river turns to northward and emptying to the Java Sea. Before 1871, the Lower Semarang was free from flood. In 1871 the several Landlords in the vicinity agricultural areas along the Semarang River – after suffered from occasional flood – decided to make embankment along the bank of Semarang River to prevent their lands from overflow of the Semarang River. However, the construction of embankment was not based on comprehensive study, and hence the embankment has ever since brought about a negative impact to the escalation of flood discharge of Semarang River and resulted with frequent flood incident in West Semarang area. In attempting to resolve the frequent flood problems, in 1874 the Dutch Colonial Government establish a flood control project referred to as the Semarang Flood Control Project. The main objective of the project was to protect the western part of Semarang from occasional flood due to overflow of Semarang River by constructing a flood way named West Flood Way. This flood way was then determined as the administrative boundary of Semarang in the west. In the mean time, the Eastern part of Semarang, which has six rivers flowing in it, also suffered from frequent floods. To tackle the problem, in 1896 the Dutch Colonial Government conducted the second stage of Semarang Flood Control Works, named East Flood Way Project. The main work of the project was construction of the East Flood Channel and other river improvement works. It took nine years before the flood control project was completed in 1905. This flood way was determined as the administrative boundary of Semarang in the east. Due to rapid growth of Semarang particularly eastward of the town across the East Flood Way, more attention had subsequently been paid to flood prevention of this area. In 1920 East
Flood Way extended eastward to prevent the new developed areas of the Semarang Municipality.
7.13.2. DEMAK PLAIN FLOOD CONTROL For resolving the problem of frequent flood in the Central java Region, another important flood control work was also conducted in the Demak Plain. The Geographical boundary of Demak Plain (see Figure 7.13.1) are bounded West with Tuntang River; North with Java Sea;



196

East with Serang River; and South with the hill foot, extended from Purwodadi Town westward to Tuntang River. Apart from the severe flood indents, the area also suffered occasionally with drought problems. There were occasional dreadful famine disasters in the Demak plain between 1848 and 1849. During which, hundred of thousands of people died of starvation. The famine was repeated in 1872 where ten-thousands of people died. After 1872’s famine, Dutch Colonial Government established a team consists of former Minister of Public Works, former Head of Pekalongan Resident, and former Head of Semarang Resident Government Administration. In the effort to prevent the repetitive famine from happening in the Demak Region, the Team recommended some structural measures including among others: To undertake improvement and development of irrigation and drainage systems; flood prevention works; and development of transportation networks.


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197

Implementation of the follow-up recommendation was the subsequent establishment of Demak Irrigation Project (Demaksche Werken). Irrigation development implementation is discussed in Section 5.5.2., while the drainage and flood control is briefly discussed in this
section. River networks in the entire Demak Plain is presented in Figure 7.13.2.
Figure 7.13.1. Geographical boundaries of Demak Plain

Mt Muria+ 1,602

To Surabaya

Semarang

JuanaPatiKudus

Demak

Klambu

Juana River

Lusi River

Rive

r

Purwodadi

Blora

Godong

Boundaryof Demak Plain

Sera

nR

ig

ver



197

Sera

ng

Kedungombo DamRawa Pening

Not To Scale Figure 7. 13.2. Main River Flowing in to Demak Plain


History in Brief



198

198

During flood seasons, Tuntang River and Serang River most of the time overtopped and inundated the land areas between them. The inflow capacity of the rivers exceeds the capacity of drainage system in the area between the two rivers, so not be able to catch up the drainage capacity to prevent the area from temporary inundation area during flood. Consequently, the irrigation command areas as well as the urban area of Demak town suffered from frequent flood incidents. To resolve this problem, the government undertook the necessary efforts to improve the drainage system in the areas between Tuntang and Serang Rivers by remodeling the drainage system, constructing new drainage canals, and improvement of local streams of the existing drainage canals. Drainage improvement implemented was regarded as the first step of flood control works for the Demak Plain.

The second stage is construction of flood embankment on both sides of Tuntang River as well as Serang River. While the third step was river improvement works consisted of improvement of Tuntang and Serang River channels. The Tuntang River Improvement Works consisted of improvement of river channel by enlarging the channel, construction of short cut, and improvement of river mouth down to the sea, as well as construction of embankments along both sides of the river banks. Therefore, improvement of Tuntang River was not only to prevent Demak plain and Demak Town from flooding, but also to prevent the left side of the river, which belongs to other local government administrative boundary.

Given the fact that the improvement works of Serang River were more complicated relative to the Tuntang River having the catchment area of Serang River larger than Tuntang River, therefore, improvement works of Serang River were divided into three stages, namely:

Stage-I., which consisted of: Construction of left embankment, started in 1880’s; and Improvement of downstream part of river system, started in 1890’s.

Upon the completion of Stage-I of Serang River Improvement Works as well as Tuntang River Improvement Works, the Demak Plain, including Demak Town, had been protected from over-topping of Serang and Tuntang Rivers. And hence, the irrigation systems in the plain were also safely protected from frequent floods. However, in 1902 there was a notable flood occurred almost within the entire area of the eastern part of north coast of Central Java. In this flood incident the eastern Semarang area was suffered at most, while the Demak plain was not as significant as the Eastern Semarang areas.

Learning from the most recent flood occurrence, it was apparent that the completion of Stage-I of the flood protection works did not fully freed the Demak plain from flood. In fact, there were still two remaining problems which need further attention. First, the enlargement of capacity of Serang River mouth and second, was the demand for proportional diversion of excess flood discharge to Babalan River at the up-stream part of Juana River, by constructing Wilalung Flood Diversion Weir. These Works were implemented as the Stage-II of the Serang River Improvement Work. At the subsequent phase, after construction of flood diversion weir, Juana plain along Juana River banks will be affected by flood due to flood additional discharge diverted to Babalan (Juana) River, which was implemented at Stage-II. This problem was planned to be resolved at Stage-III of the Serang River improvement work.

For illustration see Figure 7.13.3 which presents the overall condition of Serang River before Flood Control Program was implemented, while Figure 7.13.4 presents a schematic diagram of Stage-I and Stage-II of Serang River Improvement Works.



JAVA SEA BABALAN

Mt. MURIA

GEMPOLSONGO

Pecangaan River

K. MAYONG

K. GELIS

Serang River

K. SERANG

MENEO

JETAK

JUNGSEMIK. LEMBON



199

TANGGUL ANGIN

BABALAN K. JUANA

TO KUDUSTO DEMAK

K. SE

RA

NG

K. SERANG

K. SE

RA

NG

K. LUSI

GODONG PENAWANGAN

WILALUNG

Figure 7.13.3. Schematic Diagram of Serang River Before Implementation of Improvement Program



GEMPOL SONGO

JAVA SEA

Pecangaan River

Mayong River

Gelis R

iver

Lower Serang

Welahan RiverRiver

Wulan RiverM

URIACANALJETAK

Mt. MURIA



200

TANGGUL ANGIN

BABALAN

PRANOTO SWAMP

Juana River

TO KUDUS

TO DEMAK

Serang River

Serang River

Serang Ri ver

Lusi RiverGODONG

PENAWANGAN

WILALUNG

Wilalung Flood Diversion Weir

LEGEND :: Short Cut: Embankment: Colmatage Canal: Main Road

Figure 7.13.4. Schematic Figure of Serang River System after Improvement of Stage-I and II

201

Stage-III of the Serang River Improvement Program was focused on the improvement of downstream site of Serang River and protection of Juana Plain along Juana River banks from flood over-flow. This program was started in 1980, but due a number of constrains, the works had yet managed to resolved the underlying problems, and hence there still a lot of remaining improvement works to be do for completely protecting Demak and Juana Plains from flood.




201

The scopes of works that were expected to give further attention in the successive improvement works were among others:

1) Improvement and enlargement of Wulan River at downstream part of Serang River; 2) Improvement of Wulan River embankments; 3) Construction of Goleng spillway; 4) Extension of the old Serang River coarse from Goleng spillway downward; 5) Extension of the Welahan River to collect water from local streams; and 6) Rearrangement and modification of flood discharge diversions through Wilalung Flood

Diversion Weir.

For further details, see the schematic figure of Serang River improvement Stage-III as presented in Figure 7.13.5, below.



The Old Serang River

Bum River

Welahan River

Wulan River

JAVA SEA

Mt. MURIA



202

LEGEND :: Short Cut: Embankment: Flood Spill Way

: Main Rood: Flood Diversion Weir

Juana River

TO KUDUS

TO DEMAK

Gelis River

Serang River

Serang River

Lusi River

Goleng Spill Way


Figure 7.13.5. Schematic Diagram Serang River Improvement Stage-III

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Chapter VIII. Summary and Conclusions

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CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

8.1. GENERAL OVERVIEW
Indonesia, the world largest tropical archipelago in consists of five major islands, and some 30 smaller islands, totaling at about 17,508 islands and isles, of which about 6,000 are inhibited. The archipelago with a total area of 5,193,150 km2 – of which the 2,027,087 km2 of land territory is mostly covered with thick tropical rain forest where fertile soils are continuously replenished by volcanic eruptions, particularly on Java Island. The name that Indonesia has chosen for itself refers to a land of oceans and seas, with a necklace of islands, islets, reefs and volcanoes, a vast garland stretching along the equator on the borders of Asia and Australia, the Indian and the Pacific oceans. The overall population is estimated at about 228 million people (2004) with the growth rate at 1.5%, consisted of 356 ethnics and tribal groups, 583 local languages; 87% Moslem, 9% Christian, 2% Hindu and others. This densely populated tropical archipelago has a distinct history of irrigated agricultural practices that could be traced back to the ancient time, even during decades of BC. Correspondingly, the irrigation history almost coexist with agricultural practices, no matter how simple the technology it was. 8.1.1. WATER RESOURCES The overall accessible water resources potential of Indonesia is estimated at about 2,530 km3, (about 1,847,246 m3/annum) scattered over river basins throughout the archipelago, of which about 2% (96m3/capita/year) is currently utilized for agriculture at about 76%, domestic at about 11.5%, and industries at about 13,5%. These water resources are scattered throughout the country flowing over at about 5,886 rivers and tributaries with the overall length of about 18,000 km. The major rivers are also served for substantial inland transportation. On Java Island, rivers are dominantly utilized for irrigation. Meanwhile, the lowlands areas at a total of 33.4 million ha (consisted 20.1 million ha of tidal lowlands, and 13.3 million ha inland swamp) in the eastern coast of Sumatra and Papua, with a number of the outer islands’ of about 521 scenic lakes, altogether are highly potential for supporting irrigated agricultural development. 8.1.2. AGRICULTURE Agriculture is Indonesia's major economic activity. The farms are large plantations where coffee, palm oil, rubber, sugarcane, tea and tobacco are raised for export. Indonesia is a large producer of rice which is the main crop grown on small farms. Bananas, cassava, coconuts, maize, peanuts, spices and sweet potatoes are also grown. Major cash crop in Indonesia is


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rubber, which is exported. The total arable land area of Indonesia is 181.17 M ha of which, some 30.2 M ha is permanently cropped area, while non-arable lands contribute 150.98 M ha. Forests and woodlands enable Indonesia to produce large amounts of valuable hardwoods like teak and ebony. Bamboo is also produced in abundance. Estate management and agriculture is widely practiced on Java and Sumatra whereas on other islands the estates are fewer. Soils in Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Sumatra are poor because of excessive leaching by heavy rains and irrigation is needed where rainfall is less than 1,000 mm while the extensive swampy soils of


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the alluvial plains of Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Papua require drainage before being put into useful cultivation. a) The Role of Agriculture: In 2000 some 73.22% of the total land area is devoted to agriculture. Land area for estates accounted the largest of around 16.7 million hectares, arable dry land approximately 12.9 million hectares, woods around 8.8 million hectares and wet land around 7.8 million hectares. The smallest was land used for brackish and fresh-water pond, which covered only 0.5 million hectares and 0.2 million hectares respectively. The rest of 17.2 million hectares constituted of temporarily fallow land (9.7 million hectares), house compound and surrounding (5.2 million hectares) and grassland (2.2 million hectares). Despite this, agriculture’s contribution to the country GDP’s, in 2000, accounted for only 16.39% against 26.11% of manufacturing industry.

b) Agricultural Policy and Strategy: Early in 1970’s, agricultural policy in Indonesia has been primarily concerned with implementing production-based policies designed to pursue food self-sufficiency. Since 1967, Indonesia’s agricultural development policy has been focused on achieving food self-sufficiency in rice. This goal was reached in 1984, when, for the first time, domestic rice production exceeded domestic rice consumption.

The agricultural development is carried out through a strategy that is aimed at increasing optimum benefit of domestic resources, extending agricultural development spectrum through technology diversification, resources, production and consumption, improving the application of local and applicable technology, engineering, and improving agricultural productivities. In order to increase rice output, the Indonesian government was forced to expand cultivated land area. This expansion was accomplished by investing large amounts of government funds into infrastructure projects, such as the development of new irrigation networks as well as roads and agricultural processing facilities. The strategy to expand cultivated land area also
relied on Indonesia's transmigration program. This program involved moving families out of the densely populated areas on the Inner Islands and resettling them on previously sparsely populated areas on the Outer Islands. 8.2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 8.2.1. ANCIENT HISTORY Irrigation history in Indonesia has been significantly related with lowland paddies as the staple diet of the people since the ancient time. In this regards, no evidence had been indicating the exact time when irrigated paddies was initially practiced in Indonesia, except


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some stone inscriptions indicating that lowland paddies had long been known in Indonesia. Likewise, no exact evidence that could presently explains the origin of lowland paddies. A number of scholars argued that in Southeast Asia in particular, the traditional communities with distinct agricultural based civilization had already existed, which believed to be much comparable with other civilizations in Asia, even with ancient Indian. Another scholar argues that the ancient migrants of Don-Sun Civilization from Asian continent during the decades of BC stranded in the Brantas Delta of the Eastern Java Island and ever-since decided to settle at the Kediri Area (as known today). During that period, they mutually practiced their livelihood based on civilization they brought along from their place of origin, including upland paddy cultivation. After settled for some time and learning from experience, they gradually expanded irrigated agricultural techniques by inventing simple irrigation for lowland paddies. Having experienced the prospective livelihood in the new


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invented destination, they then decided to settle in this area for good. This ancient civilization is evidently believed to be the origin of irrigated agricultural practices in Indonesian Archipelago (Angoedi A., 1984. pp.3, 4.).

8.2.2. THE HINDU ERA According to the existing folklore as well as some ancient inscriptions, there are adequate
reasons to believe that irrigation development in Indonesia must had been practiced longer before the Hindu people came to the area. Much of the traditional legends in the community elucidate that at the time of the fist Hindu generation came to Indonesia, they came across that the ancient inhabitant had already widely practiced lowland paddies’ plantations on Java Island. Since paddy is an aquatic plant and paddy plantation was discovered by the first Hindu migrants to be widely cultivated by the local people in the lowlands areas of Java, there must had been intervention or involvement of irrigation technique, disregarding however simple it was.
Based on a number of stone inscriptions on Java Island, it is strongly argued that during the Hindu Era, the peoples had widely practiced irrigation for paddies. For illustration, the stone inscription from Dharmawangsa Emperor dated 958 Caka-Year or 1037 AD stated that a series of dyke construction works were undertaken by the emperor at the Waringin Sapta, next to the Brantas river banks for protecting human settlement as well as agricultural areas in the vicinity the middle reach of the Brantas River Basin (belongs to the East Java Province, today). In addition, another stone inscription of the Tulodong Kingdom mentions about the
tax exemption for Bari (a Hindu priest, and his descendants), for constructing the Harinjing and Srinjing irrigation infrastructures at the western lowland basin of Kediri and Daha Kingdoms of the eastern Java Island (Wirosumarto, S., 1997, pp. 3-4).
8.2.3. TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL HERITAGES With regards of the historical evidences on irrigation, however, it must be acknowledged that the overview presented for ancient history of irrigation has yet come to its ultimate extent. In fact, there are a number of traditional irrigated agricultural practices that had been descended



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from ancient Indonesian civilizations such as -- the “Subak” System in Bali Province, “Dawur Pranatamangsa” in Central and East Java Provinces, “Tuo Banda” or “Siak Bandar” in West Sumatra Province, “Tudang Sipulung” in South Sulawesi, “Panriahan Pamokkahanan” and ”Siauga Parjolo” in North Sumatra, “Panitia Siring” in South Sumatra and Bengkulu Provinces, including some institutional based traditional agriculture such as “Ulu-ulu desa”, and “Ulu-ulu Vak” in Central Java, “Raksa Bumi” in West Java, “Ili-ili” in East Java, “Malar” or “Ponggawa” in Sumbawa Island, and “Kejrueng Blang” in Aceh Province -- and yet still currently being implemented in many of today’s irrigated agricultural communities in the respective areas. These in themselves are the concrete explanation of the past existence of irrigation based agricultural practices, though they do not give indication of the exact date of the initial inventions. Whoever might be the inventors of the ancient irrigation agricultural techniques, they must have been based on systematical observations and long-term trials and errors to meet and adjust with the existing demands and constrains from generation to generations. Above all, the implementation of ancient techniques must have been based on appropriate and long-term educational extensions, given the presumption of the absence of formal education and appropriate training techniques in those days.


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8.2.4. THE ANCIENT HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES As far as irrigation history of Indonesia is concerned, there are currently three major milestones that could provide comprehensible evidence to uncover the historical background



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of the early irrigation development and management practices in Indonesia. These are the Harinjing stone inscriptions to be found at the Kepung village, Pare District, within the Brantas River Basin, East Java Province. The first and the earlier stone inscription dated back to the year of 726 of Caka Calendar, or 808 AD. The second inscription dated back to the year of 843 Caka Calendar, or 921 AD. The third stone inscription dated back to the year of 849 Caka Calendar, or 727 AD (Angoedi, 1984, p.25). The three stone inscriptions reveal that a community leader named Bhogawanta Bori from the village of Culunggi had been bestowed by the King Warok Dyah Manarah with a special privilege in terms of exemption of property taxes for his outstanding accomplishment to build the Harinjing River Dyke for water diversion, and flood prevention for agriculture and human settlement at tributary of the Brantas River Basin. The Harinjing stone inscriptions are presently kept at the National Museum in Jakarta, while the Kali Harinjing Tributary as mentioned in the inscription is now recognized as the Kali Serinjing Tributary, located at the junction of three river tributaries of the Brantas Basin, namely, Kali Konto, Kali Besowo, and Kali Nambang river tributaries. Given the facts that the three river tributaries regularly encounter with volcanic debris’ floods from Mount Kelud, the Harinjing Dyke had occasionally breached, and at present, only two big boulders of the dyke foundation left at the Kali Serinjing Tributary. From a stone inscription dated back to the year of 907 AD, it was said that at the year of 823 AD, the Ancient Mataram Kingdom ruled by Raja Pikatan Emperor with an administrative territory covers the Central and East Java. From this inscription it revealed that the ancestry of Ancient Mataram Kingdom, as a major irrigation based kingdom in Central Java, was descended from the Raja Sanjaya Emperor. Later on, the Ancient Mataram Kingdom of Tulodong (924-929 AD) moved the center of kingdom administration from Central Java to East Java. Since the two regions were administered under the Ancient Mataram Kingdom, the irrigated agriculture in these two regions (currently as two autonomous provinces), remain as among the most advanced in Indonesia today. From a number of historical evidences, the Majapahit Kingdom (1293-1520 AD) had the most significant influence on the history of irrigation in Indonesia. Other kingdoms also had their respective contribution to other aspects of the country’s development, but not as significant as the Majapahit Kingdom for irrigation history of the country. a) The Oldest Irrigation Structure on Java Island: The oldest inscriptions on irrigation works in Indonesia indicate that the first irrigation infrastructure in Indonesia was constructed at the Tugu Village near the Cilincing River on the Fifth Century AD. The Tugu stone inscription placed at the Tugu Village near Cilincing River, Northern Jakarta, however, for preservation, the original inscription has been kept at the National Museum under the registration number D.124 (Angoedi, 1984., p.28). Another historical evidence translated by Prof. Dr. R. Ng. Purbatjaraka reveals that the King of Purnawaman declared his Executive Order to excavate a short-cut channel at River Candrabhaga for allowing the river flown directly to the sea, along the downstream site of the palace of Candara Bhaga (Some people suggest that the river site is known today as the Bekasi River). While a study based on geo-morphological analysis suggests that the Candra


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Bhaga site is currently at Cakung River. This stone inscription indicates that since the Fifth Century AD, flood and drainage problems have already been encountered the ancient city of Jakarta. Since the discovery of Purbacaraka stated above, the Harinjing Dyke (Katon, East Java) that had been previously renown as the oldest hydraulic structure in Indonesia (804 AD) has now kept aside by the most recently discovered evidence of construction of short cut channel of Cakung River at Chandra Bhaga (the Fifth Century AD). b) The First Rehabilitation Work on Irrigation: According to other stone inscription unearthed from the ruin of the Harinjing Weir of Brantas River, it was recorded that the Harinjing Weir, which was erected in the year of 804 AD, had undertaken an unprecedented rehabilitation work on irrigation structure in 1350 AD. The construction work for the weir was said to implement permanently for unlimited time horizon, however, the weir had been reportedly flushed away several times due to catastrophic occurrences. From the ancient experience on irrigation rehabilitation, it becomes obvious that the hydraulic infrastructures for irrigation and other related purposes would need rehabilitative works, on top of the routine operation and maintenance. No matter how feasible and robust the construction had been commenced, the rehabilitation works, even at this modern day, is not unavoidable. This especially the case when the construction works took part at the volcanic disaster-prone area. As a matter of fact, it is quite admiring that the ancient work of Harinjing irrigation weir of the Kali Brantas River had evidently been long lasted for at least for 546 years before the first rehabilitation work was undertaken. c) Ancient Irrigation Technical Staff: During the Hindu Era, construction implementation for medium and large irrigation schemes constructed through the executive order of the King. The irrigation infrastructure, which would be constructed under the executive order of the king, refers to as the “dawuhan” or “commandment” (of the King). For implementing the construction execution of the “dawuhan”, the King authorizes irrigation technical staffs to act for, or on behalf of the King. According to information obtained from ancient stone inscription, it was stated that the assigned irrigation technicians in practice, did not involved directly with construction execution. Instead, the royal irrigation technicians authorized the local technical staff from the village to conduct the construction execution, and subsequently responsible for conducting irrigation operation as well as water allocation from the constructed weirs down to the farmlands. In spite of this, there is no information, what so ever stated the physical dimensions of irrigation structures referred to. It was stated by an anonymous historian, however, that the physical configuration of a field reservoir area in the Pikatan village had an estimated dimension of about 175 m by 350 m with the total storage capacity of about 350,000 m3. The reservoir was also utilized for military fortification during the Era of Majapahit Kingdom. This evidence explained that, apart from the advanced irrigation technique, the Kingdom of Majapahit had, its capital town also utilized the hydraulic structure
as the military defense system to prevent the capital of the kingdom from potential attack of the enemy. 8.2.5. THE COLONIAL ERA The Dutch started their venture to Indonesian Archipelago in 1596 by Cornelis de Houtman to seek spices. For facilitating the spice trade activities, the Dutch Government established the so


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called the “Vereenigde Oost Indiche Compagnie -- VOC” or the Dutch East India Company


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in 1602 with the aim as to exploit the spice islands in the Indonesian Spice Archipelago for European market. As the VOC’s merchant fleets were often not free from pirate attacks, therefore, their sailings to East were later on accompanied by Dutch warship escorts. Following the nationalization of the Dutch East India Trading Company by the Dutch Government in 1799, the exploitation of Indonesian commodities for Europe developed into Dutch suzerainty over Indonesian territories where the people on such territories were levied by force or monopolistic to make agricultural tributes to the Dutch. The Capital Sunda Kelapa was replaced by the Dutch name “Batavia” (or Jakarta today), (IIN, 2002, p.21, and Badrika, I.W., et.al., 1993, p.184). Early at the beginning of the Dutch Colonial Era in Indonesia (referred to by the Dutch Colonial Government as the “Netherlands Indie”) not much effort were addressed to irrigation development due to their special attention on spice trade. This was the case because the Dutch still give concentration of spice products rather than irrigated agriculture, which by nature, considered as public services oriented undertaking. Apart from that, the previously developed irrigation infrastructures by the local kingdoms were still available to provide adequate food supplies for the people. Moreover, there were a number of irrigation works and expansion of paddy cultivations in Bali Island and in Java as well as on the Outer Islands through mutual aid (gotong royong) system. Irrigation for private lands was also constructed in the Tangerang Plain, Bekasi and Cikarang, as well as in the Vicinity of Batavia and Bogor for land-lords by virtue of “heerendienst” or obligatory labor force for the land lord. Among the past irrigation systems, the Ciliwung Katulampa, Cisedane Empang and Cibalok are still in operation today after more that 250 years, though their physical conditions are increasingly deteriorating. In an attempt to resolve the prolong financial crises, immediately after the end of Diponegoro War in 1830, the Dutch Colonial Government assigned the Governor General Van Den Bosh to enforce compulsory agricultural policy, so called as ”Cultuur Stelsel” or “Verplichte Cultuur” or mandatory agricultural policy. The Cultuur Stelsel imposed the farmers to cultivate 20% of agricultural lands they have with commercial plantation and cash crops such as rubber, coffee, tea, and pepper for upland areas and for lowland areas with “nila (genus corchorus)” and sugar cane, as the highly market potential agricultural products in Europe those days. The agricultural product for the 20% farmland should be fully surrendered to the Dutch Colonial Authority, and the products received to be regarded as the payment of land tax in lieu of the “Land Rente” tax obligation that had been prescribed by the Colonial Government since 1813. The Colonial government considered the Cutuur Stelsel Program as the highly successful implementation as the economic crisis had been recovered within not too long. In practice, however, from the stand point of local people, the Cutuur Stelsel policy was not only forced the farmer to surrender the 20% of their land products but also insisted to undertake forced-labor works (heerendienst) at the colonial estate farms. As a result, a slight climate change from normal pattern would make the farmers suffered from severe devastation and starvation. During the “Cultuur Stelsel” enforcement, frequent incidents of hunger were recorded to make hundred of thousand of deaths due to starvation on Java Island alone. a) Pioneering Period for Irrigation Technique: From irrigation engineering point of view, provision of irrigation for supporting the Cultuur Stelsel Policy considered as the pioneering period, as irrigation planning and construction implementation were undertaken almost without any basic technical and agro-climatological data. At that time, practically no data on


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hydrology, hydrometry, geology, topographical maps as well as laboratories to back up the planning and technical design available. Not surprisingly, that many irrigation schemes were failure to meet the objective previously envisaged in the design. For example, the Sampean Weir in Situbondo, which was constructed in 1832, had been totally collapsed before it could be fully utilized.

Given the special importance of water resources and irrigation, later in1885 the Special Department for Water Resources and Irrigation Development was established. At the same year, a special Irrigation Division was established under the Department of Water Resources to deal with the construction of special irrigation projects. In 1889 the Irrigation Division was transformed into a formal structural institution termed as Water Resources Services or Algemene Waterstaatdienst in Dutch term. With the establishment of the Water Resources Services, the systematic and comprehensive implementation of water resources as well as irrigation development and management had gradually become more effective. This institution has been developed and managed consistently, and later after the country’s Independence, it became the Directorate General of Water Resources, which responsible for water resources and irrigation development and management under the Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures (Public Works) till present. b) Construction of the Early Irrigation Infrastructure on Java Island: Following the implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy, which was initiated by Johnnes Van den Bosch (1830-1833), since then, the Dutch Colonial Government directly involved in agricultural management, production and marketing of agricultural products, including the efforts to develop and improve irrigation infrastructures for supporting the Compulsory Agricultural Policy. In an attempt to provide for constant availability of irrigation water, the Dutch Colonial Government paid special attention on the future potential development of fertile agricultural land of the delta Sampean River in East Java. For this purpose, the Dutch Government dispatched Ir. Van Thiel to Situbondo to erect a weir in Kali Sampean River in 1832. The construction of this weir made of teakwood framework structure, filled with stone and boulder. The Total width of the weir was 45 m and the height was at eight meters. In 1850 the Sampean weir could no longer utilized, as the teakwood material for routine maintenance had no longer available. For improvement purpose, the strengthening work undertaken by means of masonry structure early in 1847, but the weir did not last long. Up until 1876 temporary weir structures had been constructed, and at the same year the masonry weir completed, but the weir did not last long as well. It was only in 1887 the weir reconstructed with permanent structure that made it strong enough to perform water diversion till present. Meanwhile, the Kali Brantas irrigation scheme with an area of 34,000 ha at the delta of Sidoarjo had been constructed from 1852 to 1857. While the Mojokerto weir, which was rehabilitated in 1972/ 73’s fiscal year is still under the good condition today. c) Early Development Growth During the Colonial Period: Before the establishment of the Department of Public Works, which referred to as “Burgerlyke Openbare Werken – BOW” in Dutch term, all of the construction aspects were directly managed by the Local Authority. At that time, before the arrival of the western people, the Regent, Vice Regent, and the relevant staffs entrusted, directly supervised the construction works related to water resources and irrigation including weirs, canal excavation and other related structures. The Regent


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mobilized his people for construction works in terms of forced labor basis. This was the reason why most of the Dutch Colonial Officers claimed that they could have the construction works completed with lower costs.

For large construction, there already limited number of Dutch Engineers work for the Dutch Colonial Government, because during that early day, there was no Indonesian engineer yet, as the first engineering faculty was only established in Bandung, West Java in 1924.

At that time, should any problems associated with irrigation works encountered, the Dutch Engineer usually mobilized to help resolving the problems. Nevertheless, the non-experienced engineers usually possess but limited knowledge about actual site of the tropical conditions, on top of the absence of hydrological as well as climatological data, records, and other such river information. Under such condition, not surprisingly if the Dutch Engineers were unable to conduct the assignment completely. In addition, most of the employers who took control over the engineer’s workmanships were non-technical officers. Related to this, many of the Senior Dutch Officers (Binnenlandsch Bestuur) regarded the employment of engineer as unnecessary
and costly undertakings. It is understandable therefore, that the Dutch Colonial Government took many years for the establishment of technical institution such as the Department of Public Works. 8.2.6. ESTABLISHMENT OF MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS Upon the enforcement of Compulsory Agricultural Policy under the absence of appropriate irrigation infrastructures, agricultural products became decreasingly reliable. For which,


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Governor General Rochussen recommended to Minister van Kolonien (the Dutch Colonial Minister) through his official letter of 28th October 1847, to pursue irrigation development as the following deliberation:

"Wij mogen den rijstbouw dus niet langer afhankelyk laten van den regen, doch behooren denzelfde tebevestigen op den straks gemelden zekeren grondslag van kunstmatige bewatering", (After Angoedi, 1984, P. 82)

This translates literally as:

"We could no longer allow agricultural implementation for paddies continuously dependent upon rainfall, instead, we have to maintain constant supplies of water by developing irrigation infrastructures ".

At the beginning, this recommendation was not regarded seriously as an effective means of agricultural improvement, due to the absence of experience, technical staffs as well as lacking of budget and expertise. Nevertheless, the approach became gradually more convincing through consistent support and guidance from the Colonial Government Authority. The most substantial constraint was due to the severely lacking of irrigation engineers and experienced technical staffs. In reality, only five engineers were employed in Netherlands Indies in 1844. Later on, increased between 1844 and 1854 into 10 persons, and yet without appropriate knowledge about water resources, hydrology, and rivers behaviors under the intense tropical rainfall pattern. The recommendation of Governor General Rochussen to the Netherlands Government to start giving attention to irrigated agriculture – particularly for paddy as the staple diet of local people -- apparently received considerable attention. Most significantly was the establishment


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of the “Department der Burgelyke Openbare Werken (B.O.W.)” or Ministry of Public Works in 1854, which responsible for development of public infrastructures including water resources and irrigation. At the time of the establishment of the Ministry, only 10 engineers were employed, and then later after few years, increased to 21 persons, assisted by 14 technical high school graduates. During the following years the newly established Ministry of Public Works encountered by problems for recruiting competence personnel’s due to the lack of university and technical high school graduates. Therefore, some non-graduated staffs were recruited to fill up the vacant positions. In the subsequent years, the Dutch Government launched special program in the Dutch University on engineering education for those who interested to work for development activities in Netherlands Indies. With the establishment of the Department B.O.W (Ministry of Public Works), supported by a number of professional engineers, the development and management of public woks infrastructures in Netherlands Indies, ever since, conducted by professional government officials (Binnenlandsch Bestuur). In spite of the strategic importance of the establishment of the Departemen B.O.W. in the Indonesian history of irrigation, it took many years before the Dutch Colonial Government gave full development endeavor for construction of irrigation infrastructures. More significant commitment was only apparent when the Colonial Government established the Afdeling Irrigatie or Irrigation Division of the Departemen BOW in 1889, or 35 years after the establishment of the Ministry of Public Works. This was due to the fact that the Departemen BOW was not only responsible for irrigation development and management, but also for roads and buildings, as well other public infrastructures such as storages for accommodating agricultural products. a) Establishment of Irrigation District: After the establishment of Departemen BOW, irrigation development and management had ever-since implemented with subsequent consideration of technical related aspects. From series of experiences, irrigation development and management have been recognized to be mutually independent aspects, in terms of the two sides of a coin that cannot be separated from each other. Learning from experiences, it had been recognized that for appropriate irrigation operation and management, institutional aspects becomes necessitated for scrutinizing and conducting water allocation and distribution, otherwise, irrigation construction with costly investment cannot fully utilized as previously envisaged in the design. For optimum operation with manageable size of commanding area the entire irrigation area divided into manageable irrigation districts referred to as "Irrigatie - Afdeling", or irrigation districts, covers a commendable size consists of groups of irrigation areas under one or more hydrological river boundaries, superimposed with the boundary of local government administration as if possible. In practice, however, the hydrological boundary of irrigation districts, are rarely coincided with administrative boundary of local government. On January the 1st, 1889 the first irrigation district was established at the Serayu Irrigation schemes referred to as "Irrigatie-Afdeling Serayu", which covers the Government administrative boundary of Banyumas and Bagelen Residencies, having its headquarters at Purworejo. The name of irrigation district per-se was taken after the name of the major river (Serayu River) flowing in the vicinity areas. The subsequent irrigation district was then followed by the establishment of "Irrigatie-Afdeling Brantas", or the Brantas irrigation


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district in 1892, covering the triangle areas of Malang - Kediri - Surabaya. Then followed by "Irrigatie-Afdeling-Serang", or Serang Irrigation District covering Semarang-Demak and Purwodadi areas with it headquarters at Demak. The hydrological boundary covers the Jragung, Tuntang, Serang, Lusi and Juana river catchments. After a long-term experience, the establishment of Irrigatie-Afdelingen or Irrigation District has been proofed to be highly successful and satisfactory. Under the irrigation district’s institutional arrangement, the farmers had been effectively and efficiently utilized the existing irrigation schemes. Each irrigatie-afdeling has been managed to conduct routine guidance as well as training for its own staff as well as for the Mantri Waterbeheer (Watermaster), on self-sustainable basis.

Having the consecutive successes on establishment and subsequent management of irrigation under the institutional arrangement, a number of new irrigation districts then subsequently established, including Pekalen-Sampean irrigatie-afdeling in East Java, Pemali-Comal irrigatie-afdeling in the Residency of Pekalongan, as well as Cimanuk irrigatie-afdeling in Indramayu. In 1909, the Madiun Irrigation Section as a subordinate organization of
Solo irrigatie-afdeling was established, and by 1910, the entire Java Island has been divided into irrigation districts, including the being implemented irrigation schemes, as well as future irrigation systems under the planning stage.
8.2.7. DECENTRALIZATION OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT a) Decentralization: Establishment of provinces on Java was started in 1925. Decentralization of irrigation management applied since 1930. Provincial Government has a responsibility in operation, maintenance, and management of irrigation systems. Provincial Government establishes an institution named ‘Provinciale Waterstaatsdienst’



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(Provincial Irrigation Services) chaired by a ‘Hoofd Provinciale Waterstaatdienst’. Each Provinciale Waterstaatsdienst has ‘Waterstaats Afdelingen’ (WA) which was previously called ‘Irrigatie Afdelingen’ chaired by Hoofd Waterstaats Afdeling. Waterstaats Afdelingen divided into a number of Sections (Sectie) and each section consists of Sub-section (Onder-sectie). Each Sub-section consists of a number of ‘Kemantren’ chaired by ‘Mantri Kemantren’ (Water Master). Water distribution is the responsibility of Water Master assisted by a number of ‘Ulu-ulu’ which was elected by farmers and assigned through Decree of Head of Regency. Maintenance of canals and structures is the responsibility of Water Master assisted by a number of ‘Mandor’ (field irrigation supervisors). To this extent, it is worth noted that before 1910 the government has established seven River Basins Waterstaats Afdelingen (RBWAs). The main duties of RBWA are development, O&M, and management of water resources and irrigation within river basin or integrated basins. Those seven RBWAs are: i) Serayu River Basin, ii) Brantas River Basin, iii) Serang River Basin, iv) Pekalen Sampean (integrated) Basins, v) Pemali-Comal (integrated) Basins, vi) Madiun River Basin (later on, be developed as Bengawan Solo River Basin), and vii) Cimanuk River Basin. b) Establishment of Irrigation Management Board (IMB): Preparatory works for establishment of IMB or in Dutch language ‘Waterschap’ was initiated in 1919 by Water Resources and Irrigation Services (WRIS), Department of Public Works. Subsequently,


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WRIS establish head office of IMB (Centraal Waterschap Kantoor) in Yogyakarta and a branch in Solo (Surakarta). IMB is a technical institution under the Central Government/WRIS which, at the initial stage, has the following duties: (1) Topographic Surveys and Mapping of irrigation areas; (2) Preparation of a plan of improvement and up-grading of irrigation networks which was built by commercial agricultural enterprises; (3) Establishment of boundary of Irrigation Section, Sub-Section, and ‘Kemantren’; (4) Establishment of Technical Institutions, Staffing and recruiting of staff; (5) Compiling and documenting of technical drawings; and (6) Preparation of budget proposal for initial years.

After the said preparatory works phase completed, in 1920 the government released Regulatory instrument on Water resources and Irrigation Management referred to as Vorstendlandsche Waterschap Reglement in Dutch term. In 1921 two IMBs were established i.e. Opak-Progo IMB in Yogyakarta and Dengkeng-Pepe IMB in Surakarta (Solo), and in 1924 also established Bengawan IMB in Surakarta.

Each IMB has the following Service area: Opak-Progo IMB at 48,500 ha; Dengkeng-Pepe IMB at 45,600 ha; and Bengawan IMB at 43,200 ha.

c) Participation of Irrigation Beneficiaries in O&M: In principle, Operation and Maintenance costs have provided by irrigation beneficiaries. Payment is based on type of crops and irrigated area. Fee to be paid calculated as crop coefficient multiplied by service fee. Service fee decided every fiscal Year – dependent upon the total cost required for O&M activities.

Membership of farmers in IMB was on collective basis, covers all farmers in a village. Contribution of farmers collected through Head of Village. Head of the Village also responsible for providing required labor, mobilized from village and all have to be farmers, for maintenance purpose. The labors were not paid in cash but deducted from the contribution they have to pay as much as five cents Gulden per man-day. At that time Five cent was equivalent to about one liter of white rice.

After Dutch government surrendered to Japanese soldier (1942), IMB was dispersed and all aspects related to O&M of irrigation were handed over back to the Public Works Services.

d) The Ethical Policy (Ethische Politiek): Approaching the end of the 19th Century, due to a number of internal and external political considerations -- particularly on the impacts of French Revolution – the Dutch Colonial Government eventually put an end to the Cultuur Stelsel Policy. Instead, they transform the colonial policy into “goodwill strategy” referred to as the Ethische Politiek or Ethical Policy. The slogan of Ethical Policy comprised of three major endeavors: (1) Irrigation; (2) Emigration; and (3) Education.

As the follow up of the Ethical Policy, the Dutch Colonial Government commissioned a study in 1902, to examine the possibility of resolving the problem of over–population and land fragmentation on Java where the large local population surplus was regarded by the Dutch as a potential source of political tension and unrest. This study recommended moving people from Java to the sparsely populated areas in other parts of Indonesia’s Archipelago.

In response to this recommendation, the first resettlement experiment was carried out three years later by moving 155 families from Java to Lampung, Southern Sumatra under the Irrigation Based Approach. The objective of the resettlement program was not only to reduce the population pressure on Java but also to contribute to the development of sparsely


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populated "Outer Islands" (Geertz, 1963) by providing more manpower for agricultural development.

Subsequently, the first stage of migration started in October 19th 1905, initiated by H. G. Heytings who, with the help of two assistants and two irrigation water masters, moved the 155 families from Java to Gedong Tataan in South Lampung District of Southern Sumatra. This was recorded in the history as the birth of irrigation based human resettlement program termed as colonisatie or transmigration program in Indonesia. The impacts of which were subsequently documented as the historical momentum of the spread of irrigation development and management throughout the archipelago. e) Pre Independence Period: Despite the obvious advantages, one of the immediate consequences of the widespread of irrigation development and management implementation, the land and water resources potentials gradually declined, especially on Java and other densely populated islands. In line with this, the rapid escalation of population also brought about demands for intensification of irrigation on the “Inner Islands” on the one hand and extensification of irrigation on the “Outer Islands”, on the other. Being the case, irrigation development policy addressed the water conservation program on Java Islands and the program of irrigation expansion on the Outer Islands. For determining the priority, the underlying constrains of continuous declining of resource potentials and population demands are regarded as the determinant parameters that dictate the extent of development priority. After a sound analysis the development priorities were set up for the eastern coast of Sumatra, then, set up for South Sulawesi. Subsequently, the irrigation development priorities were directed toward other Outer Islands’ areas, with special focus on the transmigrant destination areas. Unfortunately, the development was practically terminated in 1930’s due to severe economic crisis and followed the break up of the Second World War. For the Inner Islands, intensification program was directed toward construction of reservoirs at the upper reach of the river basins on the highland areas, which intended to improve the retention capacity of the river basin during the dry seasons. During the period before the War, several reservoirs ranging from small to large size were constructed in West Java, Central Java and East Java Provinces. For instance, the constructed reservoirs with the storage capacity of larger than 30 MCM among others were the Malahayu Dam in Central Java, and the Pacal Reservoir in East Java Province. While the medium sized reservoirs with the storage capacity between 10 and 30 MCM among others were the Prijetan Reservoir in East Java, the Gembong reservoir in Central Java, and the Situpatok Reservoir in West Java Province. Parallel with the development of the medium sized to large sized reservoirs, some 50 small reservoirs were also constructed on the Inner Islands aiming for improving the water storage capacity to serve irrigation demands during the dry seasons on the densely populated areas. In the period of 1940’s there were practically no irrigation development undertaken at all due to the subsequent break up of the Pacific War. During the 2nd World War up until the Indonesian Independence, irrigation development was completely terminated, except some minor repairs on compulsory basis, during the Japanese Occupation for supporting food supplies of the Japanese Armed Forces. During which, 50% irrigated agricultural products had to be surrendered to the Japanese authority for supporting their food supplies. As a result, millions of Indonesian people suffered from hunger and starvation in a matter of a couple of years’ invasion. In addition, a number of construction projects for irrigation infrastructures under the compulsory labor forces (referred to as romusha), such as weir in Citanduy River


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for the North Labok area and the Tulung Agung Tunnel (Neyama) in Tulung Agung were only partly utilized, shortly before the structures completely collapsed.

During the pre-independence period, till the time before the Second World War, several large irrigation schemes in the northern coast of Java Island as well as in the other parts of the country were also completed. These were the Ciujung, Cisadane, Citarum-Walahar irrigation schemes in North Coast of Java, the Setail Scheme in Banyuwangi, the South Jember plain, the Bagelen, and Southern Banyumas Areas. In addition, the constructed Irrigation schemes on the Outer Islands among others were the Simalungun Scheme in North Sumatra, Klingi
and Blitang in South Sumatra, Way Sekampung in Lampung, Sadang and Jeneberang schemes in South Sulawesi. For the latter case, the irrigation schemes had not been fully completed, because the construction terminated as the 2nd World War break up.
8.2.8. POST INDEPENDENCE PERIOD At the inception stage, irrigation development and management in Indonesia after independence encountered by severe economic and political uncertainties, and hence, no significant achievement was recorded during this period. Meanwhile, the capacity of the



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newly established goverment to provide financial support for irrigation development and management was almost paralyzed. Apart from the severe economic condition, the human resources capacity to undertake irrigation development was also practically unreliable. After the handing over of the country’s sovereignity from the Dutch Colonial Government, irrigation development in Indonesia conducted under the support of dutch engineers, at the same time, recruitment of new engineers was not possible to meet the development demand due to the lack of university graduate engineers. a) Development Programs: At the earlier stage after Independence, the Government made a series of irrigation development planning both for short term, medium term as well as long term, with a special priority on the short term objective, which was the “three-year” development plan from 1951 up until 1953. However, under the limited potentential of financial as well as human resources, the short-term development plan had never been materialized, till the new plan (Five-year Development Plan of 1956-1960) launched. As time passed by, the new five-year development plan came up with the same position as the previously intended development plan. The subsequent developmen plan of 1961-1968 also faced the same problems and constraints, which unable it to be fully implemented. Political and economic uncertainties of Indonesia were then became more crucial with the emerging issues of integration of West Irian (West Papua) into the Republic of Indonesia, followed by confrontation with British and Malaysia, and culminated wih the attempted coup of the Communist Party on September 30, 1965. During this period, practically no irrigation development was undertaken till the political situation under the New Order Government had become stabilized. b) The Five-Year Development Plan: Under the New Order Government, the socio-political condition gradually became stablized, and the confrontation policy was replaced with the closer economic and political relationship with the neighbouring countries. During which, the stabilized political condition brought about new opportunity for the country to conduct new economic development policy and implementation. In addition,


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the development policy had been undertaken remarkably with the benefit of the oil boom. From this poin of time, the New Order Government lounched the Long-term Development Plan as the subsequent commitment on the initial implementation of the first five-year development plan in 1969.

At the first five-year development plan, water resources development had been prioritized by the Government of Indonesia. Despite the special priority, the budgetary allocation for water resources and irrigation development had been lower than the actual requirement. Beside, the budgetary allocacation had only been possible for large projects, and hence, the distribution of irrigation development has not not been possible to reach the entire parts of the country.

The large projects that had been undertaken during the first five year development implementation including: The Cacaban Reservoir in Central Java Province. The Darma Reservoir in West Java Province, Selorejo and Karangkates Reservoirs in East Java Province, the continuation of Jatiluhur Reservoir with a total irrigation service area of about 240,000 ha, and the Lakbok Irrigation Scheme in West Java Province. At the same perod the flood control project of the south Tulung Agung (Phase-I) in East Java Province, in addition to raw water supplies for urban and industries, as well as flood control, power generation, and water based recreation at the Jatiluhur Reservoir. c) Multiple Purposes Water Resources and River Basin Development: In an attempt to make the optimum advantage of water resources development and management, the project implementations in general has been based upon integrated river basin approach as far as possible. This approach is especially implemented for river basins that are interdependent or having the same impacts, or belongs to the shared water ecosystem or environmental impacts from each other for being served the same areas. Given the integrated and multiple purposes natures of these projects, the construction implementation had been undertaken through appropriate coordination amongst the related agencies. The projects acitivities were based on participatory approach by involving the stakeholdes throughout the development phases of the project with the basic principle of “One-river, One-plan, and One- integrated-management”. In the long run, however, the large river basins development was based on comprehensive master plans by means of integrated basin water resources planning, toward future integrated basin water resources management under one institution or one water resources operator. During the first 25 years long term development program (1969-1984) there were seven multiple purposes and river-basin development projects namely: the Brantas River Basin Project; the Jratunseluna (Jragung, Tuntang, Serang, Lusi, Juana); Bengawan Solo; Serayu; Citanduy; Citarum; and Jenebrang River Basin Projects. Following the river basin development projects, the management of Brantas and Citarum River Basins have been transformed into state owned companies, the Jasa Tirta-I for Brantas River Basin Project, and Jasa Tirata-II for the Citarum River Basin Project. Both state owned companies have been intended for undertaking sustainable basin water resources management as the Operating Institutions. d) Irrigation Works: Approaching the first long-term development program, the physical condition of irrigation in Indonesia had been under highly deteoriorating. Irrigation infrastructures including canals and structures were practically suffered from severe damages due to the lack of maintenance. It was estimated that the remaining service function of


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irrigation system was only between 40% and 60% of the overall capacity. Meanwhile, the new irrigation development had been completely stopped since before the War. And hence, the cropping intensity as well as agricultural productivity declined significantly. During which, Indonesia had been suffered from severe deficit of rice production as the staple diet of the people. Under such condition, the effort was concentrated on the implementation of Operation and Maintenance of the existing facilities while pursuing the immediately affordable repairs to increase the serviceability of the existing irrigation infrastuctures. In the mean time, the development of new scheme had been concentrated on quick yielding projects, while extending irrigation areas through improvement, rehabilitation and upgrading of the already existing schemes. Due to the long time requirement for provision of new irrigation schemes, then construction of new irrigation schemes were only based on the most urgent priority such as large schemes particularly for the project that had been terminated during the War. With this development policy, within 15 years, Indonesia had been managed to attain self sufficiency on rice production since 1985 after previously known as the lagest importing county for rice at the early stage of the five-year development in 1969. For sustaining self sufficiency on rice production, while keeping pace with the new irrigation development for the escalating population increase, the policy of irrigation development in the remaining period of the First Long Term Development Program was set up for irrigation development by means of appropriate economic planning as well as feasible technical consideration. The development stage directed toward systematical planning sequences from project identification, reconnaissance study, pre-feasibility study, economic and technical feasibility study, then technical design prior to the subsequent physical implementation. In line with the above policy, and for supporting agricultural extensification program, a special irrigation development program was set up for supporting the mass development of small-scale irrigation schemes, referred to as the “simple irrigation-scheme” having the general criteria as follows: (1) The service area limited to the maximum of 500 ha for each individual scheme, with some exceptions depending upon local circumstances; (2) The topographical condition allows construction of simple irrigation scheme in that particular location; (3) The construction implementation through stages, such that each stage should directly having productive function to support irrigated agricultural activities of the rural community; (3) To meet the immediate support for rural agricultural community, and to avoid problems on land compensation and other non-technical aspects, special priority also given to the previously rainfed land for paddies as far as possible. e) Irrigation Development Strategy during the First Long-Term Development: Given all the technical as well as the non-technical problems and constraints on irrigation development implementation, the overall policy and strategy for irrigation development and management had been adjusted as the following: (1) Irrigation development priority should address rehabilitation works of the already existing irrigation schemes, that had been abandoned due to the absence of timely operation and maintenance endeavors; (2) Under the special condition, either due to the magnitude or due the accessibility for the scattered location, rehabilitation works should be divided into phases. The first phase addresses the major botle-necks, then the following phases


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targeted to full operation of the scheme to meeting appropriate operation; (3) Whenever possible, rehabilitation works must be incorporated with other upgreading, reconstruction as well as re-modeling and extension works, to meet the optimum possible extent of the irrigation scheme referred to; (4) For the large new-schemes, all of the development activities must be conducted through adequate and systematical preparatory works, planning and technical design. Both the technical as well as the non-technical aspects associated with the development, such as social, economic, cultural, as well as environment must be considered soundly. Following the irrigation develoment strategy, right at the beginning of the First Five Year Development, mass rehabilitation program had been conducted for almost the entire irrigation schemes in Indonesia, that had been suffered from severe degradation interms of physical as well as serviceability. The first priority was given to large irrigation schemes that had significant impacts to downstream areas, rather than the small scatttered schemes. f) Lowlands (Swamps) Development: Parallel with conventional irrigation schemes, Indonesia posess a huge lowlands potentials scattered over the country, in particular on Sumatra Island, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya (West Papua), covering inland swamps, tidal swamps and barakish water or saline water swamps. The development of inland swamps had long been practiced in Indonesia with mostly paddy cultivation, and occasionally with inland fisheries. So far as the water is still available, the water control for agriculture conducted by means of regulating the water level at the drainage channels. In practice, however, the drainage control is not adequate, rather, additional water supply from external sources occasionally reguired for maintaining the soil moisture content at appropriate level of the plant growth. Out of the overall of 30 million ha of lowland potential Indonesia has, about 15% suitable for agricultural development, which about five million ha of which, partly has already been developed for agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, including the majority of tidal lowlands development in the vicinity of the coastal areas. At the initial stage of lowland development, a number of projects had been introduced in South Kalimantan, including the polder system introduced by Ir. H.J. Schophuys in South Kalimantan in 1929. The project actually initiated under the initiative of the Ministry of Agriculture with technical assiatance from the Dutch engineers. Two experimental projects for polder development were introduced in Kalimantan in 1930s, namely the Mentaren Polder Scheme in Central Kalimantan and Alabio Polder Scheme in South Kalimantan. The projects were terminated due to the war, and later the Indonesian government attempted to continue the project but not have been possible till today because of the lack of budget and human resources capacities. Owing to the fact that the swamps lowlands are usually extended to the coverage of large areas at the flat areas, then the swamps development has to be developed in large scale to serve human settlement as well as aricultural development, rather than on the small scattered areas. g) Simple Irrigation System: Learning from the past experience of irrigation implementation in Indonesia, the simple irrigation systems constructed at the highland plains have been recognized as the origin of technical irrigation in Indonesia. Today, the ancient works on simple irrigation scheme are still found under the full operation in many parts of the


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archipelago. Most rice terraces on Java, Bali, Sumatra, and lesser islands are served by simple irrigation systems by means of plot-to-plot water distribution approach.

As the land resources for simple irrigation system at the highland plain became scarce, the farmer began to seek for flatter lands suitable for irrigation implementation by diverting water from the springs, tributaries or small rivers. At the initial stage, the traditional farmers carried out canal excavation without considering longitudinal slope of the channel, but only followed gravity flow of the water as far as the water still flowing. If during the canal excavation they encountered by deep excavation or high embankment, they stopped the excavation works from then, followed by initiating new land reclamation for paddy field in the sloping side of the hill or valley.

So far as the water still available at the downstream site of the previous river diversion, the farmers keep going to seek others potential sites for constructing irrigation canals and other related structures with the same procedure as stated previously. For maintaining the constant availability of water for their agricultural lands, in some location where possible and affordable, the weirs constructed with more permanent construction materials as well as with improved appropriate technicalities.

h) Swamp Paddy (Local Rice Variety Grows on Swamp Land): Since the ancient time, swamp paddy has already been recognized by local farmers in the swamp areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and other tidal lowland areas on the river deltas of Outer Islands. However, due to difficulties to access and to regulate the crop cultivation, yet with low productivity, the farmers tended to ignore this rice variety and cultivate other varieties instead, except when other alternatives are not available.

In most cases, the swamp paddy only cultivates by indigenous people at the remote tidal areas, for alternative sources of food. For this reason, the swamp paddy remains unpopular even-though its existence had long been recognized by local people who settled on the tidal swamp areas. Through a number of experimental plots in South Kalimantan as well as on the eastern coast of Sumatra, the tidal lowland development has gradually become more and more potential in the national rice production program, today.

Following the pilot models, some major programs commenced in Kalimantan and South Sumatra around 1960’s. These swamp settlement among others; the Puntik, Besarang and Marabahan in Central Kalimantan; the Kelampan, Tamban and Gambut in South Kalimantan; the Batuil, Mentaren, Belanden, Milono (Besarang), Songsang, Rantau Rasau in Jambi Province; and the Muara Sabak as well as the Lambur in Riau Province. (DGWRD, MPW, 2000 p.43).

The nature of water management for swamp paddies is quite distinct from the non-swamp agricultural lands. Especially for the tidal swamps, water management takes place by means of interchanging the water supply and drainage flow in accordance with tidal fluctuations. The supply canal will function as irrigation infrastructure during the high tide, while during the low tide, the channel facilitate the drainage, at the same time for soil leaching against acidity and other hazardous materials. However, appropriate water management techniques for both irrigation and drainage functions are still currently developing.


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8.2.9. PERIOD FROM INDEPENDENCE (1945) TO THE FIRST FIVE YEAR DEVELOPMENT (1968).

At the period from 1945 to 1955, the first 10-year period after independence, there were no growth on irrigated rice field as well as on rice production. Government of Indonesia was very busy in solving political problems, both internal and external affairs. The Cabinet had



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changed frequently. Therefore, it was not possible to establish the urgently required development plan on water resources and irrigation.

Despite the urgent demand the government fully understood that the deficit on food production will be more and more significant due to insufficient attention on development and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures. In 1952, the first president of Indonesia, Soekarno, delivered a speech in the opening ceremony of Faculty of Agriculture, University Indonesia entitled "A Matter of Life and Death". In that speech, President Soekarno stated that: at this moment (1952) Indonesia had a problem on lacking of food. He stated further that in the year 1960 that the shortage of food will be increasingly more devastating if no immediate actions were taken. In fact, the statement of President Soekarno came true, in the year of 1961-62’s when rice prices jumped at three times due to severely lacking of food stocks. In an attempt to surmount this problem the Government promoted the so called food diversification program, for example to promote consumption of corn instead of rice (1963). At that time Indonesia was notoriously known as the world largest rice importer.

Consequently, during the period from 1945 to 1967 that was the period immediately after independence to the First Five-Year Development (PELITA-I), almost no growth took place in food production. In 1955 paddy production noted as almost 13 million ton, and in 1961 the production increased to only about 14 million ton. In 1968, the first year of PELITA-I rice production increased to 18 million ton and the cropping area increased from 5.6 million ha to 6.3 million ha. The average yield also increased from 2.5 ton/ha in 1961 to 2.9 ton/ha in 1968.

During the above-mentioned period (from 1945 to 1967) the government had implemented some development program. For example in 1952 the government proclaimed the so called the “Kasimo Prosperity Plan”. The important measure in this plan was the establishment of an institution for rural society education. Through this institution, the irrigation officers and the farmers were able to meet and conduct the required dialogues at the same time. The other interesting measure of this plan was the effort to implement demonstration of farming techniques. In 1958 the Government established a so called Institute of Food Production and Land Development. The main emphasis of this institute was to increase food production through intensification and extensification. In 1959, through Presidential Instruction (INPRES-I /1959), the Government established the so called ‘Prosperous Action Command’ (KOGM), which directly chaired by the president at the Central Level, and at the Territorial Level by the Governor/Head of Regency/Head of District/Head of Village. But these two institutions were not success in achieving their targets. There was no land development progress and no increase of food production. In 1955 the cropping area with a total of 5.52 million ha had been recorded, and by 1961 the record was increased to 5.59 million ha. In the mean time, the yield of paddy in 1955 was recorded at about 13 million ton, which increased slightly to only 14 million ton in 1961. In an attempt to improve this situation, in 1964 the President established the National Production Council to replace KOGM. However, this council was not managed to meet the objectives previously intended, particularly in rising of food production.


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8.3. DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION MAIN STRUCTURES As the demand for expanding paddy cultivation went up in line with population increase, one must give immediate thoughts about the most appropriate techniques for fulfilling the water supply demands. In this way, however simplest human intervention on natural state of water sources would gradually evolved through time as well as experiences, and eventually



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accumulated to become irrigation technique which we comprehend today.

Concerning the historical development of irrigation main structures in Indonesia, it is apparent from the most recent discovery that the ancient population of Indonesia had long been acquainted with irrigation development and management techniques.

8.3.1. INTAKE STRUCTURE a) Embankment: Since the farmers acquainted with the early irrigated agricultural techniques, they had been successfully developed the simplest structures that met the demand of water delivery. In line with the immediate demand, they initially made effort to divert water from spring or small rivers by means of gravity flow from free intake, in combination with stone, boulder, wooden peg, bamboo frame, or with earth-fill embankment across the river for lifting the water surface at the intake point. Such the simple structures were obviously highly susceptible to flood strike, and consequently the headwork structure was subject to annual repair or reconstruction. Depending upon the nature of the damages due to annual flooding, the annual repairs would normally be incorporated with additional improvement works such as provision of spill-way to reduce the damage due to flood stream. In fact, it was said that the ancient farmers of Bali had already managed to build a soil embankment of 30 meter high, which in fact, currently classified as amongst the high-embankment classification in Indonesia today. In 1037, it was subsequently noted that there was a district close to Surabaya – currently the delta area of Brantas River and Porong River – had managed to develop an irrigation scheme. This scheme located in the ‘Waringin Sapto’ Village, presently known as ‘Waringin Pitu’ Village. In the mean time, in 1350 AD, the farmer in Kandangan Village, within the vicinity of the well known Harinjing/Srinjing Weir, was also noted to have undertaken rehabilitation work for a large irrigation weir. Unlike Java, irrigation development history on the Outer Islands, also have but view information concerning the exact time when the first irrigation infrastructure was initiated. The most recent historical evidences only indicated that during the middle of the 19th Century, it was noted that a large number of embankment weirs had been constructed, both under the initiative of the farmers and through the support of the Dutch Colonial Government. The construction was said to be temporary and simple earth structures in the form of embankment or bamboo frame filled with soil, stone, boulders and other such materials. With exception, there were also some gabion weirs, with stone and boulder fills as well as with wooden posts, which had been constructed during that period. For the case of West Java, it was said that in 1739, a simple structure named `Katulampa' Weir was constructed at about five km upstream of Bogor in 1739 to irrigate agricultural area between Bogor and Jakarta. Following this example, up to 1840, there were a large number of embankments weirs built by the farmers themselves, including hundreds of small reservoirs or water pond termed as “Situ-Situ” in the vicinity of Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi areas.


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b) Weir: During the subsequent development period of simple structures, application of permanent masonry weir, as the improved type of the simple embankment type, have been widely adopted with some adjustment with local condition. Amongst the most notable ones were “Ciliwung-Katulampa” Weir in, West Java, which was constructed in 1739, “Kalikebo” Weir in Klaten, Central Java, constructed in 1824 and “Molek” Weir in East Java, constructed in 1828.

Approaching the middle of 19th Century, in addition to the development of new weirs, the Dutch Colonial Government also conducted rehabilitation as well as replacement of the existing simple weirs/embankments. Most of the rehabilitation works were additionally facilitated or with equipped with intake gates to allow an appropriate water control. For example, the Rentang Weir in West Java, which was built in 1846, was then reconstructed with substantial improvement, including the replacement of wooden structures with masonry and concrete works.

The reconstructed weirs were Bojong, built in the 1849, Glapan Weir in Central Java Province built in 1852, and Lengkong Weir in East Java, constructed in 1852. Other type of structure that commonly used at that period was free intakes, especially for large river, to avoid huge construction costs.

During the period after independence till the end of the Fist Five-Year Development Program (1945-1994), a large number of weirs were constructed, most of which were for small and medium scale irrigation schemes, with an irrigation command area at an average of about 8,000 ha.

c) Barrage: Depending upon the nature of the rivers, construction of Barrage has also been initiated since early at the beginning of the 20th Century. One of the oldest and the largest barrage (in term of width and commanded area) in Indonesia has been the Walahar Barrage, which was constructed in 1904. This Barrage is located in Citarum River, the largest river in West Java Province.

Meanwhile, in 1905 another large barrage was also constructed in Ciujung named Pamarayan Barrage in Banten Province (today). Following the development of the above mentioned barrages, several others were developed, including the Pasar Baru Barrage, constructed 1926 in Cisadane River, Banten Province, and Benteng Barrage in Saddang River, about 180 km north of Makassar the capital city of South Sulawesi Province, which was constructed in 1937.

In Central Java Province, another barrage designed as flood diversion structure and as
intake of irrigation water, is Wilalung Barrage. This barrage was constructed in 1908 at Serang River at the eastern vicinity of Semarang, the capital of Central Java Province. In addition to diversion of flood into Serang and Babalan Rivers, Wilalung Barrage also functions to divert water to Babalan Irrigation Scheme.
8.3.2. CANAL

Similar to the embankment and simple weir, irrigation canal also have long been recognized by the farmers, ever-since during the period when the early irrigation technique had been introduced. In most cases, construction of embankment/weir carried out simultaneously with or followed by construction of canals. Some cases shown that before an



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embankment/weir was constructed, the farmers had previously excavated the conveyance


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canals. In some cases when the water elevation allowed gravity flow, water was diverted from the river to the excavated canals prior to the construction of other structures.

Despite these evidences, some other experiences in the mountainous remote areas both on Java and on the Outer Islands indicated that the traditional farmers had already constructed irrigation canals, often by high embankment through valleys or deep cuts along the meandering alignments at the steep hills, cascading terrains, even through tunnels across breccia rocks with hundreds of meters long. Many of these canal networks in Bali, Java,
Sulawesi and Sumatra are still functioning under the well maintained condition today, after many years operation.
8.3.3. WATER LIFTING DEVICE In Indonesia, water lifting devices for irrigation purpose, has been practiced by the farmers since the middle of 14th century. Early at the turn of the century, in West Sumatra territory, the farmers have already widely applying for traditional water-lifting devices for irrigation
and other domestic water utilizations. Such water lifting devices are still widely practiced in many hilly areas of Western Sumatra Province today, most of which are developed, operated and maintained by the traditional farmers themselves. In terms of pump as water lifting device, large electric pumping stations for irrigation have been implemented since 1930’s. It was noted that in Central Java Province, a pumping station was set up in 1939 to irrigate the Gambarsari-Pasanggrahan Irrigation Area. During the Dutch time, there have been a number of pumping stations constructed on Java Island. Depending upon the nature of water requirement, the source of water for the water pumps were taken from rivers or surface water sources as well as from groundwater. For example, in Central Java Province at this time alone, there are more than 650 small pumping currently operated for irrigating more than 16,300 ha of paddy fields, on top of the scattered tubewell pumping stations to provide raw water supplies for municipal and industries. In Bengawan Solo River Basin, Central Java, there are also presently a large number of pump stations for irrigated-agricultural purposes. At present, there are currently 758 units of medium sized pumps, set up for taking water directly from rivers/canals (surface water) by means of open channels, and some 658 pump stations are currently operated for groundwater, having a total command area of about 45,000 ha. In West Java Province, on top of the many pumping stations for irrigation as well as raw water supplies for domestic and industries, there is a notably large big scale pumping station which was built before PELITA-I in Curug area under the Jatiluhur Irrigation and Reservoir Project. In this station, there are two unit of pumping systems, namely electric pump and hydraulic pump, which were both built in 1966 and completed in 1968. 8.3.4. FLOOD PREVENTION INFRASTRUCTURE Indonesia, like other tropical archipelago, also strongly influenced by tropical climatic characteristics, both in terms of heavy tropical rains during the rainy seasons as well extreme drought during the dry season. With the underlying tendency of over exploitation


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of upper watershed of the rivers with densely populated middle reach and downstream areas, it becomes apparent that the threat of probable flood and drought incidents are continuously escalating from time to time. During the past years, flood problems were only hampering significantly of the densely populated areas as well as agricultural lands in the


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lowland plains. Today, however, the impacts of floods are increasingly hindering the livelihood of the people both in rural and urban areas, as well as the agricultural and industrial areas without exception.

Since the Dutch time, flood problems had already become one of the burning issues of water resources and irrigation management. In line with extensive irrigation development implementation during the past long term development, the issues of flood control has been scrutinized and addressed in terms of structural as well as non-structural approaches.

As far as the history of flood prevention works in Indonesia is concerned, no exact evidence that could explain about the fist time since the first flood prevention works was conducted. However, it was noted that on Java Island, the prevention works has increasingly become important since the occurrence of the dreadful flood incident in 1861. At that time, for instance, the entire lowland area of South Kedu (Central Java), even extended to almost the entire part of Central Java’s south-lowland area suffered from severe flood. After the outrageous strike of these floods the Dutch Colonial government conducted the following works: (1) River improvement works; (2) Construction of flood embankments; (3) Construction of two connector canals in the area; and (4) Construction of collector canals/drains.

The subsequent flood incident occurred in 1902, which has destroyed almost the entire agricultural and residential areas of Demak, in Central Java. To protect the technical irrigation schemes in Demak from flood strike, in 1908, the government constructed a flood diversion weir named Wilalung Floods Diversion Weir. The weir equipped with four spillways located at the upstream of the weir. On January 1993, or about 85 years after the completion of Wilalung Flood Weir, a terrible floods occurred in this area, however, the flood did not bring destructive impacts. Learning from the past experiences of flood preventive measures, a number of structural measures have been conducted since the Dutch Colonial Period. Amongst the preventive measures by means of structural approach, the following are the most notable ones: (1) Flood embankment; (2) River improvement works; (3) Collector drain; (4) Flood way; and (5) Flood diversion weirs. Under the water resources development program, during the first long term development program (1969-1984) quite a large number of flood prevention facilities has been constructed in Indonesia, particularly for preventing the flood prone areas on urban as well as on the agricultural producing areas. The result of which has been significantly preventing
almost two million hectares of agricultural as well as residential areas from frequent flood incidents. Learning from the past experience on series of flood prevention measures, it is apparent that the role of O&M of water resources infrastructures remains the most important determinant factors for the success or failure of sustainable water resources management in the future. 8.4. PRESENT STATUS OF IRRIGATION IN INDONESIA 8.4.1. PRESENT STATUS The total area of irrigated agriculture of food crop in Indonesia especially paddy, secondary crops and sugarcane in 2002 was recorded to be 8,165,133 ha consists of rice field (wet land)


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at 7,769,733 ha and sugarcane at 395,400 ha. The sugarcane area is particularly referred to


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because it cannot be separated from the irrigation history of Indonesia, which was previously started from irrigation for sugarcane area during the Dutch Colonial Era. Further to this, apart from the existing irrigated rice field (wet land), there are also dry land paddy totaling of about 1.06 million hectares having a total yield at about 2.7 million ton, contributing at about 5.5% of national rice production.

With regards to the national figure, the Java Island presently contributes the largest irrigated rice field (in the year 2002) with a total of 42.80% followed by Sumatra Island at about 27.16%, Kalimantan Island at 13.01%, Sulawesi Island at 11.63% and Bali-Nusa Tenggara Islands at about 5.40%.

The total figure of rice production under irrigated based cultivation in 2002 was recorded to be at 48,794,236 ton with an average of about 4.66 ton/ha. The highest average yield is presently on Java at about 5.25 ton/ha; followed by Bali-Nusa Tenggara Island at about 4.61
ton/ha; and Sulawesi at about 4.43 ton/ha. For the Island of Sumatra, the average yield is currently at about 4.05 ton/ha., Maluku and West Papua at about 3.10 ton/ha; and Kalimantan Island at about 3.22 ton/ha.
8.4.2. IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES POLICY REFORM In 1987 the Government of Indonesia released a new policy on operation and maintenance of irrigation referred to as “The 1987 Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Policy (IOMP)”. This policy issued as a precondition for further loan projects funded by the World Bank and Asian Development Bank (Burn, Bryan; Irrigation Reform). The objective of this policy is to ensure adequate funding for operation and maintenance (O&M) and improve irrigation



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management. Government committed to increase budget allocation for O&M, strengthen land and property tax, and mobilize more resources from beneficiaries. In relation with the policy reform, there are three main programs included in this policy. These are: i) turn-over of small irrigation schemes (area of less than 500 ha); ii) of irrigation service fee (ISF); and iii) efficient Operation and Maintenance. Owing to the fact that the IOMP was not managed to achieve the targets previously envisaged, the government issued a new executive order on irrigation development through the Presidential Instruction Number 3 of 1999 (INPRES No. 3/1999) and the Government Regulation Number 3 of 2001 regarding the Renewal of Irrigation Management Policy. The presidential instruction prescribes five principals aspects for irrigation policy reform including: (i) redefining of irrigation institutions; (ii) empowering WUA; (iii) transfer and joint management; (iv) farmer-managed fees; and (v) irrigation sustainability. Presently, during the preparation of this manuscript (February 2004) the Parliament in coordination with the executive authority of the Government of Indonesia, are currently finalizing the new Water Resources Law (UUSDA No.7/2004). This Law also covers the arrangement of water resources management and its process by establishing a Coordination Board on Water Resources Management at the Central Level, at Provincial Level, and as if necessary at the Regency Level. This UUSDA also expected to define and prescribe the roles and responsibility of river basin based water resources management as follows: (1) Inter-provincial River Basins and inter-state River Basins or Strategic River Basins are controlled by the Central Government; (2) Inter-regency River Basins are under the control of Provincial Government; and (3) River


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Basin which is entirely located in a regency/town, operate under the control of the Regency Level Government Administration.

8.5. NON TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

8.5.1. SOCIO-CULTURAL, AND ECONOMIC ADAPTATIONS OF TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION Based on experiences on the underlying management of traditional irrigation system, it has been demonstrating the indigenous capacity of the traditional farmers to undertake community
based irrigation development and management with skilful irrigated farming techniques, hard working community, adapted to sustainable environment, as well as conducive to socio-cultural as well as economic adaptation. The basic principle of traditional democratic leadership and togetherness principles have been identified as the distinct commitment of irrigation based farming community, especially to reach consensus and resolving the related conflicts. Nevertheless, there are some evidences to indicate the existence of threats against the sustainable traditional practices, due to the decreasing of appropriate scrutiny of socio-cultural dimensions of irrigation development and management with some illustration as the following elaboration.
Firstly; The internal aspects in terms of socio-cultural dimensions are continuously impeded by external factors resulting significant shift of values, behavior and attitude. The farming communities have been adapted to a number of agricultural technologies, including improved variety, and other modern agricultural inputs. As a result, the various technological changes brought about significant transformation of socio-cultural dimensions. The farmers are no longer conducting their agricultural practices by virtue of mutual aids, renown as the “gotong-royong” system, especially for performing land development, land preparation, transplanting and communal storage of the harvested paddy at the community owned barn. Today, the agricultural practices are tending to be dominated by individual profit gaining consideration rather than on community based business approach, and hence, the farming community attitude the farmers used to have, increasingly jeopardized by gradual extinction.

Secondly; The external factors that are immediately influence traditional irrigation system are associated with the excessive external supports from the government to traditional irrigation system in terms of physical development without considering the socio-cultural dimensions of traditional farming community. As a result, water distribution mechanism amongst irrigation schemes are often hampered by severe disorientations – including the emergence of
dependency attitude at the same time of extinction of traditional mutual aids (gotong royong) system, especially where the government conducted reconstruction and development without involving the traditional community as well as the traditional leaders.
8.5.2. IRRIGATION BASED-TRANSMIGRATION IMPLEMENTATION Concerning the long-term development prospects, it is probable that the transmigration program will be continued in the future. It is, therefore, essential to consider and clarify the policy objectives of the resettlement programs. These objectives must take into account the



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constraints imposed by the prevailing social values and norms of the settlers as well as the socio-economic conditions of the region in which the transmigration program to be undertaken.


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It is essential for the success of future programs that the implementation to be accompanied by consistent monitoring and evaluating of actual conditions in the resettlement schemes from phase to phase. To date, this has not been done in a systematic way, and without significant improvement in this respect, future development of the transmigration program will continuously be hampered by unforeseen problems and constraints.

It is not easy to set a clear policy that governs what should be done to make future settlement schemes more successful. Much depends on the agricultural potential of a project. This factor largely determines the choice between farming systems, i.e., whether the project is to be based on a "food crop system", a "swamp reclamation system", a "tree crop development" or whether some form of non-agricultural resettlement must be chosen.

Rainfed agriculture seems to have poor prospects, due to low productivity, soil limitations and limited market prospects for the food crops produced. Irrigation-based resettlement, on the other hand, requires a high capital cost and a long development because of the inherent problem of high water requirements for the newly established paddy type projects. This issue still needs further research in the near future. Swamp reclamation schemes on the other hand, have good prospects but also require careful studies of the agricultural prospects and the human settlement environment. Tree crop development and cash crop systems also have good prospects, but the tree crops require a long time to become productive and also great skill in the post harvest operations, including secondary processing, storage, and marketing. Increasing production and reducing marketing constraints -- including crop diversification and encouragement of poultry, livestock and fish ponds operations -- are basic requirements for sustainable agriculture. This, however, is not just time consuming, but also requires active participation by the farmer. The social dimensions of transmigration have in the past been studied in a relatively narrow context. Because of the interaction between the social and technical problems it is essential to use an integrated approach, incorporating the social aspects in conjunction with -the technical and economic dimensions of the development projects. Land allocation for transmigrants is another aspect from which a number of problems arose in the past. Because of the urgent requirement to resettle people as soon as possible, the Master-Plan for the future land use in the resettlement area was frequently modified or abandoned. In these cases, human settlement tends to cause an imbalance between the productive functions and the ecological aspect of the land. Additional land allocation problems stemmed from the fact that the government did not immediately provide security of land tenure upon settlement. Furthermore, without adequate pre-resettlement preparation by the implementing agency, transmigrants encounter undue stress upon arrival at the site, which retards their development activities. Current experience in irrigation development indicates that there must be a command area
large enough to economically serve the irrigation requirements and still small enough to be managed efficiently. The question than is: “To what extent does the single irrigation command area determined in order that it can be managed effectively?” The answer to this question is still open for future research as it is beyond the scope of the present study. 8.5.3. LOWLAND DEVELOPMENT In general, the lowland development implementation is conducted in such a way that it create new environment that is conducive to agricultural development and human settlement.


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Despite this objective, the agricultural development in lowland areas are relatively less productive as compared to the upland areas, beside the underlying constraints on it accessibility as well as environmental sustainability.

The problems of lowland development are usually associated with multi-dimensional aspects such as: water allocation and management, agronomy, socio-economic, and environment.

a) Water Allocation and Management: (1) The implementation of gradual approach on lowland development is mostly associated with land reclamation technology, which is relatively new for Indonesian engineers. Therefore, planning methodology and standards are yet available, and hence much experience and empirical works are needed on the basis of trial and errors; (2) Implementation of large-scale land reclamation is highly susceptible to environment. Therefore extra efforts and investments are required for planning as well as construction implementation if the unwanted impacts are to be avoided; (3) The inappropriate water allocation and management would bring about significant reduction of agricultural productivity due to land salinity as well as excessive seawater intrusion; (4) The effort to separate conveyance and drainage channels usually encountered by a number of constraints such as the following: (a) The farmers are not patient enough to wait before water is distributed to meet their demands for agricultural purposes; (b) Water requirements are not normally similar one each individual farmer; (c) The water channels are commonly utilized for water transportation, and hence the regulatory structures such as, flap gates and check structures are regarded by the farmers as the obvious obstacle on water transportation rather than solution; (d) Lacking of operation and maintenance endeavors would result in a number of problems, including sedimentation and poor performance of the overall scheme.

b) Environmental Aspects: One of the most vulnerable aspects of lowland development to take into consideration is the impact of physical intervention on the sustainable balance of aquatic ecosystem. This is partly due to the nature of the swamp area as the marginal land for agricultural development. Therefore, any abrupt change due to development intervention such as land reclamation, would encounter the natural balance of aquatic habitat, including the natural equilibrium of pests, aquatic weed, and other such bio-environment.

Other crucial environment aspects of lowland development is about the impacts of escalating degradation of upper watershed of the river basin due to uncontrollable human activities such as traditional shifting cultivation, logging and other such activities. This aspect, therefore, needs to be scrutinized through appropriate integrated watershed management. Further to this,
the lowland development must be addressed by virtue of environmental-friendly approach, should the agricultural practices in such an area to be environmentally sustainable.
8.6. CLOSING REMARKS

Learning from the long journey to explore the unlimited path of almost untraceable existence of irrigation civilization throughout the course of Indonesia’s history, it is apparent that the role of irrigation remains the most essential ingredient of human life on



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earth for generations, even far beyond the ultimate edge of time boundary.

Our journey along the Indonesia’s history of irrigation: From the milestone of Ancient Era to the influx of sub continent migrants; From the Budhist and Hindu generations to Islamic Era; From the Western Adventures and Spice Trades to Pre Colonial Era; From Colonial Era to Pre Independence Struggle; and From Post Independece Development


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toward the underlying modern era of globalization; we all learned that irrigation is a matter of life and death of human civilization on our mutually owned Mother Earth.

From our long experiences, we learned together that irrigation is not only a matter of technical, but far beyoud that boundary limit, it is a matter of social, cultural, economic, religion, beliefs, tradition, ethics, even political concerns of human being, without exception.

No matter how sensible and justifiable the policy instruments of sustainable governance system a country has – either by virtue of centralized, decentralized, or combination between the two approaches – one should bear in mind of the most urgent demand for integrated approach, should the water resources and irrigation development and management to be sustainable.

Under the present implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia, the dilemmatic issues of sustainable irrigation development and management are not only become the national concern of development sectors but also become the central issue of local autonomous government. It is therefore imperative that the development and management should be based on integrated approach with systematic development stages, and most important is to maintain appropriate balance of irrigation-based environmental ecosystem.

In an attempt to pursue integrated approach on basin water resources and irrigation development and management, the development sectors, together with local autonomous government should consider the integrated principles as follows: (1) Application of inter-sectoral and inter-regencial coordination; (2) Giving the highest importance to the national development objective; (3) Giving special attention on the empowerment
human resources; (4) Consistent implementation of reliable and effective research and development related activities; (5) Setting up an optimum implementation of planning through systemic approach, as well as appropriate monitoring and evaluation, with consistent regulatory enforcement.
8.7. THE WAY FOREWARD From illustration presented in the previous chapters, as far as irrigation history of Indonesia is concerned a number of lessons learned, and hence worth to be considered for determining the way forward:

1. Despite the very long history of Irrigation based paddy production, it is seemingly still



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play a very important role in the Indonesian economy in the years to come, and therefore it is imperative to consistently improve irrigation techniques for effective rice production with the minimum possible water consumption by means of appropriate operation and management of irrigation water, and yet without sacrificing the sustainable balance of water as well as environmental ecosystem.

2. Beside the main agricultural productive function of irrigation, particularly for rice as the staple diet of Indonesian people, it is apparent that irrigated paddy field has a prospective potential for development of other important functionalities such as conservation of agricultural and environmental ecosystem as well as development of leisure agriculture. These potentials could be enhanced by means of beautification of irrigation and drainage canals as well as irrigation infrastructures to meet the demand for agro-environment tourism.


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3. Irrigation is still considered to be the most important functions of agricultural production therefore, it is imperative to consistently maintaining the adequacy of irrigation water for food production in the short term and for other value crops in the long run. For this purpose, the possibility of implementing the water saving approach must be continuously scrutinized through effective research and development activities. Most importantly that irrigated agricultural development in the future should not only constrained to the conventional production function, but also to the effective implementation of ecological as well as living functions of irrigation development and management. 4. From the long-term experiences on irrigation based agricultural production, it is evident that determinant factors of the success or failures of irrigation implementation lies not only on the adequacy of budgetary support, but also lies on effective operation and management, as well as active participation of water users and stakeholders through effective institutional arrangement toward long term sustainability of irrigation development and management. 5. As an aquatic plant, the water consumption for paddy for optimum production is still considered to be substantially high however, the conventional irrigation practices for non-paddy crops in the lowland paddy area is still demanding for improvement in such a way to be able to maximize crop production per drop of irrigation water. In this context, however, the non consumptive irrigation allocation at the lowland paddy area is essentially returning back to the nature through ground water penetration, and hence contributing the externality functions of irrigation, including maintaining appropriate balance of ecosystem. This aspect therefore, must be considered soundly in the future operation and management policy and implementation of irrigation development and management in Indonesia. 6. Learning from experiences, it is undeniable that the active participation of water users either through individual or through the water user’s association is the most important determinant factor of the sustainability of water user’s association function. Participation in this context must therefore be consistently maintained throughout the entire process of irrigation implementation, from planning, design, construction as well as during the operation and maintenance implementation. 7. Given the fact that the demand for sustainable food security with affordable price of paddy as the staple food for members of the communities as consumers, therefore, government commitment for supporting appropriate irrigation development and management is still demanding at least till the farmer has developed his capacity for fulfilling the minimum level of livelihood. 8. Both the “structural” as well as the “non-structural” approaches in the development and management of water resources and irrigation infrastructures are two side of the coin that could not be separated, and therefore both aspects must be kept at appropriate balance in the future development and management of irrigation infrastructures. 9. Having the present constraint on water resources availability (both for surface and subsurface water sources) on the already developed areas, it is apparent that the future irrigation development and management must not overlook the “conjunctive water use” approach between surface water and subsurface water, as an effective recommendation for minimizing the negative impacts of excessive groundwater exploitation on the one hand and over utilization of surface water on the other. 10. It is apparent from implementation of small scale irrigation development that are scattered over the country that this irrigation category has least risk of adverse impact to environment


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relative to the large scale irrigation schemes, and therefore this approach should be considered for application on the farming circumstances under the small land ownership situation. Further to this, the application of “Participatory Irrigation Management – PIM” approach giving special scrutiny on the “externality function of” irrigation based paddy cultivation, with special context of social function as well ecological function of irrigation. 11. Given the fact that irrigation development in Indonesia is still dominated by conventional irrigation for food crops, it is imperative that the state of the art should consider other irrigation development alternatives, including irrigation for industrial as well as commercial value crops by means of save water approaches, micro irrigation, drip irrigation, sprinkle irrigation, as well as drainage for lowland areas, followed by post production, agro-industries and other such approaches. 12. The future prospects of lowland for agricultural development, particularly for food crops, horticulture, plantation and fishponds are highly potential. There are varieties of agricultural commodities that suitable to be developed in the lowlands areas, namely coconut, palm oil, cocoa-seed, rambutan, oranges and pineapple. The tidal lowlands that are affected by brackish water are suitable for aquaculture such as prawn fishpond, milkfish and other brackish water fisheries. 13. For obtaining the maximum advantages, the future lowland developments must carefully consider a number challenges and constraints including among others: (1) Lowland development involves cross-sectoral activities, therefore it requires intensive inter-agency coordination among the relevant institutions, to be properly maintained and enhanced from time to time; (2) Lowland development takes relatively a long time process, which demands for long-term commitment on financial investment; (3) Given the facts that lowland development possesses good prospect for agricultural development in a large spectrum, therefore, development planning of lowlands would be increasingly become more complex in line with the demands for sustainable and environmentally sound development; (4) The subsequent follow up stages of lowland development requires adequate economic and social infrastructure supports in line with the underlying demands for sosio-economic development; (5) The complexities associated with the prospective lowland development would require more than just capable human resources but also demanding for highly qualified personnel who are knowledgeable, dedicated and well experienced having supported by appropriate management effective training program as well as reliable R&D supports; (6) In order to gain a maximum advantage of the developed lowland infrastructures, effective operation and maintenance of the water resources facilities must be undertaken and improved by the water users’ association from time to time. 14. The irrigation based transmigration implementation in Indonesia, has been with various level of achievement, nevertheless, it has a good prospect to implement in the long run. For future implementation, it is essential to consider and clarify the policy objectives of the resettlement programs. These objectives must take into account the constraints imposed by the prevailing social values and norms of the settlers as well as the socio-economic conditions of the region in which the transmigration program to be undertaken. For the success of future programs, the implementation should be accompanied by consistent monitoring and evaluating of actual conditions, as well as improvement of the resettlement schemes from phase to phase. 15. Overall, in order to be able to achieve sustainable development and management of water resources and irrigation, it is imperative to give special thoughts on the demands for


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integrated basin water resources management (by means of quality and quantity) involving all the relevant stakeholders with consistent “political commitment” of the government at all levels, followed by consistent effort for encouraging integrated and participative approaches for all toward appropriate spatial planning and implementation, sustainable environment, institutional setup, financial sustainability, human resources development, appropriate technology as well as regulatory instruments together with its consistent implementation.

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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID The Ancient Irrigated-Agricultural Heritages in Indonesia

History in Brief

SUPPLEMENT PAPER

THE ANCIENT IRRIGATED-AGRICULTURAL HERITAGES IN INDONESIA



By: A. Hafied A. Gany


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THE ANCIENT IRRIGATED-AGRICULTURAL HERITAGES IN INDONESIA


INTRODUCTION The general implementation of modern agricultural practice often counters the



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existence of traditional practices in the society. Some practices are consistent with modern practices, others are significantly backward. Yet, farmers in many areas are still following traditional agricultural practices, which passed down from generation to generation. This paper presents some aspects of traditional agricultural practices in Indonesia by comparing and contrasting their technicality with the current agricultural circumstances. The paper focuses on the Pranatamangsa (Ancient Javanese Agricultural Calendar) and on some comparative examples of the Subak traditional agricultural system in Bali Island, Indonesia.

ANCIENT VERSUS MODERN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES Agricultural practice in Indonesia (especially for low land paddy cultivation) has a very long history, which according to Fruin (1922) it can be traced to over 2,000 years back. During such a long period of time the farmers inherited the agricultural know-how from generation to generation. (fruin,1922: 122-129) For example, the agricultural calendar known as the Pranatamangsa of the ancient Javanese farmers, the Subak system in Bali, the Tua Banda system in Western Sumatra, the Tudang Sipulung system in South Sulawesi and few others to mention, are still followed largely by many farmers in the rural areas of Indonesia. These traditional agricultural practices in fact, are not less sophisticated than the nature of ancient calendar of Egypt, China, Maya and Burma.1

As far as the Indonesian traditional agricultural practices are concerned, there are not much studies or researches that have been carried out to uncover the underlying phenomenon. Only Van Thien (1933) in his book "De Javaanche Geestenwereld" describes some limited concerns about the Pranatamangsa. Learning from some empirical evidences, the more we contemplate on the traditional irrigated agricultural practices the more we learn about their practical implications. This matter is particularly true for the farming practices under the small landholders' circumstances. In fact, there is a reason to believe that traditional agricultural practices were based on very sound and systematic observation. Whoever the inventors may have been, they were aware that technology should be adjusted to accommodate the users. In this notion, they approach the farmer through what was currently known, and adjusted the innovations to the simplicity of the farmers' attitude. Therefore the farmers no matter how simple their ways of thinking are they can adopt the system.

1 Daldjoeni, Drs. N., in "Pedesaan, Lingkungan Hidup dan Pembangunan" (Rural Area Environment

and Development), Alumni , Bandung 1979.


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Given the above evidence, it is apparent that the present agricultural practices need to take into account the underlying traditions. The new innovations should therefore be made gradually, and adjusted cautiously, to avoid undesirable socio-cultural impacts that can significantly hamper the development process. This is somewhat time consuming, but it is much better than the existence of never-ending phenomenon of what is identified today as irrigated agricultural involution.

THE "PRANATAMANGSA" ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL CALENDAR OF JAVA Despite the fact that no exact evidence about the history of the Pranatamangsa has ever been discovered, this traditional agricultural calendar was known to have been practiced by ancient Javanese farmers long before the Hindu Era in the Indonesian Archipelago. Aartsen (1953) believes that the lowland agricultural pattern for paddy2 has been practiced in Indonesia for over 2,000 years (1953:141). The Pranatamangsa was believed to be followed by most of today's Javanese ancestors, and yet it is still comprehended by many rural traditional Javanese farmers today.

Historical evidence indicates that the Pranatamangsa has been widely used to guide the agricultural activities since the "Old Mataram Kingdom", during the "Pajang" era, and during the "Islamic Mataram" period (Fruin, 1922: 122-129). Learning from the nature of the Pranatamangsa, Fruin further believes that such a well-sequenced procedures could not have emerged by itself. Thus, the invention must have been based upon very long and sophisticated observations. Whoever the inventors, they must have been expert in the art of observation, regardless of its having been done so long ago.

The basic techniques of the Pranatamangsa are actually incorporated with the simplicity principles. Simple that every farmer can easily adopt the technique without involving sophisticated learning process. The complexity of the technique becomes obvious if it is comprehended from the implications of school of thoughts of what today are called agricultural environment, cosmography, bioclimatology, socio-cultural circumstances and others. From the point of view of agricultural practices, the ancient agricultural calendars like the Pranatamangsa, will remain appreciated today because the application principles are already accommodating the environmental circumstances of agricultural activities. This is particularly apparent in the rural areas where people depend mainly upon agricultural resources they inherited since the Ancient Time. One of the unique aspects of the system is that the complication of natural phenomena are bound together in such a way that it is easy to comprehend even by the illiterate farmer. Every aspect of agricultural patterns is deliberately connected with the natural characteristics. The agricultural patterns were seemingly developed to be able to accommodate the natural phenomena after a series of scrupulous observations. Most importantly, the application principle always capable of accommodating harmonious

2 Lowland paddy cultivation in Indonesia has long been practiced in the form of inundated

bounded field with continuous irrigation flow during the growing period of the plant. This paddy field is referred to as "sawah" in Indonesian term. However, in case of rainfed lowland paddy field, the term "sawah tadah, hujan" is used. While the upland paddy is referred to as "padi-gogo"


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relationship between human, cosmic, nature and reality (Daldjoeni, 1979: 69), without much concern about the nature of the underlying relationships per-sé. Cosmographic Background The term Pranatamangsa literally means as a manual for determining the appropriate time (calendar) for agricultural practices and for some other aspects of human life. It is believed that the calendar was developed in the Central Java in the vicinity of the Merapi and Merbabu mountains (Tanojo, 1964:35-42). In principle, the calendar accommodates the seasonal changes and natural phenomena for lowland paddy cultivation in the area mentioned above. However, it applies also for other places in the neighbouring areas with minor adjustment.



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The basic principle of the Pranatamangsa agricultural calendar is that one year (365 days) is sub divided into four main-seasons: (1) Katiga, (2) Labuh, (3) Rendheng

Figure 1. Basic Feature of the Pranatamangsa Agricultural Calendar


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and (4) Mareng3. Each main-season is derived further into three more seasons or "Mangsa", which eventually resulting in 12 distinct seasons (See Figure 1, the general outl ine of the Pranatamangsa agricultural calendar). It was said (Handamangkara, 1964), however, that the original concept prescribed only 10 seasons a year, and the remaining 64 days were considered to be the resting days of the year, within which the farmers were prohibited from undertaking any farming activities. This was meant to let the soil rest between the harvest time and the next planting season4. To enable the farmer recognizes the resting period, the 64 days is further divided into two distinct seasons: (1) Desta, and (2) Sandhi, instead of the 11th and the 12th seasons. These terms derived from Hindu months, Jaista and, Asadha, which are literally meant, “to occupy the same period”. Unlike the routine guidance for determining seasonal changes of the previous ten seasons, the changes of last two seasons are not determined in terms of the cyclical position of any particular "stars" in the sky (see Table- 1 for more details).

It can be seen further from Figure-1, that each of the above mentioned seasons of the year has distinct character and duration in terms of number of days. The first sixth seasons consists of 41, 23, 24, 25 and 43 days respectively, while the following six seasons consists of 43, 26, 25, 24, 23, and 41 days respectively5. The New Year falls on June 22nd every year.

Determination of Seasonal Changes For determination of the seasonal changes in the Pranatamangsa, the farmer does not have to take very complicated calculations, nor to prepare written calendar like most people have today. The seasonal changes are determined by certain physical measurement, complemented with positional changes of particular stars in the sky. In addition, some indications from the nature (for example, the behaviour of particular animals etc.) are also used as the complementary explanation of the seasonal changes.

One can tell the seasonal change, for instance, by measuring the length of the shadow away from one's body while standing under the bright sunshine at 12.00 noons for any solar position throughout the year. The measurement unit of each seasonal change is determined by the specific length called “pecak” which is more or less the same size as the average length of an ordinary person's foot, or about 25cm (see Figure 2, for pictorial illustration). Thus, each pecak unit corresponds to a particular number of days of the season previously mentioned. The shadow of the body at 12.00 noon on 13th of October and on the 1st of March every year for instance, are positioned exactly vertical and overlap with the body. This is because the sun positions at these particular days are exactly 90° above the meridian. At such condition, the farmer will understand the beginning of the season, and then they can anticipate the next seasonal changes corresponds to every full Pecak length of the

3 The four main seasons a re symbol ica l ly represent ing four Life e lements ( inc luding

resources) as the fo l lowing: Katiga charac ter izes the Maruta or wind , Labuh characterizes the Agni o r f i re , Rendheng charac ter izes the Tirta or water , and Mareng charac ter izes the Bantala or ear th

4 From the po in t o f v iew of "sus ta inable agr icu l tura l concept" , the implementa t ion of th is c ropping ca lendar i s cons idered to be an e f fec t ive way of prevent ing the so i l f rom rapid de ter iora t ion due to over fa rming . In some cases , per iodica l res t ing of the so i l i s a lso employed to be an e f fec t ive measure of prevent ing the mass ive pes t o r insec t a t tack - - th is he lps in tercep t ing b io logica l cycle of the pes ts o r insec ts .

5 In case of the year that has 366 days, the number of days for the eighth season (Kawolu) becomes 26.


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shadow extending from the body at 12.00 noon. The interval days within the season is determined by estimating the linear interpolation of the shadow length against the assigned number of days in that particular season. Therefore, the change of the season occurs every time the measurement of the shadow extends away from the body at one or more folds of pecak standard unit, no matter how many days have passed 6.

1 MARCHST

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6 In practice, this method of determining seasonal change is very effective and reliable. The measurement

tool is also practical, because everyone relies his own natural measurement standard (i.e. length of foot instead of using the standard measuring tape or yardstick.

Figure 2. Determination of Seasonal Changes in the Pranatamangsa

SLNLSL

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7

89 10 11

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E-1. COMPARISON OF COSMOGRAFY, COSMOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY IN THE “PRANATAMANGSA” (SURAKARTA) METEOROLOGICAL CONDITION

OF THE SON

STARTI-NG DAY OF

THE SEASON

LENGTH OF THE SEASON (DAYS)

SOLAR DECLINATI

ON (DEGREE)

REPRESENTING STAR SYMBOL

LENG OF SHADOW (PECAK)

SHADOW DIRECTION

N=NORTH S=SOUTH – =NONE

REPRESENTED LIFE ELEMENT

COSMIC COLOR

SUN-SHINE DURATION

(%)

HUMI-DITY (%)

RAIN FALL (MM)

TEMPERATURE (˚C)

ASA ARO ATELU

JUN-22 AUG-02 AUG-25

41 23 24

+23.5 +17.0 +10.5

SAPI GUMARANG TAGIH

LUMBUNG (CRUX)

4 3 2

S S S

MARUTA MARUTA MARUTA

YELLOWYELLOWYELLOW

72 72 72

60.1 60.1 60.1

67.2 32.2 47.2

27.4 27.4 27.4

APAT ALIMA ANEM

SEP-18 OCT-13 NOV-09

25 27 43

+02.0 -07.5 -17.0

JARAN DAWUK BANYAKAREM (SCORPION)

GOTONG MAYIT

1 0 1

S – N

AGNI AGNI AGNI

RED RED RED

70 70 70

75.5 75.5 75.5

83.3 151.9 402.2

26.7 26.7 26.7

APITU AWOLU ASANGA

DEC-22 FEB-03 MAR-01

43 26 25

-23.5 -17.0 -07.5

BIMA-SAKTI WULANJARNGIRIM

(CENTAURI)

2 1 0

N N –

TIRTA TIRTA TIRTA

WHITE WHITE WHITE

67 67 67

80.0 80.0 80.0

501.4 371.6 252.2

26.2 26.2 26.2

ASAPULUHESTA

DHA

MAR-26 APR-19 MAY-12

24 23 41

+02.0 +10.5 +17.0

WALUKU (ORION) LUMBUNG (CRUX)

TAGIH

1 2 4

S S S

BANTALA BANTALA BANTALA

BLACK BLACK BLACK

60 60 60

74.0 74.0 74.0

181.6 129.1 149.2

27.8 27.8 27.8

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NAMESEA

KAT I GA

1 2 3

KKK

LABUH

4 5 6

KKK

RENDHENG

7 8 9

KKK

MARENG

101112

KDSA


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Comparing of the Cosmography, Cosmology and Meteorology in the Pranatamangsa

Despite the fact that no historical evidence that could tell exactly when the Pranatamangsa was actually invented, it is quite amazing to know that this ancient knowledge is still corresponds with the modern science that people comprehend today, for instance, with cosmology, cosmography and climatology. In fact, there remains a lot more phenomenon of the Pranatamangsa that need to be discovered in terms of scientific explanations.

For comparative configuration, Daldjoeni (1978), puts together some salient features of the Pranatamangsa in one table, showing, contrasting and comparing them with same features of the cosmological and climatological conditions of the vicinity of Surakarta, Central Java (see Table-2). This table clearly demonstrates the distinct characteristics of the Pranatamangsa in comparison with the cosmological as well as the climatological characteristic of Surakarta, Central Java. For instance the characteristic relationships among them are as follows:

(1) The Katiga main season occurs when the sun forms human shadow between two and four pecaks southward away from body position (between 22nd June and 17th September) -- at the same time the cosmic colour is dominated by yellow, the sunshine duration is about 72% of the length of the day, the humidity is about 60.1%, the average rainfall is about 48.87mm, and the mean temperature is about 27.4oC;

(2) The Labuh main season occurs when the sun forms human shadow between one pecak southward and one pecak northward away from body position (between 18th September and 21st December) -- at the same time the cosmic colour is dominated by red, the sunshine duration is about 70% of the length of the day, the humidity is about 75.5%, the average rainfall is about 214.5mm, and the mean temperature is about 26.7oC;

(3) The Rendheng main season occurs when the sun forms human shadow between zero pecak and two pecaks northward away from body position (between 22nd December and 25th March) -- at the same time the cosmic colour is dominated by white, the sunshine duration is about 67% of the length of the day, the humidity is about 80%, the average rainfall is about 375mm, and the mean temperature is about 25.2 o C; and

(4) The Mareng, main season occurs when the sun forms human shadow between one and four pecaks southward away from body position (between 26th March and 21st June) -- at the same time the cosmic colour is dominated by black, the sunshine duration is about 60% of the length of the day, the humidity is about 74%, the average rainfall is about 153.3mm, and the mean temperature is about 27.8oC.

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ABLE-2. COMPARISON OF SEASONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRANATAMANGSA AND METEOROLOGICAL DATA (IN SURAKARTA)

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS ME OF THE ASON

SYMBOLIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SEASONAL CHANGES IN ACCORDANCE WITH RESPONSES OF THE NATURE AND

CREATURES TO SEASONAL CHANGES

NATURAL PHENOMENA AND HUMAN STATE OF MOODS SUNSHINE

DURATION (%) RELATIVE

HUMADITY (%) RAINFALL

(MM)

TEMPERATURES

(˚C)

1

2 3

“SOTYA MURCA ING EMBANAN” (JEWEL FALLS FROM THE INLAY) “BANTALA RENGKA” (SOIL CRACKED) “SUTA MANUT ING BAPAK” (THE CHILD OBEYS HIS FATHER)

1

2 3

THE FALLING LEAVES, SIRCULATION OF THE STARS HOT WEATHER DRYING UP THE WLLS, AND DUSTY WINDS

52

52 52

60.1

60.1 60.1

67.2

32.2 47.2

27.4

27.4 27.4

4

5

6

“WASPADA KUMEMBENG JRONING KALBU” (THE TEAR FLOWS INTO THE INNER HEART) “PANCURAN EMAS SEMAWUR ING JAGAD” (THE GOLDEN WATER TAPS SPREAD OVER THE WORLD) “RASA MULYA KASUCEN” (STATE OF NOBLE FEELING

4

5

6

THE DRY SEASON IS ENDED THE RAINY SEASON STARTED GREEN SURROUNDING AND SECURE FEELING

70

70

70

73.5

73.5

73.5

83.3

151.9

402.2

26.7

26.7

26.7

7

8

9

“WISA KENTAR ING MARUTA” (THREAT OF HURRICANE DISASTER) “ANJRAH JRONING KAYUN” (DISSEMINATION OF PEOPLES OPINIONS) “WEDARE WACANA MYLYA” (THE EMERGENCE OF NOBLE WORDS)

7

8

9

EPIDEMICS AND FLOODING CATS MATING SEASON AND CONTINUOUS LIGHTNING THUNDERY WEATHER AND SKIN IRRITATION

67

67

67

80

80

80

501.4

371.8

252.5

26.2

26.2

26.2

10

11 12

“GEDONG MINEP JRONING KALBU” (THE HOUSE IS CLOSED IN ONES MIND) “SOTYA SINAR WEDI” (DIAMOND WHETTING) “TIRTA SAT SAKING SASANA” (THE WATER SOURCES ARE DRYING UP)

10

11 12

EGGS LAYINGS (OF THE BIRDS) DIZZINESS AND EXHAUSTED FEELING EGGS MATCHINGS SEASON THE RAINY SEASON ENDED, THE DRY SEASON STARTING

60

60 60

47

47 47

181.6

129.1 149.2

27.8

27.8 27.8

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In addition, each particular season is symbolized by the periodical appearance of a particular star at a certain position in the sky as the following: (1) The Kasa season with the appearance of' the Sapi Gumarang star; (2) The Karo season with the appearance of the Tagih star; (3) The Katelu season with the appearance of the Lumbung (Crux) star; (4) The Kapat season with the appearance of the Jaran Dawuk star; (5) The Kalima season with the appearance of the Banyakarem (Scorpio) star; (6) The Kanem season with the appearance of the Gotong Mayit star; (7) The Kapitu season with the appearance of the Bima Sakti star; (8) The Kawolu season with the appearance of the Wulan Jarngirim (Centaurus) star; (9) The Kasanga season with the appearance of the Wuluh (Pleyades) star; (10) The Kasapuluh season with the appearance of the Waluku (Orion) star; (11) The Desta season with the appearance of the Lumbung (Crux) star; and (12) The Sadha season with the appearance of the Tagih star.

Pranatamangsa versus the Behaviour of Nature Another unique characteristic of the Pranatamangsa is that each particular season indicates distinct relationship with nature. This can be identified from the auto-reaction of the living creatures to seasonal changes. For instance, the seasonal change can be seen immediately from distinct change of behaviour of living creatures, plants, animals, even human beings. Therefore, the farmer is capable of anticipating the seasonal changes by keep observing behavioural changes of the natural phenomena.

Very often, for instance, the continuous marching of ants toward higher places gives indication of the approaching heavy rainfall, and the horizontal position of spider web indicates the approaching of good weather condition in the next few days. Many other such occurring in nature that are used by the farmer to predict weather condition or seasonal changes. Thus, by applying the rule of the Pranatamangsa, and observation of the behaviour of nature, traditional farmers are always certain of the agricultural pattern such as planting schedule, land preparation, including the precaution efforts for preventing the crop damages from flooding, hurricane, pest attacks, plant diseases and so on.

In this traditional practice, however, the farmers are not and will never want to know the logical explanation of each of the above matter. Instead, they just take them for granted. More importantly, they will never dare to disobey the rules of what they believe to be prescribed by Mother Nature or the Creator of the Universe. They believe that the Creator will give punishment should they disobey the rule of the nature.7

The following illustration summarizes the seasonal characteristics:

7 This attitude is apparently indicating the strength and at the same time the weakness aspects

of the traditional agricultural practices. The “strength”, in the sense that the agricultural practices is always implemented without jeopardizing the balance of environmental habitat and the tradit ion will remain sustainable in the long run. The "weakness" is in the sense that the traditional farmer is inclined to show less init iative, to overlook the value of t ime, and to behave sceptically to any new ideas or technology that they had never know before.


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In an attempt to compare and contrast the seasonal characteristics and responses of natural behaviour, Daldjoeni (1978), also prepared a recapitulative table regarding the seasonal characteristics and the meteorological data of the Surakarta Region, Central Java (See Table-2). From the table, it can be seen how each season of the Pranatamangsa is formulated in terms of seasonal character (meteorological condition) with response to natural phenomena, the behaviour of life creatures and human being to the seasonal changes.

(1) The Kasa season is characterized as "Sotya Murca Ing Embanan" or Jewel falls from the inlay, and falling leaves and circulation of the stars characterize the natural behaviour. The meteorological condition is characterized by the sunshine duration at about 52% of the length of the day, relative humidity at about 60%, average rainfall at about 67mm, and the temperature is at about 27.4oC.

(2) The Karo season is characterized as "Bantala Rangka" or soil cracking, and the natural behaviour is characterized by hot weather. The sunshine duration at about 52% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 60%, the average rainfall at about 32 mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 27.4oC;

(3) The Katelu season is characterized as "Suta Manut Ing Bapak " or child obeys his father, and the natural behaviour is characterized by the drying up of wells and the dusty wind. The sunshine duration at about 52% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 60%, the average rainfall at about 47 mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 27.4o C;

(4) The Kapat season is characterized as "Waspa Kumembeng Jroning Kalbu" or tear is brought into the inner heart, and the natural behaviour is characterized by the ending of the dry season. The meteorological condition is characterized by the sunshine duration at about 70% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 75.5%; the average rainfall at about 83rnm, and the temperature is at about 26.7oC;

(5) The Kalima season is characterized as "Pancuran Emas Semawur Ing Jagad" or the golden water taps spread in the entire world, and the natural behaviour is characterized by the beginning of rainy season. The sunshine duration at about 70% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 75.5%, the average rainfall at about 152 characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 26.7o C;

(6) The Kanem season is characterized as "Rasa Mulya Kasicen" or noble feeling, and the green surroundings and secure feeling characterize the natural behaviour. Sunshine duration at about 70% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 75.5%, the average rainfall at about 402mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 25.7 o C;

(7) The Kapitu season is characterized as "Wisa Kentar Ing Maruta" or the threat of hurricane, and the natural behaviour is characterized by the season of disease and flooding. The meteorological condition is characterized by sunshine duration at about 67% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 80%, the average rainfall at about 50l mm, and the temperature is at about 26.2oC;


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(8) The Kawolu season is characterized as "Anjrah Jroning Kayun" or the spread over of opinion, and the cat mating season and continuous lightning characterizes the natural behaviour. Sunshine duration at about 67% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 80%, the average rainfall at about 372 mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 26.2oC;

(9) The Kasanga season is characterized as "Wedare WacanaMulya” or the emergence of noble words, and the natural behaviour is characterized by thundered weather and skin irritation. Sunshine duration at about 67% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 80%, the average rainfall at about 253mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 26.2 oC;

(10) The Kasapuluh season is characterized as "Gedong Minep Jroning Kalbu" or the house is closed in one's mind, and the natural behaviour is characterized by the birds laying, exhausted feeling and dizziness. Sunshine duration at about 60% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 47%, the average rainfall at about 182mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 27.8oC;

(11) The Desta season is characterized as "Sotya Sinarwedi" or diamond whetting, and the egg hatching (of the birds) characterizes the natural behaviour. The meteorological condition is characterized by sunshine duration at about 60% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 47%, the average rainfall at about 129 mm, and the temperature is at about 27.8oC; and

(12) The Sadha season is characterized as "Tirta Sah Saking Sasana" or the water disappearance from its source, and discontinuation of rain and staring of the dry season characterize the natural behaviour. Sunshine duration at about 60% of the length of the day, the relative humidity at about 47%, the average rainfall at about 149 mm characterize the meteorological condition, and the temperature is at about 27.8oC.

Socio-Cultural Functions One of the crucial aspects of implementing the sustainable agricultural practices in the society is related to the difficulty to formulate regulation that can meet the demands of the farming circumstances as well as the society as a whole without causing any inconvenience. As the matter of fact, it is always difficult to establish good regulation that could apply to the poorly educated members of the farming community as most farming situation in the rural areas in Indonesia.

There are some traditional regulations, which appear logical and technically sound. But in most cases, the farmers just take them for granted. For instance, moving into a new house during the Katelu season is traditionally restricted. This is very obvious and logically explainable because the days of the season are very dry and windy, and foods are scarce. Thus, at such season, the farmers are highly susceptible to disease and hunger. However, not all of the traditional restrictions can be explained in terms of logical way of thinking.


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Therefore, it is almost certain that the role of the Pranatamangsa is more effective if it is geared toward encouraging the socio-cultural participation in the traditional agricultural community. Thus the implementation of modern innovation in the traditional society should first of all convinces the farmer that their participation in the activities is worthwhile. Failure to do so will cause severe consequences. It may take very long time and much effort to restore the farmers' confidence after failure of the first trial. Despite the fact that today’s farmers are no longer practicing the traditional agricultural activities as that of their ancestors did, the socio-cultural functions of the Pranatamangsa or other traditional agricultural heritages remain very important to consider by any change agents if the agricultural development efforts should be successful.

CONCLUDING REMARKS Learning from some examples of agricultural practices prescribed both by Pranatamangsa of the ancient Java, it is apparent that the irrigated-agricultural practices in Indonesia has been developed to meet the farmers circumstances so it could sustain from generation to generation since the old days.

The main principles built into both systems are based on the ability to regulate the suitable techniques, time, space and environment in order to meet the livelihood of the people. The underlying approach is based maintaining a proper balance, and the ability of acquiring harmonious- relationship between human and nature on reciprocal basis. The basic techniques of most traditional practices are incorporated with the simplicity principles, so that every farmer can adopt the technique without involving sophisticated learning process.

Despite the fact that the ancient practices were invented long time ago, it is quite amazing to know that much of their techniques are still convertible to the modern science that people understand today. The more we can comprehend the traditional irrigated-agricultural practices the more we learn about their technicalities. In fact, there is a reason to believe that the traditional agricultural practices were based on systematic observations. Today, there remains a lot more phenomenon of the Ancient Agricultural Heritages that need to be uncovered in terms of scientific explanations.

Given the above evidence, it is apparent that the introduction of modern agricultural practices needs to take into account of the underlying socio-cultural heritages, which are still accommodating the farming society. The new innovations should therefore be introduced gradually to avoid undesirable socio-cultural impacts that could significantly jeopardize the agricultural development process. This sounds time consuming, but it is much better than giving allowance for the existence of never-ending phenomenon of what is identified -- in the modern world today -- as irrigated agricultural involution.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aartsen, J. P. Van, 1953. "Ekonomi Pertanian di Indonesia", Pembangunan, Jakarta 1953.

Daldjoeni, Drs. N., 1978. "Antologi Geografi Sosial", Alumni, Bandung, 1978. Daur Pranatamangsa ", Alumni, Bandung.

Daldjoeni, Drs. N., 1979. "Pedesaan, Lingkungan Hidup dan Pembangunan", Alumni, Bandung.

Fruin, Mess. W., 1922. "Geschieldenis Van Java" d1.2, Volkslectoordienst, Batavia.

Gany, A. H. A., 1979. "Comparison of Estate and Small Holder Irrigation Projects in their Impacts on Rural Development", with special reference to Indonesia, M. Sc. Thesis, Southampton University, England.

Gany, A. H. A. , 1979. "Nilai Ekonomi Air terhadap Petani Pemakai Air", PRISMA No. 3, March 1979.

Gany, et.al., 1979. "Irigasi di Lampung dan Permasalahannya", Lampung Propincial Public Works Service, Teluk Betung, Indonesia.

Gany, A. H. A., 1980. "Pola Pemukiman Petani Berpemilikan Kecil dalam Usaha Pengembangan Irigasi", PRISMA, No. 7, July 1980.

Gany, A. H. A., 1989. Field Water Management Impact on the New Irrigated Area,: In Rydzewski J. R. (ed), 1989. Irrigation, Theory and Practice, John Wiley and Son Ltd. & Pentech Press. London.

Geertz, Clifford, 1963. Agricultural involution, the Processes of Ecological Change in Indonesia. Berkley.

Handanamangkara, 1964. "Primbon Jawa: Sabda Guru" Penerbit Keluarga Subarno, Sala .

Hien, H. A. Van. , 1933. "De Javaanche Geestenwereld dl. 3, Kolf, Batavia. IPB, Biro Pengabdian Masyarakat., 1969. "Modernisasi Pedesaan Vol. 1-5,

Perkembangan Penduduk dan Kebijaksanaan Pangan, IPB, Bogor, 20th May 1969.

Koentjaraningrat, Prof. Dr., 1979. "Manusia dan Kebudayaan Indonesia" Jembatan, Jakarta.

Mears, L. A. , 1981. The New Rice Economy of Indonesia. Gajah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 1980.

Sayogyo, Prof. Dr., 1977. “Golongan Miskin dan Partisipasi dalam Pembangunan Desa” PRISMA, LP3ES, No. 4., March 1977.

Tanojo, R. 1964. “Primbon Jawa Sabda Pandita Ratu”, T. B. Pelajar, Sala 1964.

Surjani, Drs. A., 1979. "Pembangunan Masyarakat Desa", Penerbit Alumni, Bandung, Kotak Pos 272, Bandung, Indonesia.

Wehlburg, Ir., 1933(?)., "Nota Irigatie Way-Sekampung", unpublished report (in Dutch), translated by Soenaryo Soekadis B. I. E. into Indonesian for Lampung Provincial Public Works Service.


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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Subak Irrigation System in Bali

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

SUBAK IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN BALI



History in Brief

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SUBAK IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN BALI An Ancient Heritage of Participatory Irrigation Management in Modern

Indonesia1

By A. Hafied A. Gany

ABSTRACT The Subak system is an ancient irrigated-agricultural practice of the Bali Island, Indonesia. This system serves small-scale landholders where lowland paddy is mainly



257

practiced. The exact date of Subak was not known, however, most recent evidence suggested that the Subak system was believed to have been existed in 800 of Saka Calendar or in 882 AD.

Learning from agricultural practices of the Subak system, it is apparent that the system has been established to meet the farmers' demands through a togetherness approach among it members. The main principle built into this system is based on the ability to maintain proper balance, and harmonious relationship between human and nature on reciprocal basis. The basic techniques are incorporated with the simplicity principles, so that every member of the community can adopt the technique without involving sophisticated learning process.

Although the Subak system and its practices were invented long time ago, much of their techniques are still convertible to the modern practices that the people understand today. In fact, there is a reason to believe that the traditional agricultural practices adopted by the Subak organization were based on systematic observations.

Today, despite the underlying irrigation development and management practices in modern Indonesia, there remains a lot more phenomenon of ancient agricultural practices -- demonstrated as an example by the Subak System -- that need to be uncovered in an attempt to contribute practical technicalities for implementing sustainable irrigated agricultural development under the small-farming circumstances.

INTRODUCTION The Subak system is an ancient irrigated-agricultural practice of the Bali Island, Indonesia (See the General Map of Bali Island). Like most irrigation schemes in Indonesia, the Subak system also serves small landholders where lowland paddy monoculture is practiced in majority. The exact date of Subak was not known, however, some stone inscriptions indicated that the Subak system was known to be part of the Balinese life since hundreds of years ago. Some scholars estimated that the Subak system was established during the life of Markandeya, a yogist from Java in the first century of

1. The main substance of this article was prepared -- with some adjustment -- based on a booklet entitled:

"Subak Irrigation System in Bali, An Ancient Heritage of Participatory Irrigation Management in Modern Indonesia" which was presented by the author as an Irrigation series publication, a booklet, published by the Research Institute of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures in 2002.

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SINGARAJA

D. TK.II BULELENGGIL IMANUK

D. TK. II JEMBRANA

D. TK. II TABANANNEGARA

BANGLI

GIANYAR

D. TK. II GIANYAR

KELUNGKUNG

D. TK. II KARANGASEM

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BANGLID. TK. II

D. TK. II KELUNGKUNG

TABANAN

DENPASAR

D. TK. II BADUNG

BADUNG STR

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NUSA PENIDA

GENERAL MAP OF BALI ISLAND, INDONESIA

JAVA SEA

0 10 km

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the Saka Calendar (DPU Pengairan Propinsi Bali, 1972). Since the term Subak is originally written in Balinese Language, according to Suwadnya, 1990:7, it should actually be written as “Subhak” as prescribed by Markandeya. According to R.Gory (in Gany, 1975), paddy irrigation has been practiced in Bali for more than one thousand years. The early monograph of R. Gory stated that there is some evidences suggested that irrigation in Bali has been existed since 600 AD. Since that era, the farmers in Bali were very skillful in excavating and constructing irrigation tunnel across the high ridges or high lands. The more recent evidence suggested that the Subak system was believed to have been existed in 800 of Saka Calendar or in 882 AD. At that time, the term huma (or upland or rain-fed paddy field in Indonesian term known today) was also known in Bali to be similar to lowland paddy field. Another stone inscription which was found in Prinyan or Trunyan, dated back to 813 of the Saka Calendar or 891 AD, indicated that the makar aser which is known today as the pekaseh or water master, was in fact already known by the farmer during that ancient period (IPB, 1974:3). Another scholar, Dr. Wertheim, indicated that the Subak was believed to have been widely practiced since between 896 and 1022 AD. Meanwhile, another stone inscription also indicated that the Subak had already been established during the time of the King Marakata Panghodja Stanuttunggadewa in 994 Saka Calendar or 1022 AD (IPB, 1974:3). The most recent stone inscription indicated that the Subak was widely practiced in 1072 AD for organizing the farmer’s activities in conducting irrigation for paddy cultivation (Goris, in Dinas PU, 1972). According to Fukuda and Park (1976:24), one of the most obvious historical evidence of the Subak, in the form of ancient stone inscription, is still kept and preserved today at the Banjar Sengguan Pemejan Temple in the Klungkung Regency.


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Despite that the above evidences do not provide an exact date of the establishment of Subak, however, they did indicate that the system had been known and practiced in Bali since the ancient Hindu Era. The word Subak itself according to the Purana inscription, dated back to 994 Saka Calendar or 1072 was believed to be originated from the term kesuwakan, which is similar to the term kesubakan or presently referred to as the Subak. In the district of Tabanan, however, the Subak term was believed by the local people to be originated from the word seuwak, which is literally meant as "a better water distribution system".2 The definition of the Subak and Pekaseh stated by the Sang Markandeya in his note refers to as the Purana Markandeya in Balinese Language as “Sang mikukuhan sawah kewastaning Subhak sang mikukuhang toya kewastaning Pekaseh Ika newenang mengepah toya pinika …….” (Suadnya, 1990:03). This term freely translates as “The people that are performing irrigated agricultural activities is called “Subhak”, the people that are managing water is called Pekaseh, who is responsible to conduct water distribution …….” Apparently, no clear information what so far about the inventor, nor the initiator of the Subak. Some people believed that the initiative was instructed by the kings as they believed that the Subak system hold an important role in the economy of the kingdoms. Another scholars argued that the first initiative of the establishment of Subak came from

the farming community themselves by initially clearing the forests for providing their immediate agricultural purposes on mutual aid basis. The king then gradually supported the resulted agricultural lands by providing irrigation systems. This indicates that the kings and the people had been involved actively in the activities of the Subak since the ancient era of the Balinese kingdoms. The Subak Musium in Tabanan, Bali, where a number of



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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THE SUBAK APPROACH Autonomous and Religious Ties of the Subak Practice The Subak employs a principle of independence and religiously tied practices in managing irrigation systems under the circumstances irrigation based agricultural endeavors. The general philosophy of the Balinese adheres to the “Trihitakarana” principle which believes that happiness can only be fulfilled when the “Creator” the 2. The name of each individual Subak system usually given according to several criteria: (1) after the

name of the nearest village; (2) after the water sources, such as Basangkara. Luwus, Joanyar; (3) after the nearest religious temple, such as Andeldewa; (4) according to the land development system such as Babakan Anyar and so on.

historical evidences of ancient irrigation of Bali are kept


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“people” and the ”nature” are confined in harmony. The Subak members, thus, establish and maintain irrigation infrastructures based on this philosophy through mutual cooperation without disregarding the judicious and fair dispersion of obligation, rights, and responsibilities amongst their members. These activities are implemented through the mutually agreed regulatory instruments, which is referred to as the Awig-Awig.3 This regulatory instrument is not only addressing the irrigation circumstances, but also in fact, giving also more comprehensive concerns with all agricultural aspects, including crop production, farmers' organization or institution, financial circumstances, facility maintenance and other similar rural development activities. The law or regulatory instrument of the Subak is therefore, established to accommodate or to deal with every aspect of life and/or development which are prescribed by the organization on consensus basis. The Awig-Awig Principle of Internal Regulation Enforcement Despite the fact that the general approach of the Subak is based on sensible personal consensus or "togetherness principle" amongst the members, however, the Awig-Awig regulation is still required by the Subak members for enforcing the regulation agreed upon by the members of the organization. Basically, the Awig-awig is developed by means of bottom-up approach,4 to promote democratic, flexible, sensible, fair and organization-bound regulation, toward secure farming undertakings in the entire administrative area of each Subak organization. Each Subak system owns an independent Awig-Awig regulation that applies to the members, within a distinct physical boundary of the Subak irrigation system. In general, the written or the unwritten (memorized) regulation prescribed by the Awig-Awig are concerned with: (1) duty of the members to cultivate paddy in accordance with the agreed schedule; (2) obligation of the members to perform mutual aid for maintaining irrigation facilities; (3) means of settling disputes or conflicts among the members; (4)
obligation to participate in the ritual or religious offering ceremonies in the temples.
In most cases, about 90% of the members are happy with the regulations and sub-missively obeyed them (Gany and Faisol, 1975). There are few cases, however, where the disobedient members were punished or fined in accordance with the kinds of violations they committed.

An example of the Awig-awig regulatory instrument of Subak – it may be written on palm leaves, bamboo or

wooden stick



260

3. The Awig-Awig is a Balinese term, which is generally meant as the formal regulatory instrument or law

of an organization or group of community members. This law is often referred to, in some other places, as Sime or Pasura.

4. Most of the Awig-Awig clauses are established on the basis of consensus among the members themselves from the grass-root level in each Subak administrative authority. The Local Government gives the farmers freedom to decide whatever they think appropriate. The Awig-Awig Regulations were previously administered by means of local consensus. But recently, they prescribe the regulation in the form of written text or some kind of guide book.


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ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS OF THE SUBAK From the point of view of land plot, the term Subak refers to as a group of paddy field blocks, which are obtaining irrigation from the same water source. These farm blocks are organized together into one management unit, which is called Subak organization. The Subak has a full autonomy to manage its activities through the establishment of its board of organization, by law, financial mechanism, regulatory instruments, and enforcement of sanction to the members without allowing involvement or interference of other external organizations. The main principle of organizational responsibility of the Subak is to manage irrigation implementation among the members themselves such that each of the individual members has equal, transparent and fair treatment for the sake of their goal toward mutual prosperity. The Subak organization also has the responsibility to preserve the watershed environment, to conduct proper maintenance of irrigation infrastructures, farm roads, determination of cropping patterns, land preparation and crop scheduling. Beside, Subak also has a responsibility to manage the harmonious relationship with external organizations such as local government agencies concerned. This includes the responsibility of conveying the members' opinion, suggestions and/or comments to the related authorities. Geographically, the average area covered by one Subak organization is about 100 ha, depending upon the magnitude of the area covered by the irrigation command area of the Subak system. However, due to individual characteristic of the topographical condition, one Subak organization may covers an area in the range of 10 to 800 ha. Under the very special condition, one independent Subak area, however, may cover an area even smaller than 10 ha, for instance, Subak Belimbing only covers an area of 3.545ha while Subak Aseman covers an area of 799.175ha (Gany and Faisol, 1975:10). For allowing effective organizational control, the large Subak system usually, but not necessarily, sub-divided into two or more blocks. These blocks are referred to as Tempekan in the district of Bangli, Gianyar and Klungkung, while in the District of Buleleng they are referred to as Banjaran or Layakan, Munduk in the district of Badung and Arahan in the district of Jembrana. Natural creeks, small valleys, small rivers or village roads usually form the boundary area of each individual Subak. In the entire Bali Island, there are 1,410 independent Subak systems. Each of the Subak scheme is equipped with distinct irrigation infrastructures, farmers’ organization and awig-awig regulation (see Table-1 for further details). From this table, one could see that there were very little changes of physical features of the Subak through time -- comparing the data of 1971 and 1979. This explains that the Subak practice has already been so sustainable in terms of organizational, social, cultural as well as infra-structural management from generation to generation. The Subak members which are referred to as the Krama Subak, are mostly elect their own representative by means of democratic principle in terms of majority rule. The elected president of the Subak is called Kelihan Subak 5, who is responsible for organizing the implementation of the day-to-day activities of the Subak organization. In 5. The Kelihan Subak in Some parts of Bali are also known as Penyarikan, Pemekel or Klian Gede. They

are nominated for election based upon a number of selection criteria among others are: (1) to be a member of the Subak Community, (2) to be literate, (3) to be willing to have the position, (4) not to be engaged in any other occupation, (5) having previous experience in the Subak irrigated agriculture, and (6) to be capable of organizing the Subak organization and its related circumstances.


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performing their responsibilities, the Kelihan Subak, in general, are assisted by one or more assistant(s) called Kesinom -- particularly for carrying out the water distribution and routine inspection of irrigation networks. The Subak member who is responsible for disseminating or delivering information to each Subak member is called Juru Arah or Saya. The Juru Arah or Saya also works to assist the Subak (the basic structural
organization of the Subak presented in Figure 1).
Table -1. IRRIGATION AREA COVERED BY SUBAK ORGANIZATION IN BALI, (1971, 1979 AND 1993)

NO. OF SEDAHAN NO. OF SUBAK IRRIGATED PADDY(ha) DISTRICT

AREA(Km2) 1971 1979 1993 1971 1979 1993 1971 1979 1993

Remark

SRI and INACIDrigation History of Indonesia


Buleleng 1,357 10 10 10 255 279 269 14,192 14,537 14,377 Jembrana 830 5 5 5 73 93 108 7,995 8,284 8,860 Tabanan 844 27 27 27 310 351 373 25,381 25,643 25,275 Badung 509 10 10 10 146 131 147 19,215 19,218 16,166 Gianjar 367 10 10 10 181 198 299 15,754 16,427 17,894 Bangli 312 3 3 3 46 48 50 3,226 3,200 3,510 Klungkung 530 5 15 5 44 45 45 4,858 4,425 4,476 Karangasem 857 10 10 10 138 138 119 8,068 7,804 8,565 Total 5,606 80 90 80 1,193 1,283 1,410 98,689 99,538 99,123

Source : 1. Laporan Penelitian Tentang Strategi pembangunan daerah propinsi Bali 1972, Koordinator Perguruan Tinggi VI, Surabaya

2. Provincial Irrigation Services of Bali, 1979 3. Provincial Irrigation Services of Bali, 1993

From the point of view of organizational coordination and mechanism, the highest coordinating authority in the Subak organization is called the Sedahan Agung. The Sedahan Agung (which is also elected by the Subak representatives) is responsible for supervising the entire Subak organization in one District (Regency) or Kabupaten of the local government administration. In some cases, for instance in Buleleng District, the Sedahan Agung is elected from civil servant who is actually responsible to the Bupati (Regent) on the routine coordinative basis. This has been applied since 1968 (IPB, 1974:7). For coordinating the Subak groups (Subak federation), the Sedahan Agung has the following responsibilities: (1) To manage and to arrange the general water allocation for the entire district administration; (2) To solve the problems pertaining to the Subak circumstances that cannot be solved by the Subak members themselves; (3) To collect land taxes; (4) To maintain proper coordination among the Subak organizations within the Kabupaten (Regency) and/or between the Subak organizations and the local government agencies or other external organizations; and (5) To organize traditional ceremonies related to the Subak activities in the entire district government administration. The administrative area of the Sedahan Agung6 varies from District to District in Bali,

6. The Sedahan Agung is elected based upon a general criteria that the candidate must be capable and

have previous experience of administering and conducting Subak organization. In addition, the candidates must have leadership capability and must be willing to accept the position.


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depending upon several aspects such as topographical condition, administrative boundary, watershed boundary, locally specific condition and so on. See the general illustration of administrative area of the Sedahan Agung portrayed in Table-1.

ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OF SUBAK

SEDAHAN AGUNGDEPUTY REGENT (BUPATI)FOR COORDINATINGTHE SEDAHANAND SUBAK

SEDAHANYEH

SEDAHANYEH

SEDAHANYEH

S U B A K S U B A K S U B A K S U B A K S U B A KHEADED BYPEKASEH

HEADED BYPEKASEH

HEADED BYPEKASEH

K E S I K O M A N

J U R U A R A H



263

General Principle of the Subak Membership Basically, the Subak membership is categorized into two kinds according to the land ownership status: (1) land owner; and (2) land tenure -- i.e. the farmer who cultivate the land on behalf of the landowner. Formerly, the Subak membership does not specify rigidly, because most of the farmers within the administrative area were cultivating the land for themselves. Today, therefore, the ones who directly cultivate the land are deserved the privilege of the Subak membership.7 From the point of view of membership obligation, the Subak consists of three categories: 7. For the case the landowner who resides in the remote town and does not involve directly with the

activities of the Subak, all of the farming obligations of the Subak membership are shared with the landowner on mutual consensus or agreement. The mutual obligations are varied from place to place. In general, however, the landowners are responsible of paying for all of the expenses related to the provision of irrigation infrastructures and facility maintenance, while the labor requirements are contributed by the land tenures.

TEMPEKANCHAIRED BY

KELIHANTEMPEK

CHAIRED BYKELIHANTEMPEK

CHAIRED BYKELIHANTEMPEK

TEMPEKANTEMPEKAN

K E R A M A S U B A K

AUTONOMOUSORGANIZATION

Figure 1. Basic Structural Organization of Subak


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(1) The members who are directly involved in irrigation activities of the Subak. These members are usually organized themselves in the so-called sekeha yeh (water user association), also referred to as the krama pekaseh; (2) The members who are not directly involved in the farming activities. Instead, these types of members -- usually referred to as pengampel -- are obliged to finance the farming expenses in accordance with the mutually agreed Subak regulation; (3) The Subak members who are not required to work directly on the irrigated farming activities. This type of member refers to as leluputan, usually consists of religious priests8 who are responsible for performing the religious ceremonies of the Subak organization. The Subak membership terminates when that particular member is no longer cultivating the land for one reason or another. In case of death, the membership will be transferred to the children or descendants. If the land is sold, the membership will be transferred to the new owner -- so long as the new owner cultivates the land on his own. Obligation, Right and Responsibility of the Subak Members In general, the obligations, rights and responsibilities of the Subak members are consisted of three main aspects: Subak Infrastructures and Rural Facilities: (1) Construction and maintenance as well as rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructures such as weirs, irrigation structures, canals, water measurement devices and so on; (2) Construction and maintenance as well as reconstruction of Subak and rural facilities such as farm roads, temples, subak assembly facilities and other facilities for ritual and religious ceremonies. Socio-Economic Concerns: (1) To obey the subak regulation, both the written Awig-awig and non-documented norms; (2) To implement the consensus resulted by the Subak assembly (meeting); (3) To implement the executive order of the board of organization; (4) To undertake general election for determining the members of Board of Organization; (5) To attend the Subak Assembly (both periodical and incidental ones); (6) To maintain an appropriate water utilization; (7) To pay for the membership fees and or other fees related to the Subak activities, fines etc. in terms of money or in kind; (8) To pay the land taxes or other fees stipulated by the local government authority; (9) To take precautious action for preventing irrigation water from theft or illegal off-takes; and (10) To undertake mutual aid for pest control. Concerns with the Religious and Ritual Ceremonies For the Subak organization, the religious as well as the ritual practices are considered to be the very significant determinant factors affecting of the irrigated agricultural implementation. Some of the religious and ritual practices are conducted individually, others are conducted together. Among the religious and ritual ceremonies that are currently practiced are: (1) Welcoming ceremony for the initial commencement of irrigation distribution or mapag toya, which is conducted together every year at the beginning of the planting season; (2) Individual ceremony at the beginning of land preparation or ngedagin. The commencement of this ceremony is determined and 8. Despite the fact that the majority of the people in Bali are Hinduism, the Subak members who are

belonged to other religions such as, Moslem, Christian etc. are in fact not constrained by any difficulties in conducting the Subak activities. The non-Hindu members are mostly supporting the ritual or religious ceremonies, though they are not participated directly in person.


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conducted by each individual member in accordance with his preferable time allocation; (3) The Pangwiwit ceremony, which is conducted by the pekaseh and the religious priests as well as the local leaders at the first commencement of seedbed preparation; (4) The Nandur ceremony, which is conducted individually at the time, the transplanting is to be started; (5) The ceremony for preventing the attack of plant diseases or neduh. This ceremony is conducted by involving all of the Subak members, especially when a general indication of pest attacked has become apparent significantly. In this kind of ceremony, each Subak member will obtain the so-called air-suci or the holy water, which is utilized by each of him or her for conducting individual ceremony on his own farm; (6) The Pecaruan ceremony, which is conducted to prevent the plant disease from happening. This ceremony is conducted together at the period of about one month growth of the planted paddy; (7) The Nyambutin ceremony conducted by each individual member at about one and a half month growth the paddy; (8) The Biayakukung ceremony conducted by individual Subak at the maturity stage of the planted paddy; (9) The Miseh ceremony is conducted at the maturity stage of the paddy, just before harvest; (10) The Ngusaha ceremony, which is conducted at about 10 days before harvest, particularly for the main crop season. The whole Subak members conduct this ritual ceremony, which is meant to express gratitude to the Almighty God the Creator for having endowment with good crop. Prior to the commencement of this ceremony, no one allowed to start the harvest; and (11) The Mantenin ceremony, conducted by individual in respecting the generosity of the Almighty God the Creator, few days after the crop has been kept in the household storage. Membership Rights Beside obligations and responsibilities, the Subak members also have privileges for being involved in the organization. The membership rights include among others: (1) To have an appropriate irrigation allocation proportional to the size of agricultural land he has; (2) To elect and to be elected as the member of board of Subak; (3) To convey his opinion, suggestion and proposal in the general assembly (4) To be represented by other person in conducting the activities related to his membership; (5) To provide information concerning violation of the Subak regulation to the Board of Subak and therefore, to be deserved of having part of the fine money -- in accordance with the provision stipulated by the Subak regulation -- that must be paid by the violator; (6) To be deserved of having part of the Subak property -- in accordance with the underlying regulation; (7) To have judicious and fair treatment from the Subak Board of Organization. WATER DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT General Water Distribution Principle The majority of irrigation areas operated by the Subak organization consist of simple irrigation with simple structures and appurtenance facilities. However, the Central Government in the last decade has provided some technical assistance for improving the infrastructures of irrigation system operated under the Subak organization. This technical assistance is particularly provided for the large-scale irrigation schemes.

Under the Subak system, the farmers themselves through the elected representatives conduct the water distribution system. The water distribution pattern is based on a


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certain water requirement consideration as the following: (1) the water delivery is assigned to the farm land on plot-by-plot basis; (2) each individual plot with a seed requirement of one tenah of paddy seed9 per plot, is called tek-tek unit area10; each area covers by a farm plot of one tek-tek unit is measured by a traditional standard of water measurement device.

Subak Irrigation Structures

To provide a complete series of water management practices, The Subak system in general is equipped with every irrigation facilities required to serve for the farm plot. The irrigation structures are mostly of the simple ones -- temporary construction using the locally available materials such as timber, bamboo, coconut log etc. -- but most important is that the irrigation facilities are capable of serving each farm plot effectively.

The structural layout of a Subak scheme varies from place to place but in general each scheme consists at least a number of irrigation structures as follows:

Empelan or Diversion Weir

Empelan is a kind of temporarily constructed weir -- usually made of log of coconut tree or bamboo, or stone that are put together. Some empelans are made of soil embankment so simple that they are strong enough to hold water at a certain elevation so it can be conveyed to the farmland by means of gravity flow. In some cases, the structures are equipped with spillways that are built at suitable location, for example at the massive rock layer, cliff and so on. This type of irrigation structure is mostly constructed at the river site, otherwise at the site of water source.

Telabah (canal) and Aungan (tunnel)

Conveyance canal for irrigation is called telabah, while irrigation tunnel is known as aungan. The subak members themselves on the mutual-aid basis construct these facilities. Excavation and construction of tunnels are undertaken by manual labor with very simple equipment and with traditional techniques learned from generation to generation.

The telabah is divided into several types according to the function and the scheme layout: (1) Telabah Gede or main canal extends from the river; (2) Telabah Pemaron or secondary canal branched from the telabah gede; (3) Telabah or tertiary canal branched from secondary canal; (4) Telabah Cerik or quarternary canal; (5) Kekalen or conveyance canal which serves the farm ditch. This type of small canal is connected with the tali-kunda -- which conveys water directly to the farm block or paddy plot (6) Tali- kunda is the smallest canal that delivers irrigation water to each individual paddy field on plot-to-plot basis.

Supplementary Structures For conveying the water crossed the existing roads, canals, valleys, creeks or small rivers

9. The farm plot water requirement is determined by the amount of seeds of paddy that are planted in a

certain size of farm plot -- refers to as sesukat which is called Tek-Tek. The amount of seed requirement for each te-tek unit is called tenah which is comparable to about 25 to 30 of grain paddy.

10. Tek-tek is the Balinese term which is literally meant as to cut one thing into small pieces.


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-- including the necessity to conduct appropriate irrigation operation, a Subak irrigation system is equipped with supplementary structures. These structures are among others: (1) Abangan or aqueduct; (2) Jengkuwung or large culvert; (3) Keluwung or small culvert; (4) Petaku or drop structure; (5) Pepiyuh or sipillway; (6) Telupus or siphon; and (6) Titi or small crossing bridge (PRIS, Bali, 1983:5-8).

Pemaron or Diversion Structure The water distribution is carried out by making use of diversion structures which consist of several types: (1) Tembuku Aya or main diversion structure; (2) Tembuku Pemaron or secondary diversion structure; (3) Tembuku Gede or tertiary diversion structure; and (4) Tembuku Cerik or quaternary diversion from which the water flows to the paddy field through the kekalen. Like other structures for Subak system, these diversion structures are also built with temporary structures, taking the advantage of the locally available materials.

Telabah Pengutangan or Drainage Channel Since the farm level irrigation distribution practice of the Subak organization is conducted by means of plot-to-plot conveyance method, the tail-plots must be equipped with facility to convey the excess water to natural drains. For this purpose a Subak irrigation system is facilitated with telabah pengutangan or drainage channel, which are eventually mounted to the main, drains (pakung), otherwise, to the natural river streams. For further details some examples of the features of the Subak irrigation schemes are presented in Figure 2 and 3.

Buildings for Religious and Ritual Ceremonies For conducting the religious and ritual ceremonies -- which are among the important practices of the Subak organization -- a number of buildings and facilities are provided. These buildings and facilities are: (1) Pura Bedugul or small temple which is built for each diversion structure; (2) Pura Ulun Suwi or temple for communal use within one or more Subak areas receiving water from the same water source; and (3) Pura Ulun Danu or temples that are built for each lake or reservoir such as Lake Batur, Lake Beratan, Lake Buyan, Lake Tamblingan, which are considered to be the source of prosperity of the Balinese people.

Water Measurement Device To provide reliable water distribution for each farm plot, a standard water measurement device is installed for each individual farm plot in accordance with the size of the plot in terms of tek-tek unit. Thus, each of the tenah seed unit is translated into tek-tek unit of farm area; the unit area is further converted into a certain magnitude of water measurement. This water requirement unit is also called tek-tek. The water measurement device is usually made of a piece of timber or log, cut at the desired length with a cut-off grove for measuring the water flow. The size of the cut-off grove of one tek-tek unit, for instance, is measured in terms of ordinary human finger thickness, about four fingers width and one finger depth, which is comparable to about 8.00 cm width and 2.00 cm depth (see Figure 4 for illustration).

For larger farm plots, the size of cut-off is determined by multiplying the single tek-tek


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standard illustrated above, proportional to the size of the command area. Thus, one tenah of seed or one tek-tek unit area will get one tek-tek unit requirement of water. The water
requirement for larger area is served in terms of multiplication of the one tek-tek water flow standard.
TEMPLE

TEMPLE

INTAKE

TUNNEL

TEMPLE

PRIMARY CANAL

TERTIARY CANAL

SUBAKC

SUBAKB

SUBAKA

SECONDARY DIV. STRUCTURE

TEMPORARYDIVERSION STRUCTURE

WEIR



268

TERTIARY CANAL

RICE FIELD

DRAINAGE CANAL

Figure 2. An Example of Subak Irrigation Scheme

In practice, this simple water measurement procedure is widely implemented by the Subak water users' association without ever being tempted to use more water than they are actually deserved. The Subak members are bound together in some sort of traditional entity or feeling of togetherness in the society. In addition, they are tied up with social as well as religious norms so intensely that taking an excessive amount of water makes no sense to them.


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I

2

3

II/4

5

III/6

5

RIVER



269

7

IV/8

9

VI/12

9V/ 10

7

7

9VI/12

5

NOTES

I/123

II/45

III/67

IV/89

V/1011

VI/12

============

Wear at the RiverTemuku (Main Intake)Telabah Gede (Main Canal)

Telabah (Primary Canal)Temuku Aya (Primary Diversion)

Temuku Pemaron (Secondary Deversion)Telabah (Secondary Canal)Temuku Gede (Tertiary Diversion)Telabah (Farm Ditch/Tertiary Canal)Temuku Cerik (Quarternary Diversion)Andungan (Silt Trap)Pengalapan (Farm Block Intake)

Figure 3. Typical Irrigation Structural Networks of Subak Scheme

Rotational Water Delivery and Cropping Schedule During the water scarcity in the dry season, the water distribution for Subak members is conducted on rotational basis. The rotational water distribution system is conducted on mutual consensus. All water disputes are settled down with judicious arrangement among the Subak members themselves.


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ONE TEK-TEK UNIT OF WATER FLOWON CONTINUOUS BASIS

B

B

+ 8.00 cmL

One tek-tek unit of water flow

WL

+ 2.00 cm

B

L Figure 4. Typical Tek-tek Water Measurement Device

The Subak members themselves also determine the cropping schedule by clearly stating the water distribution obligation. In the determination of cropping pattern and water delivery schedule, for instance, they adopt three cropping -- and hence water distribution -- schedules: (1) the Ngulu; (2) the Maongin; and (3) the Ngesep. The Ngulu means water distribution from the head, which is referred to as the water delivery for the crop rotation, which starts earlier (between November and December). The Maongin means water
delivery from the neck, which is referred as to the second crop rotation starts two months
later (between January and February). The Ngesep means late, which is referred to as the third crop rotation, which is implemented between March and April. In practice, this crop rotation is very effective for managing the staggered planting date, so that the crops do not consume water simultaneously, and hence the water constraint can be minimized.

The tek-tek, Subak Irrigation water measurement device



270


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In comparison with the most recent irrigated agricultural techniques -- that the people knows to day, it is quite amazing to observe the fact that the traditional agricultural practices under the Subak system are perfectly confirmed with the current (modern) irrigation application for low-land paddy. For example, the field water requirement, which has long been practiced by the traditional Subak, is perfectly comparable with the most recent calculation on the ultimate field water distribution demand for lowland paddy. In addition, the modern agricultural research has demonstrated that the occasional necessity of 24 hours per day water distribution is recommended for optimum growth of paddy during the early growing stage. As the matter of fact, the Subak farmers in Bali through generations have long implemented this sustainable water management practice.

THE SUBAK ASSEMBLY

Internal Coordination Every Subak system prescribes a regular meeting among the members (usually conducted every 35 days) to discuss all aspects concerning their farming circumstances such as, operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures, maintenance of temple and other rural as well as public facilities, to solve the underlying irrigation distribution problems, to settle disputes and so on. In such a meeting, discussions are mostly focused on the most immediate and urgent issues, such as monthly working schedule for the following month, acceptance of new membership, membership contribution, financial status, ritual ceremonies and so on. Apart from this routine meeting, incidental meeting are also advocated for discussing and overcoming the urgent problems such as emergency works for improvement and repairs of irrigation network facilities, pest or disease attacks, emergency action for food relief and other such matters.

Depending upon the urgency of the problem to solve, the meeting of the Subak may be conducted in the form of general assembly or involving the complete team or selective members of the board of Subak only.

The incidental meeting of the Board of Subak usually conducted at the residence of the Pekaseh. This meeting usually conducted one day prior to the general assembly of the Subak members, discussing about the programs that are going to be implemented.

The general assembly for the members consists of routine and incidental (on demand) ones. In most cases the routine assembly is conducted every 35 days. This meeting, which is usually conducted at the pura bedugul,11 must be attended by all of the members. In the routine meeting, the discussion usually concerning the internal circumstances such as the following: (1) replacement of Juru arah; (2) routine announcement of the violators of the awig-awig and execution of fine; (3) financial circumstances; (4) routine maintenance of Subak facilities; (5) agricultural circumstances, crop maintenance, credit facility etc.; (6) ritual and religious ceremonies; (7) suggestions, comments, proposals, recommendations of the members; and (8) announcement concerning instructions to the members for implementing the member's obligations and other organizational responsibilities.


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Coordination with External Organization For discussing the external cooperation or for solving the external problems related to other subak or other organizations, the meeting is usually attended or coordinated by the Sedahan or the Sedahan Agung for the meeting related to the agencies or organization at the Regency, District (Kabupaten) level. Depending upon the context and urgency, the Subak assembly may be conducted through coordination of other government agencies such as Regional or District Agricultural Extension Services, Provincial or District Irrigation Services, Local Government Authorities and so on. For further details, see the schematic chart of the interagency coordination of the Subak, which is presented in Figure-5. In this chart, other line organizations and agencies give the necessary technical guidance to Subak according to the immediate demands without direct intervention to the Subak -- as autonomous
organization.
INTERAGENCY COORDINATION OF SUBAK

BUPATI (REGENT)

SEDAHAN AGUNGCHIEF,

AGRI - EXTSERVICES

OTHERRELATED

AGENCIES

CHIEFIRRIGATIONSERVICES

SUB-DISTRICTLEVEL

DITCH TENDER PEKASEH

KELIHAN TEMPEK

SEDAHAN SUB-DISTRICTAGRIC. EXTENSION

FIELD EXTENTION



272

KESIKOMJURU ARAH

KERANA SUBAK

LINE OF COMMANDINGNOTES :

LINE OF COORDINATIONLINE OF GUIDANCEAUTONOMOUS ORGANIZATION

Figure 5. Schematic Chart of Interagency Coordination of Subak


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FINANCIAL SOURCES AND MANAGEMENT

Financial Sources As far as the financial circumstances are concerned, the Subak rural agricultural organization relies all of its financial sources from the members. The magnitude of the membership fee is collected proportional to the size of agricultural land owned by the Subak members. This membership fee can be paid either in cash or in kind. The Subak funds may also come from penalties, fine money, labor contribution for performing operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures, temples and other public facilities.

The Subak keeps all of the funds collected chief, while the utilization of that fund -- for instance, for the routine maintenance of irrigation system or for financing traditional or religious ceremonies -- is subject to approval of the members through the Subak assembly prior to implementation.

Determination of Membership Fee The magnitude of the membership fee varies from place to place, depending upon several aspects including size of land ownership, location, crop production, accessibility and other location specific. Determination of the membership fee is based upon the general consensus of the Subak assembly, both in terms of it kind and its magnitude.

The followings are several kinds of membership fees:

Incidental Membership Fee This incidental fee usually levied to the member in the form of cash to cover the non-routine financial requirement, for instance, for incidental repairs of irrigation structures, recovery of damages caused by local disaster such as land slides or floods. The magnitude of this fee usually determined by the nature of the required works divided equally or proportionally to the members, based on consensus.

Periodical Membership Fee This type of membership fee may be paid in cash or in kind, but in most cases, the payments -- especially after harvest -- are paid in kind. There are several types of periodical membership fees:

1. The Pengoot or Pengampel, which is considered to be the payment in lieu of the annual service charge for the members who could not undertake the mutual works, they are responsible for. In some cases, for instance in the Kabupaten Badung, the active member or ngoot ngayah is not levied with this type of fee. For agricultural lands consisted of more than one tek-teks the fees are levied to the members who are not active participants (ngoot ngutang). Part of this collected fee usually spent for paying the active members or for expenditures related to the ritual or religious ceremonies. 2. The Sarin Tahun is a form of periodical membership fee, which is paid in kind -- generally in the form of grain paddy -- immediately at each harvest season. Some Subak collect this type of fee on annual basis to finance the ritual and religious ceremonies, others prescribe bi-annual collection at the harvest seasons of the main as well as the secondary crops. The magnitude of this contribution varies from place to place. The Subak Pengembangan in Tabanan District, for instance, a paddy field with the unit size


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of 500 square meters has to contribute a so called sarin tahun at about 1 kg of grain paddy per year (about 20kg of grain rice/ha/year). 3. Membership fee in term of compensation or incentive for the member of Subak Board of Organization. Some Subaks obliged their members to pay for a special form of membership fees on top of the Pengoot, Sarin Tahun and incidental fees. This, for example applies in the Tamblang and Pangkung Gondang of the District of Jembrana. In these areas such a special contribution is collected in the form of grain rice at an amount of 4 kg for each paddy field with a unit size of less than 0.75ha, which obtains water from a single water off-take gate. For the paddy field with the size of more than 0.75ha and obtains water from a single water source, the paddy contribution is determined by the Subak assembly -- proportional to the size of the paddy field in questioned.

Mechanism of Internal Financial Auditing In most Subak organization the responsibility to conduct financial account is entrusted to the Pekaseh, helped by one or more financial assistants, for collecting fees, book keeping and so on. This type of financial account is mostly carried out in a very simple book keeping system. The members usually rely the annual or periodical settlement of account to the Pekaseh and his assistants (IPB, 1974:22-23).

Each Subak authority on the basis of mutual agreement and consensus usually prepares annual planning for routine works. However, this type of annual working schedule is rarely prepared in written format. The board of organization rarely prepares financial disbursement schedule. Budgeting system is mostly conducted on the basis of "balanced budgeting system". For financing the emergency works, the members are obliged to contribute extra fees on the basis of the amount of money required for the works.

Execution of Sanction for the Violator For enforcement of the Subak regulation or Awig-awig, each Subak Board of Organization has a prerogative obligation to execute the prescribed sanctions. The sanctions are generally executed in the order of importance as: (1) remainder or warning; (2) penalty or fine; (3) temporary cease of irrigation water allocation; (4) to sell by auction the violator's property; (5) withdrawal of the privilege of the Subak membership.

Penalty for violators varies from Subak to Subak, depending upon the nature of organizational regulation. One Subak prescribes the penalty in cash or in kind, others insist the violator to pay in labor in lieu of money.

As far as the violations of the awig-awig regulation is concerned, they are mostly associated with the cases as follows: (1) absence or late participating in the meeting; (2) crop damage due to unguided cattle grazing; (3) late land preparation for regular cultivation; (4) water theft; (5) inability to comply with the executed penalty; (6) absence in attending mutual aid obligation; (7) damages of farm ditches, canals levees, irrigation facilities or crop due to carelessness.

CONCLUDING REMARKS Learning from agricultural practices demonstrated by the Subak system in the Island of Bali, it is apparent that the irrigated agricultural practices has been developed to meet the


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farmers evolutionary demands and circumstances through a long range practice, so that the system could sustain, without major changes, from generation to generation.

The main principle built into this system is based on the ability to regulate the suitable techniques, time, space and environment in order to meet the livelihood of the people through "harmonious-togetherness” principle. The underlying approach is based on the ability of maintaining a proper balance, and the ability of acquiring harmonious relationship between human and nature on reciprocal basis. The basic techniques are incorporated with the simplicity principles, so that every members of the community are able to adopt and/or apply the technique without involving sophisticated learning process.

Despite the fact that the Subak system and its practices were invented and evolved long time ago, it is quite amazing to know that much of their techniques are still convertible and/or adaptable to the modern practices that the people understand today. The more we can comprehend the traditional irrigated-agricultural practices the more we learn about their technicalities. In fact, there is a reason to believe that the traditional agricultural practices adopted by the Subak organization were based on systematic observations. Today, in modern Indonesia, there remains a lot more phenomenon of the ancient heritage of participatory irrigated agricultural practices, adhered to the Subak, that need to be uncovered in terms of scientific explanation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Adi, I. Gede., 1972. Sistim Subak di Kecamatan Kesiman. Unpublished thesis, Faculty of

Laws and Social Science, University of Udayana, Denpasar, Bali. Ardjana, Ngk. Njm. Rai, 1972. Organisasi Subak di Desa Pejeng. Unpublished thesis,

Faculty of Laws and Social Sciences, University of Udayana, Denpasar, Bali. Bali, PRIS, 1983. Subak System in Bali: A Brief Description, Bali Provincial Public

Works Services, July 1983. Dinas P.U. Propinsi Bali, 1972. Sekelumit Tentang Subak sebagai Sistim Pengairan di

Bali, (unpublished report). Dinas P.U. Propinsi Bali, 1972. Masalah Pengairan dan Pemanfaatan Air Irigasi bagi

Pertanian di Daerah Propinsi Bali, (unpublished report). Gany, A.H.A., and Halli, S.S., 1993. Land Development and Transmigrant Farmers in

Southern Sumatra, Indonesia. In International Migration. Quarterly Review Vol. XXXI No. 4, 1993. International Organization for Migration (IOM), PO Box 71, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.

Gany, A.H.A. and Zakaria, Ir. F., 1975 Persubakan di Bali. A Report for the Provincial Government of Lampung, 1975.

Gany, A.H.A., 1994. “Integrated Water Resources Management” Published in Indonesian Language, Majalah Pekerjaan Umum Edisi Khusus No. 03/1994/XXVII, Jakarta.

____, 1989. Field Water Management Impacts on the New Irrigated Area. In Rydzewski J.R. (ed), Irrigation, Theory and Practice, John Wiley and Son. Ltd. & Pentech Press.London.


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____, 1993. The irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

Grader, C.J., 1960. The Irrigation System in the Region of Jembrana, Bali, Studies of Life, Thought and Ritual. Selected Studies on Indonesia, Vol. V. Les Editions A. Manteau S.A., Bruxelles W. van Hoeve Ltd. The Hague and Bandung. Edited by W.F. Wertheim et.al.

IPB, and University of Udayana, 1974. Subak, Organisasi Tata Guna Air pada Tingkat Desa di Bali, Institute of Agriculture Bogor, And University of Udayana, Bali, November 1974.

Jelantik, Sushila, 1973. “Sekelumit tentang Subak” (In Indonesian) or A brief information about Subak, Bali Provincial Public Works Services.

Kordinator Perguruan Tinggi VI., 1972. Laporan Penelitian tentang strategi Pembangunan Daerah untuk Propinsi Bali., Vol. II., Surabaya, Indonesia.

Park, Kee Sung, 1976. Subak Irrigation System in Bali, Indonesia. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 1976.

Persatuan Sarjana Rakyat Indonesia Singaraja, 1969. Subak Sebagai Sistim Pengairan di Bali.Reproduced by Dinas P.U. Propinsi Bali.

P.N. Virama Karya, 1971., Laporan Reconnaissance Pola Induk Tata Air Pulau Bali.Virama Karya, Jakarta.

Prosida, 1972. Subak Kumpul di Bali, Prosida, Jakarta.

Suadnya, 1978. “Subak Irrigation System in the Pesedahan Yeh Otan”, (In Indonesian) Tabanan Regency, Irrigation Section, Bali Provincial Public Works Services.

Suadnya, Ir., 1990. “Mengenal Subhak” in Indonesian Language, or Introducing Subak, Irrigation Sub Services, Bali Provincial Public Work Services.

Teken, I.B., 1967. Organisasi Pengairan Pedesaan Subak di Bali. A case study: Subak in Desa Luwus, Tabanan, Bali., Bogor Institute of Agriculture.

University of Udayana, Denpasar, Bali., 1975. Laporan Survey Persubakan di Bali (October 1974 - March 1975).

Winaya, P. Djapa, 1973.Organization of Water Association in Bali., A paper specially prepared and presented as a lecture for the American Students from the Lewis and Clarke College, Oregon, U.S.A., at the Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali.

Wedante, I.G Ngurah., 1957. Subak di Bali. An Unpublished Study for "Sekolah Pendidikan Kemasyarakatan Negeri 4 tahun", Surakarta, Central Java.

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID “Tudang Sipulung” As The Indigenous Irrigated Agricultural

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

“TUDANG SIPULUNG” AS THE INDIGENOUS IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL HERRITAGE IN

SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE



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“TUDANG SIPULUNG” AS THE INDIGENOUS IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL

HERITAGE IN SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE


INTRODUCTION Historical Background: Like many other provinces in the Outer Island, South Sulawesi Province also has a long history in irrigated agriculture. It possesses quite significant



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heritages in agricultural practices, particularly on irrigated paddies being rice as the major staple diet of the people in this area. Irrigation based agricultural heritages has long been implemented in this area by relying on the togetherness principle under the coordination of informal leaders. A prominent scholar, Tjondronegoro (2001), stated that paddy has a very long tie with traditional people from west to eastern part of the archipelago, even longer before BC. In fact, there are two school of thoughts about the spread of paddy in Indonesia; the first, argues that it was spread from the Malaysian Peninsula, the second states that its came from India since the Hindu Time. In Bugis (a major ethnic group in South Sulawesi), calls paddy as “ase” or pare, but other ethnic group of South Sulawesi also call paddy as “pala”, “paha” and some other local terms. Meanwhile, according to Fachruddin (2002) paddy is not the original plant (crop) from Indonesia, but rather from the coastal areas of Southeast Asia, brought by emigrant, which were the origin of Indonesian people. This illustration is consistent with the ancient manuscript of “Sureg Galigo”, a classical literature of Bugis ethnicity. According to this classical manuscript, it was happened that the first food crop invented by Batara Guru and his wife (We Nyilik Timo) as they descended from Heaven to the Earth were “lame” (sweet potato), “aladi” (local radish), “utti” (banana), and “tebbu” (sugar cane), read in the manuscript as follows:

“………. Turning his head aside, the sacred man says, it is apparent that our sweet potato La Oro, our root plant (radish). Also apparent that our banana already fruiting, meanwhile our sugar cane also growing, also apparent our bitter melon and our “kace” (tree bean) ………….. Galigo 119: 142-144 in Fachruddin, 2002.

Beside, the Galigo manuscript also mentioned about “wetteng” or “jewawut” and “bata” (sorghum), which are the paddy variety and recommended by Batara Guru to consume as the staple diet as read in the manuscript as follows:

“ ………… Please, Batara Guru descent to the Earth. Do take it and bring it to the palace. However, do not consume it right away. Instead, the one you must consume at fist is “jewawut” and “wetteng”, which will take care and secure your food during your stay on Earth (Galigo I, 1995 in Fachruddin 2002).

These evidences indicate that the concept of food diversification has already been identified and practiced since the ancient era of Batara Guru. The concept suggests that


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that before you consume your rice, you have to give priority to your sweet potato, keladi, banana, jewawut, and sorghum consecutively. If this concept consistently implemented, the currently suggested food security program would had been materialized longer before this modern era. In South Sulawesi Province, sorghum is still planted in Jeneponto Regency, which known as “batara tojeng” or bata, also in the regency of Bulukumba and Selayar. In the latter regency, even the locally processed sorghum is still served as traditional food at the special ritual ceremony. TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION BASED FARMING COMMUNITY Traditional farming community in South Sulawesi Province has long been practiced by the Buginese (the dominant population of South Sulawesi) ethnicity, Makassarese and Torajanese. One of the most important principle attached to the success of farming community is pivoted on the informal leaders, who not necessarily irrigation or agricultural experts, but most essentially to have capacity for organizing as well as managing the community concerns judiciously, and with equal treatment. The tradition farming community by the people is conducted in terms of organized activities from construction of irrigation infrastructures, land preparation, transplanting, crop maintenance, as well as post harvesting activities. In most cases, the Bugis ethnicity of Sidenreng Rappang, Pinrang, Maros, Polewali Mamasa, Luwu, Bone, and Enrekang, refer the traditional practice as “Tudang Sipulung”. While the Bugis ethnicity of the Bulukumba refers the practice as “mattiro laong ruma’’, and for the Bugis ethnicity of Soppeng, refers the traditional farming community as “mattudang tudangeng”. In the Regency of Wajo, the traditional farming community refers to as “manre sipulung” or eating together, and in Mamuju refers to as “malimbo”, while the Pangkajene Kepulauan
and Barru Bugis Ethnicity refer to the practice as “mappalili”.
Traditional irrigation weirs made of boulder and coconut trunk in Soppeng Regency Especially for the Makassarese ethnicity living in Gowa and Takalar Regencies, the



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traditional farming community known as “appalili”, in the Regency of Jeneponto referred to as “emposipitangngari”. Meanwhile, for the Torajanese, the traditional agricultural practice referred to as “mamesa’ kada”. In general, however, the term of “tudang sipulung” has now become widely accepted in South Sulawesi Province today. In fact “tudang sipulung” is considered by the Bugis ethnicity of South Sulawesi as the


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implementation of the ancient cultural heritage formerly called as “tudang pa’ddiuma” (Fachruddin, 2002) having the same purpose as conducting gathering for discussing the agricultural schedule including all of the related activities as well as all equipment required for the agricultural implementation, organized judiciously by traditional leaders with fully democratic principle.

During the gathering, all persons invited, especially in the Regency of Sidenreng Rappang, must put on traditional costume, and generally all the consensus reached at the meeting are obeyed by the community members. This matter is particularly relevant with the democratic principle of bottom-up approach. Most interestingly, that the meeting usually attended by the so called “pappananrang” or “pallontara” who are reliable in conducting traditional climatic forecasting by means of annual rainfall characteristics as stated in the traditional books referred to as “lontara” in combination with modern climatic forecasting by the Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics. The government officials, community leaders, traditional leaders, farmers’ group, agricultural extension services, researchers, as well as agricultural enterprises in the area usually attend such a traditional gathering. Through time, some adjustments have been made in accordance with local tradition as well as farming circumstances. And despite all the local characteristic and adjustments, the “tudang sipulung” traditional agricultural practices are still exist and widely practiced in South Sulawesi, today (Fachruddin, 2002).

Like many other traditional agricultural practices in Indonesia, the “tudang sipulung” also has similar legend with the origin of paddy as mostly the case of Javanese, in which, the princess of Batara Guru Goddess and “Dewi Sri” who is Vishnu’s wife, who later on became the Goddess of Agriculture (particularly for paddy). In South Sulawesi Province, however, paddy is believed as not the original plant of Indonesia, but rather, it spread along the coastal lines of Southeast Asian brought by ancient migrants to Indonesia, as known today.

An example traditional motto of Bugis ethnicity, about agricultural and democratic phylosophy,

written in Bugis Script



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The social status attached to irrigation based paddy cultivation: Like many other traditional communities in Indonesia, paddy in South Sulawesi Province also regarded as the crop with a high social value. For the older farming generation, the larger the size of land for paddy cultivation the farmer owned the higher the social status he would be in the community. In many occasions, during the price of paddy become extremely low, the farmer still put rice cultivation at the top priority crop amongst the available alternatives. The well to do farmers has obligation to share livelihood opportunities for the rest of the


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community members in neighborhood as share croppers during harvesting time as well manual laborers during the land preparation or crop maintenance. In relation with the folklore paddy in South Sulawesi, the “Sure’ Galigo” ancient manuscript of Bugis community stated that paddy crop, was only known at the first year of the descendance of Batara Guru to the Earth. At that time his wife, We Saunriu, delivered a baby girl named We O’danriu, who in fact passed a way only a week after her birth. The baby girl buried in the middle of the jungle at the top of the high mountain, however, after three days Batara Guru had a strong inner desire to pay a visit to her daughter’s grave. He was then quite overwhelmed to come across that her daughter’s had already transformed by itself into a vast colorful extended plantation, with yellow, black, white, blue and red colors. Under the surprising astonishment he went to his father to inquire about such an unusual phenomenon. Batara Guru’s father explained: “My beloved son, the alien crop is so called “sangiasseri”, which has been transformed from your daughter’s grave into paddy” (Galigo I, 1955:180 in Fachruddin 2002).

For this reason, the ancient Bugis community had a special respect to paddy and regarded it a sacred crop that has to be maintained and preserved from generation to generation. During which, all the phases of crop cultivation from land preparation, transplanting, crop maintenance till harvesting and storage, each had some sort of ritual ceremony to pay special respect to paddy.

Rituals for respecting of paddy as a sacred crop: Further explanation stated at the Galigo ancient manuscript, that the follow up guidelines for crop cultivation was initiated when the daughter of King Sawerigading, named We Tenridio, suffered from a severe illness, that enabled her to eat and talk. Under such condition, the twin sister of King Sawerigading, named Tenriabeng, advised that her niece We Tenridio could only be cured by feeding her with “wette’ or rice flake, therefore they need to start cultivating rice for making rice flake. Under the order of King Sawerigading, all the preparatory equipments and facilities for rice cultivation were prepared. These include “parewa tedong paddiuma” consisted of a couple of water buffalo and a series of plowing and harrowing equipment such as “ajoa” “paraja” or saddle, “rakkala” or plough, “salaga” or harrow, “ba’ba” or whip and “pabbeleq” or sickle. Such land cultivation equipments and facilities were brought to the field, conducted land preparation as well as preparing seedbed, including irrigation repair (mappadeceng teppoq - sepeq) and maintenance (mappiara sepeq). As the land preparation completed, the king instructed to conduct “malluka lappo” or bringing the paddy seed out of the storage place, “maddemme bine” seed soaking, and pre broadcasting rituals. All of the preparatory stages, followed by traditional and ritual ceremonies, then bring the seed to the readily puddled field for “mangampo” or seed broadcasting. The ritual ceremonies are conducted with series of dancing, singing, as well as traditional music with all the traditional costumes, umbrella and other such traditional as well as ritual accessories. These followed after two weeks by “massisi bine” or pulling of seedling and “mattaneng” or transplanting. After three months plant growth, the ceremonies followed by “mappasili” and “mallekeq sangiasseri” to make “wette” or rice flakes. Eventually, a harvesting ceremony conducted prior to the actual harvesting (mengngala) following by welcome ceremony at the time the harvested paddy brought back for storage at the barn. All of these processes and its associated ceremonies


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since then became the traditional practice for respecting paddies as the sacred crop by traditional. Other written legend “Paupaunna La Dado” put special concern on role sharing between man and woman on paddy cultivation. During the Sawerigading Emperor in South Sulawesi, it was said that the man should be capable of conducting all of processes for paddy cultivation from land preparation up until crop harvesting. The activities for planting, harvesting, as well as preparation of food for field activities are mostly conducted by women.

CROPPING SCHEDULE The cropping schedule of the traditional farming communities in South Sulawesi Province determined by the person so called “Pallontara” or “Pappananrang” which responsible for planning the cropping schedule based on seasonal changes and cropping characteristics, as well as irrigation management practices. For making consensus on the cropping schedule as well as irrigation water allocation, the farming community under the “tudang sipulung” mechanism, conduct regular meeting (normally at the beginning of the planting season). The meeting usually conducts by inviting the water users as well as the relevant stakeholders, and the decision-making in such a meeting always based on democratic principle. For illustration, the following Table presents the cropping schedule that had approved at the meeting for different regencies.

An example of traditional irrigation weir in Soppeng Regency, which had been reconstructed into permanent

structure during the Dutch Time



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List of ContentID

in Brief“Tudang Sipulung” As The Indigenous Irrigated Agricultural

IDy of Indonesia


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le of planting schedule after mutual consensus on regular meeting in several Regencies of South Sulawesi Province one, Soppeng, Sidrap, Pinrang, Luwu, and W ajo Regency) for Dry Season of 2003 and Rainy Season 2003/2004

N REGION A pril-Sept (Dry) O ct-M arch (W et) Cropping Pattern and Cropping Schedule

ncy Cropping Schedule

(ha) Paddy

(ha) Second

Crop. (ha)Paddy

(ha) Second

Crop. (ha)Total (ha) A M J J A S O N D J F M

77,629 35,319 1,073 38,442 - 74,834 17,831 7,318 50 9,668 - 17,036

108 54 - 54 - 108 708 354 - 354 - 708

3 ,788 570 210 2,828 - 3,608 16,410 2,114 - 12,125 - 14,239 14,811 5,979 484 10,479 - 16,942 26,122 8,596 4,360 16,261 - 29,217 15,691 4,561 1,822 13,171 - 19,554

12,497 1,963 375 9,539 - 11,877 185,595 66,828 6,374 112,921 0 188,123

N REGIO N A pril-Sept (Dry) O ct-M arch (W et) Cropping Pattern and Cropping Schedule


(ha) Paddy

(ha) Second

Crop. (ha)Paddy

(ha) Second


6,985 2,473 - 2,854 - 5,327 a 27,862 13,630 - 14,338 - 27,968

9 ,530 4,353 418 4,526 223 9,530 30,389 18,339 - 12,085 1,210 31,634

6 ,481 2,733 - 2,298 - 5,031 70,279 33,501 - 27,775 45 61,301

151,526 75,029 418 63,856 1,488 140,791

ITION REGIO N A pril-Sept (Dry) O ct-M arch (W et) Cropping Pattern and Cropping Schedule


(ha) Paddy

(ha) Second

Crop. (ha)Paddy

(ha) Second


28,985 13,466 6,767 15,011 61 35,305 54,969 22,121 69 25,447 16 47,653

730 318 - 365 - 683 2 ,526 1,027 - 1,070 - 2,097

145 - 49 96 - 145 87,355 36,932 6,885 41,989 77 85,883

+II 424,476 178,789 15,667 218,766 1,565 414,797

W et Dry

CoverMSRI and INAC

History

MSRI and INACIrrigation Histor

Examp(B

I. W ESTER

No Rege

1 Pinrang 2 Polm as 3 M ajene 4 M am uju 5 Barru 6 Pangkep 7 M aros 8 Gowa 9 Takalar 10 Jeneponto Total

II. EASTER

No Rege

1 Bantaeng 2 Bulukum b3 Sinjai 4 Bone 5 W ajo 6 Luwu Total

III. TRANS

No Rege

1 Soppeng 2 Sidrap 3 Enrekang 4 Tator 5 Pare-pare Total Total I+II


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CLOSING REMARKS Like many other provinces in the Outer Island, South Sulawesi Province also has a long history in irrigated agriculture. In Bugis (a major ethnic group in South Sulawesi), calls paddy as “ase” or pare, but other ethnic groups of South Sulawesi also call paddy as “pala”, “paha” and some other local terms. Paddy is believed in South Sulawesi (as illustrated in the ancient manuscript of “Sureg Galigo” a classical literature of Bugis ethnicity) as not the original plant (crop) from Indonesia, but rather spread along coastal areas of Southeast Asia, brought by emigrant, which were the origin of Indonesian people, known today. Despite the modern era today, the traditional irrigated agricultural heritages in the Bugis Ethnicity of South Sulawesi, is still regarded as something to do with the harmonious relationship amongst God, Human and Nature. This matter is clearly explained from the fact that irrigation based agricultural practices is regarded as not merely technological matter, but rather they tend to perceive it from the perspective of socio-agro-religious, and ultimately submitting the failure or success of their irrigation based farming to the Almighty God, after every efforts and endeavors have been pursued strenuously. Today’s practices always regarded the ancient irrigated agricultural heritage as had been tested through a long-term trial and error, and would not change the practice abruptly should any change required or demanded for adjustment with the underlying circumstances. These include the traditional irrigation water management as well as other crop maintenance and protection measures. From irrigation perspective, the agricultural community in South Sulawesi Province regarded the water as one of the most important live ingredient, bestowed by the Almighty God, for all the human being, and therefore be regarded as social commodity with implicit economic value in it. Irrigation water to the Bugis community should be regarded as “not unlimited natural resources” and hence it should be mutually taken care, conserved and preserved on sustainable basis. LIST OF REFERENCE Abbas, Syamsuddin, 2002. “Religious and Cultural Values as the Driving Force of

Agricultural Development”, in Indonesian Language, published paper, Ministry of Agriculture 2002.

Fachruddin A.E., 2002. “Paddy from the Perspective of Bugis Culture”. A paper in Indonesian Language, presented at the national seminar about paddy, Makassar, South Sulawesi,August 1, 2002. Yayasan Padi Indonesia.

Government of South Sulawesi Province, 1996. “Formulation of Pallontara Traditional Historian, in Tudang Sipulung, South Sulawesi”. A paper presented in Indonesian language, Ujung Pandang, 1996.

Saenong, et.al., 2003. “Cropping Schedule in Rice Culture”. A paper in Indonesian Language on Seminar entitled “Agricultural Calendar”, 2003.

Tadjang, R. Hasan L., 2001. Qualitative Traditional Climate Forecasting and its Application in South Sulawesi Province. A Paper in Indonesian Language, presented at the workshop entitled, National Climate Forecasting for Agricultural Practices, 2001, in Badung, West Java.


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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Traditional Irrigation Heritages in West Sumatra

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION HERRITAGES IN WEST SUMATERA



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TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION HERITAGES IN WEST SUMATRA


INTRODUCTION There are a number of historical evidences of the ancient Kingdom of Minang Kabau in West Sumatra Province, elucidated that the ancient community in this area had long been renowned as generally associated with the livelihood in the lowland areas adjacent with



natural water sources such as springs, tributaries, brooks, lakes or natural water ponds.

Long before they were accustomed to irrigation, the community had been practicing shifting cultivation with carbohydrate source upland crops such as cassava, sweet potato, wild radish, beans, and upland paddies with some minor lowland paddies, in the pounding water. In case the family unable to perform the land preparation by members of the family, they usually conduct their land preparation by communal mutual aids, so called as “julo-julo”.

To meet the escalating demands for livelihood parallel with the increasing of population, they gradually began to notice that plant needs additional water supply to maintain the steady growth, but they have to transport the water from a distance. Through the long time experiences, the artificial supplies of water by means of diverting from water sources to the lower field were gradually evolved. From this, the community began to practice artificial irrigation having paddy as the major for supplying the staple diet of the people. This traditional irrigation paddy practice is known in local language as “Ulu Banda” or “Kapalo Banda” which are literally meant as intake structures or main conveyance channels.

Traditional irrigation system Agricultural practice for paddy during the initial stage was so simple that could only be performs by family members or extended families. However, in line with the increasing demand for foods, the irrigated agricultural practices were extended to larger group of people beyond the extended family, and hence the need to organize the water management entrusted to the traditional leader for managing the intake structure (kapalo banda) and channels. The traditional leader responsible for managing the intake structures as well as water channels is called the “Tuo Banda” or water master known today. From this point of time, the history of irrigation water management in terms of traditional irrigation system was emerged in West Sumatra. So far, there is no historical evidence to explain the exact date when the first irrigated paddy was implemented in West Sumatra; however, the indigenous people as they were told from generation to generation, strongly believe that the first irrigation practice in this area had long been practiced before the Hindu Era. (The Hindu period in Indonesia was marked by the introduction of the Sanskrit language and the Pallawa script by the Indian Prince Aji Caka, in 78 AD).

Based of a number of evidences, most traditional irrigation in West Sumatra is only averaging 24 ha and managed by the community by themselves. However some of the schemes involving sophisticated indigenous technology utilizing the available materials.


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Till today, the irrigation schemes of it kind are still under the well maintained, despite the sophisticated technology with only irrigating quite a small land area. In the mountainous area of the West Sumatra, some of the sophisticated irrigation schemes are still in existence today. Similarly, several diversion weirs are still in good operation, which often irrigate medium scale irrigation schemes.

During the initial introduction of traditional irrigation system, the farming community already familiar with irrigation management, even there still an evidence that could be seen today, in Agam Regency, an intake weir so called “kapalo banda” with the length of 80 m across the river, constructed at the height of 5 m using more than 8,000 bamboo bars. Another example is found in the Pasaman Regency, where a “Kapalo Banda” constructed with traditional gabion made of bamboo so called “Tikalak batu” having the lengths of tenths of meter across the river. The most famous traditional irrigation devices in this area that could be found in along the rivers of Batang Sinamar, Batang Ombilin and Batang Pariaman, till today is water wheel made of bamboo.

In most cases, the traditional weirs for tapping water from rivers are constructed with simple structures made of stone, bamboo, timer and so on. These weirs are deliberately prevented from fully watertight structure, to allow water the access water flows downstream for maintaining natural water ecosystem along the rivers. Therefore the water for irrigation is always shared amongst the community in the upstream, middle, and downstream.

Environmentally Friendly Traditional Irrigation Practice Plot-to-plot irrigation system: The most crucial aspects faced encountered by traditional irrigation in hilly areas has been associated with the needs to maintain sustainable ecosystem by means of plot to plot irrigation water distribution in the cascading paddy fields. Having adequate water availability in the area, in most cases, traditional irrigation is conducted without using any sophisticated devices. The plot-to-
plot irrigation water distribution in practice, has proven to be sustainable and
environmentally friendly agricultural practice, since it allows the water flow for providing constant supply for water requirement while maintaining the balanced of ecosystem along the downstream of irrigation plots.

During the dry season, particularly when the availability of irrigation water become scarce, the traditional farmers are conducting proportional irrigation distribution by Example of plot-to-plot irrigation system for the area



using simple water where plenty of water sources available (environmentally friendly irrigation practice)


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distribution devices made of wooden log, sets up at horizontal level over the diversion point in the channel. The device functions as water check, as well as water measurement proportional to the water right volume of each individual plot, which is the improvement of plot-to-plot water distribution during the water scarcity season.

The water regulatory device of its kind is expressed in terms of “paraku” or “takuak” has been practiced from generation to generation in West Sumatra since the ancient time, and yet still practiced today. Despite its strengths and weaknesses, this evidence indicates of the existence of environmentally friendly “irrigated agriculture”, and tested through time since the ancient time.

The “Paraku” Irigation Water Distribution Sistem: To allow appropriate, fair and balanced irrigation water distribution for the area with limited but constantly available sources such as in the Lintau Buo District, Tanah Datar, Regency, the plot-to-plot irrigation distribution is not recommended. Instead, the farmers are consistently adapting the “paraku” or “takuak” to irrigate the land area ranging between three to 12 ha per individual block, with the average conveyance channel of about 1.5 km. The Bandar Tongah irrigation scheme in Tanah Datar Regency, represents this figure, and currently still under the well-operated and maintained condition.

In contrast with the plot-to-plot system the water distribution system in Bandar Tongah Irrigation scheme is conducted by delivering the water directly to each paddy farm block (which consists of about 50 farm plots referred to as ameh) through independent water channels referred to as saluran cacing. In such a scheme, the canal density is more dense as compared to the plot-to-plot system, however, farmers are committed to contribute part of their lands for the on farm water channel alignment. For appropriate water allocation and distribution, one or more paraku water control devices are set up on the branching point of the on farm water channel. The device is made of weather-resisted timber (usually the wood of jack fruit, or durian tree) placed horizontally across the farm
water channel – either on primary, secondary or tertiary canals. The water distribution
conducts proportional to the irrigation areas through two or more, up to four rectangular notches, cut at the top-surface of the wooden log. The widths and the depths of the rectangular notches are set up proportional with the unit area of the land to be irrigated. One irrigation unit area is referred to as an “ameh” irrigation unit (one unit consists of eight “bilah” fraction units; an “ameh” is equal to two “kupang” fraction units; a “kupang” is equal to two

An example of the “Paraku” water control device




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“tali” fraction units; and one “tali” is equal to two “bila or jari” fraction units). Thus, one ameh = two kupang = four tali = eight bila or jari. In terms of area, one ”ameh” irrigation unit is convertible to about half a hectare.

In principle, the water distribution is conducted by means of continuously overflowing the water through rectangular notches, and then diverts the individual water distribution from the notch to each particular farm channel. The bottom level of the rectangular notches, are set up horizontally at the same level one after another. The water flow would then be proportional to each farm plot disregarding the fluctuation of the water flows at the main irrigation canal. During the rainy season (the season of plenty), or during the dry season (the season of scarcity) the water distribution would be consistently distributed proportionally. The surplus water is normally channeled to drainage canals for maintaining the needs of balanced natural ecosystem.



Figure 1. Schematic sketch of the Paraku traditional control device


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Operation and management of Irrigation scheme: During the irrigation season, particularly at the beginning of the planting periods, all of farmers are committed to involve themselves in irrigation activities, including the routine maintenance of irrigation infrastructures and operational activities of water distribution. Especially for maintenance of the canals, the farmers are participating spontaneously on the basis of equal treatment, based on the previously approved commitments, disregarding the farm sizes owned by them. However, for irrigation operation and maintenance during the crop maintenance, two or more persons referred to as “Siak Banda” are specially assigned by the farmers for conducting the routine maintenance of main canals, including minor repairs, unplugging the canal leakages, removing the trash and garbage blocking the water flows. The assignments of “siak banda” are normally based on the premise that they should be the genuine farmer from the tail end of irrigation block to assure the fair water distribution up to the tip end of the irrigation block. The farmers pay the “Siak banda” in accordance with water allocation of each farmer at the rate of 50 kg of unhusked dry paddy per unit “ameh” or about 100 kg of unhusked dry paddy per hectare per crop.

For the farmers whose lands are located outside of the hydrological boundary of irrigation area previously determined assigned – in case if the lands could obtain water from the system, after rehabilitation work – are eligible to utilize irrigation water as far as the water is still available. However, they are not obliged to have irrigation water as if the lands in the original irrigation area have yet adequately fulfilled. In fact, such as the exclusive irrigated lands owners, by any chance, are prohibited to participate in irrigation operational activities including the payment contribution to the “Siak Banda”. The rationale of this regulatory principle is based on the effort to prevent the traditional water right from excessive distribution beyond the previously determined water allocation descended from their ancestors from generation to generations.

With regards to farmers commitment to obey the mutually developed regulatory instrument, the traditional water user’s association terms as “Paraku” are strictly follow the principle of ritual sanction to disobedience regarded as the sacred cow or exorcism oath, “Kaateh tidak bapucuak, kebawah tidak beurek, ditengah digiriak kumbang”, which literally means as the sanctions of the disobedient to public commitment of irrigation would be “The top will not get sprout, the root would not grow at the bottom, and the stem at the center would be destroyed by beetle pest”. Apart from the symbolic consequences of fatal sufferings, they believe, the dishonest or the disobedient would have, the disobedience would also excluded from the day-to-day social interaction within the traditional community.

Water Wheel Irrigation System The traditional water wheel technology in West Sumatra, as claimed by the traditional farmers, has been in existence since early 14th Century. The device is made of bamboo, with the shape of wheel bamboo structure, center pivoting on wooden axis by employing the stream flow to turn the wheel for lifting the water or supplying energy for rice mill on flower mill on top water lifting function. The water wheel usually placed at the save location on either or both side of the straight river alignment, protected by bamboo clumps or deep-rooted vegetations to defend the structure against occasional flood streams.


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Initially the water wheel was utilized for rice milling and other means of food processing as well as for other sorts of grinding tools. Through time, the water wheel had been gradually transformed into water lifting device in terms of “kincir penaik air” or irrigation wheel, with some improvement by using local materials with indigenous technology.

Today the water wheel irrigation is still widely applied along the Batang Sinamar River in the “Lima Puluh Kota” Regency, as well as along the Batang Ombilin River in the Solok and Sawahlunto Sijunjung Regencies, and yet still under the properly maintained condition. The magnitude of water discharge of the lifted water is the function of water flow availability, size of bamboo tube (ladle), duration of plunge on each immersion of bamboo tube, number of rotations as well as position of the tube against the angle of river stream axis. However, a number of field experiments, indicate that the average water lifting capacity of the water wheel is about one liter per second.

In general the common size of the water wheel ranging between the diameter of 5.00 m and 9.00 m, with the gross width of 0.80 to 1.00 m. The axis usually made of hard type of wood with the diameter of about 25 cm. The bamboo tube ladles are placed at the outer diameter with certain angle vertically and horizontally from wheel axis. All of the

materials for constructing the water wheel are obtainable from local sources. Attempts were made by a number of research institutions to improve the structure of the wheel by introducing imported materials and advance technology, but the farmer refused to apply the technology for they are not used to the technology, and yet the materials for replacing the damaged component have to be imported from other places



which are time consuming, and costly.

Given the fact of the underlying traditional practice of flooded irrigated paddy, the water wheel irrigation is utilized for continuous irrigation water supply. The management system for water wheel operation varied from place to place – ranging from community owned, built-operate, as well as, to built-operate and leasing system with the service and operation guaranteed by the provider of the water wheel.

Socio-Cultural, and Economic Adaptations of Traditional Irrigation

The present irrigation system in West Sumatra has been demonstrating the indigenous capacity of the traditional farmers to undertake community based irrigation development

Water wheels erected in both sides of the Batang Lampasin River


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and management with skilful irrigated farming techniques, hard working community, adapted to sustainable environment, as well as conducive to socio-cultural as well as economic adaptation. The “matri-linear” principle of ethnicity system prohibits the lowland paddies to be owned by individual, as well as the basic principle of traditional democratic leadership and togetherness principles have been the strength of irrigation based farming community to reach consensus and resolving the related conflicts. Nevertheless, there are some evidences to indicate the existence of threats against the sustainable traditional practices.

Firstly; The internal aspects in terms of socio-cultural dimensions are continuously impeded by external factors resulting significant shift of values, behavior and attitude. The farming community of Minangkabau in West Sumatra has been adapted to a number of agricultural technologies, including improved variety, and other modern agricultural inputs. As a result, the various technological changes brought about significant transformation of socio cultural dimensions. The farmers are no longer conducting their agricultural practices by virtue of mutual aid or “berjulo-julo”, especially for performing land development, land preparation, transplanting and communal storage of the harvested paddy at the community owned barn. Today, the agricultural practices are tending to be dominated by individual profit gaining consideration rather than on community based business approach, and hence, the farming community attitude the farmers used to have, increasingly jeopardized by extinction. The traditional “alek banda” have almost been neglected in many traditional communities. Similarly, the continuous tendency of the Minang People to other parts of the country to some extent enlightens the “ninik mamak” tradition is no longer practiced once they settled down in the outer areas of the “Minangkabau”.

Secondly; The external factors that are immediately influence traditional irrigation system in West Sumatra are associated with the excessive external supports from the government to traditional irrigation system in terms of physical development without considering the socio-cultural dimensions of traditional farming community. As a result, water distribution mechanism amongst irrigation schemes are often hampered by severe disorientations, especially where the government conducted reconstruction and development without involving the traditional community as well as the traditional leaders. Many, to be the impacts of dependency attitude from too much external interventions on the already sustainable traditional irrigation schemes without considerable attention on socio-cultural dimensions, for instance, have argued the absence of mutual aid tradition.

LIST OF REFERENCE Arsis Ahmad, 2003. “Water Wheel for Irrigation”, Department of Agricultural

Technology, University of Andalas in cooperation with Institute of Irrigation Studies – PSI-SDAL, UNAND, Padang, 2003. (In Bahasa Indonesia).

Helmi, Endry Martius, and Osmet, 1998. “Adjustment of Institutional Aspects of Water Resources Management and Empowerment of the Water User’s Association”, Institute of Irrigation Studies, University of Andalas, Padang, West Sumatra, 1998. (In Bahasa Indonesia).

John S. Ambler; “The neglected aspect of Traditional Irrigation Management in West Sumatra.


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Soenarno, 1978. “Irrigation Component of ISSP-I, Workshop of ISSP-I, Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures, Jakarta 1987.

Suzanne E. Siskel and S.R Hutapea, 1995. “Irrigation in Indonesia, the role of community and research, Pustaka LP3ES Indonesia, Jakarta, 1995.

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Brief Review of Irrigation Water Management Studies during Colonial Period

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

BRIEF REVIEW OF IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT STUDIES DURING COLONIAL

PERIOD

By: Effendi Pasandaran


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BRIEF REVIEW OF IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT STUDIES DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

By: Effendi Pasandaran

ABSTRACT The principles of water distribution are still practiced with some adjustments in their elements. Sugarcane is no longer the first priority crop even-though the Glebagan system is still practiced. Pasten is still used as a decision making criteria in water allocation and



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the Golongan system is continually planned for the early planting season, and primarily for efficient allocation of water and labor supply during the land preparation period.

This paper reveals the study in Pekalen Sampean that the Golongan system has been developed in a more complex arrangement than that during the colonial past; normal pasten however, is still fixed, not changing over time as suggested by Van der Giessen, a concept that requires elaboration of demand for water over time. (AES, 1975).

INTRODUCTION Serious attempts to study performance of irrigation systems in Java date back to 1894, when the colonial ruler examined two different regulations in water allocation in two selected irri gation systems in East Java namely "Pekalen" and "Pategoean" irrigation systems (Hasselman, 1914). The Pategoean regulation is based on the principle that the local communities should be free to undertake water distribution in conformity with their own cultural practices. For this purpose, available water is allocated proportionally to irrigation territorial units1 of the respective local communities. The Pekalen regulation is based on the principle that water distribution should be controlled by the government. The establishment of a yearly "cultural plan" is the main feature of this regulation. A cultural plan consists of two major components namely the cropping system plan and the water distribution plan (Gruyter, 1933 and Graadt van Roggen, 1936). The cropping system plan deals with the arrangement of the crops within a irrigation system in a given time period. The water distribution plan deals with allocation and scheduling of water supply to meet crops demand for water of a given cropping system plan. The water distribution plan aimed at fair water distribution among crops within an irrigation system, which during the colonial period implied fair water distribution between government promoted crops (sugarcane) and farmer's crops (paddy and secondary crops). Pekalen regulation seemed the most likely fit to the ruler's interest in controlling water and in promoting sugarcane so that this regulation was definitely enforced since 1901.

1 Irrigation territorial unit is not clearly defined by Hasselman. It can be either a portion of the village area,

irrigated by a certain irrigation system or sub-unit of irrigation system such as a tertiary or a secondary unit.


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Even-though Pategoean regulation was not recommended by the colonial ruler, some reflections of its principle were practiced in various irrigation systems in Java (Witzenburg, 1936). Development of the "Ulu-ulu Pembagian"2 institution sponsored by Humans in Pemali Comal systems, Central Java, referred to this principle (Graadt van Roggen, 1932 and Witzenburg, 1936). Irrigation water is proportionately distributed to all tertiary units within the irrigation system, and Ulu-Ulu Pembagian is responsible for water distribution within a tertiary unit.

Pateguhan Intake Structures, East Java



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Studies on Water Management Studies of water management during the colonial period, therefore, were generally undertaken within the context of Pekalen regulation, which is particularly related to development and improvement of cultural plan.

The earlier study was undertaken by Paerels and Eysvogel (1926), who measured the normal water supply in Pemali Comal irrigation systems, Central Java. They defined normal supply as that which causes no stress on crops during the crop growing season. In Pemali Comal, it is about 0.25 liter/sec/ha to 0.35 liter/sec/ha assuming that all irrigated areas were planted with secondary crops.

Va n Maanen (1931) studied the relationship between delivery requirement and size of irrigation unit (either tertiary or secondary unit). He stated that the greater the size of irrigation unit, the smaller the delivery requirement. This relationship was depicted in a well-known "Pemali curve" which has been used for a long time as the basic reference for designing canal capacity. (Figure 1). This difference in delivery requirement, however, was to a large extent caused by differences in water allocation. He found that rotation system was more easily implemented in larger irrigation units.

2 Ulu-ulu is a village official responsible for water management. In Pemali Comal systems, Ulu-ulu

pembagian is responsible for water management at a tertiary unit. For further description of Ulu-ulu system in Java see for example Riss (1975) and Hutapea et al (1979).


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Vink and Hoorst (1927) measured water supply on the dry season secondary crops in a heavy soil in East Java and found that approximately 2,000 m3/ha/season was required to irrigate corn. Further study on supply to secondary crops was done by Middleburg (1931) in Pemali Comal schemes. He defined "Pasten" 3 as a value to indicate supply to one "bau" 4 of crops measured at turnout. If it is not specified, Pasten is measured for 24 hour-supply per day. In Pemali Comal it ranges from 0.16 to 0.24 during the growing season for 14 hours daily supply.

Van der Giessen (1946) used normal supply and normal pasten interchangeably to indicate the amount of water supply required to meet agronomic optimal demand of the crops over time in responding to the changes in growth stages, rainfall, and moisture content of the soil. He suggested, for operational purposes, the normal Pasten should be predetermined in every two weeks period during the crop growing season.

L/sec/ha

3.00

2.00

1.60

1.251.000.80

0 35 70 140 210 280 350 420 490 560 630 700

Figure l. The Pemali Curve: Relationship between area irrigated and water supply (from Van Mannen, 1931)



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As a further consequence of the cultural plan, in April 1928, the colonial ruler established a new institution, namely the "Golongan System" 5 (Gruyter, 1933). The two functions of the Golongan system were :

1. as a cropping system plan. 2. as a water distribution plan.

As a cropping system plan it aimed at continuous provision of land for sugarcane plantation, therefore continuously guarantying the level of sugarcane production. As a water distribution plan it aimed at efficient and fair distribution of water among the crops planted in an irrigation system. 3 Pasten in Javanese means fixed by God, so that no one i s allowed to alter the amount of water allocated. 4 One Bau is equal to 0.71 Ha. 5 Golongan system refers to the staggering of planting dates successively among sections of irrigation

systems, early in the planting season.


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Van Maanen (1931) provided an illustration of how the Golongan system was visualized as a water distribution plan. He described it as one of the forms of rotational system that occurred in the early period of the planting season. Water was allocated successively among sections of irrigation system based on relative demand of area irrigated of each section (Figure 2).

The number of sections required for the Golongan system depend on the increase of flow into irrigation system and to some extent on the availability of labor for land-preparation. If for example five sections are planned for a certain system in a planting season but the increase in flow enables the last section to receive irrigation earlier, the land preparation for that section can be started earlier provided there are no constraints in labor availability. In this case then, we have four sections of Golongan system for that particular season.

The appropriate section of Golongan is a tertiary unit with the-maximum size of 100 Ha. (Van der Giessen, 1946). By this arrangement it is possible to split the total area irrigated in a village into several sections of Golongan so that labor supply for land preparation can be appropriately scheduled.

Ideally, the Golongan system should be rotated every year (the last section planted one year is the first to be planted the following year) to ensure equal benefits over time among farmers in different sections of Golongan; some exception however might occur as noticed by Van der Giessen (1946) in Gung irrigation systems. The northern portion of this system, which is located close to the coast, is always planted in a first section from year to year. This is necessary to avoid pest outbreaks that occur if the area is planted to paddy later in the season.

L/sec/ha1,15 A L/sec/ha

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0 15 Oct

31 Oct

15 Nov

30 Nov

15 Dec

31 Dec

15 Jan

31 Jan

15 Feb

28 Feb

15 Mrt

31 Mrt

15 Apr

30 Apr

TIME

Figure 2. Water allocation over time in Golongan system.



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Notes - The shades in this figure indicates water allocation to the differential golongan. In the beginning of the season water is given only to the first golongan, than to the first and second golongan and later after the water is sufficient it is given to all Four golongans.

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One of the relevant issues related to the implement-tation of the Golongan system was allocation of water among the farmers’ crops (paddy and secondary crops) and sugarcane. Fair water distribution during the colonial period was implemented in a form of "day and night rotation schedule" during critical water supply. The farmers’ crops received water at night and sugarcane during the day. Field reservoir for temporary water storage on daily basis



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This regulation was considered unfair by the farmers, because sugarcane demanded less water than paddy and also because under "Glebagan regulation" 6 the sugarcane only occupied one third of the area irrigated in each village.

Construction of field reservoirs during 1918 to 1926 in the area planted to sugarcane was intended to overcome this water distribution problem. Swaan (1933) noted that in the tertiary supplemented by field reservoir pasten value can be maintained relatively high compared to the tertiary unit without field reservoir. He further stated that equal distribution of water can be undertaken since either surplus or deficit in available water can be shared equally between paddy and secondary crops on one side and sugarcane on another side. The change of pasten value before and after construction of field reservoirs, however, was not mentioned.

The development of field reservoirs was criticized by Metzelaar (1927) as not much affecting the cropping system particularly in the area planted to paddy. It was only useful to irrigate secondary crops and therefore their effectiveness to improve water distribution was yet uncertain. He noted further that better water distribution was not dependent on the availability of field reservoirs but on appropriate decisions and control of water allocation to the crops and paddy parcels within a tertiary unit. A further effort to improve performance of water distribution in a tertiary unit was the introduction of "an hourly rotation schedule" in the period of critical supply, particularly in the area planted to paddy. However, the criteria required to undertake this rotation was not specified. For the area planted to secondary crops, daily scheduling was recommended by Swaan (1933). He indicated that irrigation rotation for secondary crops can be scheduled in two-week intervals, and generally secondary crops only require four to six events of flooding during a planting season. 6 Under Glebagan regulation, about one third of the area irrigated of the proposed village is always in cane

and the farmers are forced to rent this land to the factory.


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The criteria of water allocation among crops probably had been refined before 1936 when general water law was enforced (Van der Ploeg, 1937). It involved the relative irrigation requirement (RIR) for the farmers’ crops and sugarcane and particularly for paddy, this requirement was further differentiated between the land preparation and growing periods.

The value of RIR varies from one irrigation system to another. In East Java, in eastern portion of Pekalen Sampean irrigation systems, the ratio of RIR is 3:1:1 for paddy, sugarcane and secondary crops respectively. In Madiun, the western part of East Java, the ratio of RIR is 3:1.5:1 for similar crops. Paerels and Eysvogel (1926) noticed that in the Gung irrigation system of Pemali Comal, the ratio of RIR is 5:3:2 for paddy, sugarcane and secondary crops respectively. Variation of this ratio is influenced by factors such as topography, ground water surface, rainfall and growing stages of crops. In the area where such RIR was not yet established, the normative RIR was recommended (Van der Ploeg, 1937). The ratio of normative RIR is 4:3:1.5:1 for paddy, fishponds, sugarcane and secondary crops respectively.

Related to water allocation is the question of appropriate unit of water distribution organization. Clason (1926) stated that Ulu-Ulu Pembagian organized around the tertiary unit is more advantageous than village Ulu-Ulu system, which is organized around the village territorial unit. One of the reasons is that irrigation bureaucracy does not necessarily deal with more than one Ulu-Ulu to distribute water to each tertiary unit as in the case of the village Ulu-Ulu system. This U1u-Ulu Pembagian system however, only existed in some of the area of Pemali Comal irrigation systems and probably their expansion was constrained by the fact that the village Ulu-Ulu system had been established a long time before.

Institutional development of a water management system at farm level in Java and in Bali was reviewed by Happe (1935), Witzenburg (1936) and Polderman and Graadt van Roggen (1936). One of the controversial issues was centered around whether irrigation organization should be based on Balinese irrigation bounded system or Javanese village bounded system. This issue however, has never been resolved even during the postcolonial period.

Basic to the development of water management is the development of physical infrastructure or hard-ware component of irrigation system. Blommenstein (in Hendriks, 1979) based on the development of hydraulic engineering application in irrigation found that there are three stages of hard-ware technological development in Java. The following description is to fit the soft-ware component in each stage of Blommenstein classification.

The first stage is the development of irrigation system in the hilly area where the relatively simple hydraulic principle was used to deliver water into its service area. The communal systems and the early development of irrigation system by colonial ruler is included in this stage. The rule for water delivery is usually "continuous" and the need for water control is relatively minimum.

The second stage is the development of large-scale irrigation system in low land area, with the primary emphasize on the main delivery system. The problem of water allocation persisted during this stage, and the principle for water allocation were tested.


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The results from experiments were used as feed-back for design criteria of canal. (Pemali curve by Van Maanen, and Normal supply by Paerels and Eysvogel).

The third stage was indicated by further refinement of the water allocation system by further development of the physical infrastructures (field reservoirs, tertiary and quaternary distribution system). The concept of Pasten and Golongan system was developed during this stage where the information on crops planted and scheduling were taken into consideration.

During the postcolonial period the changes in cultivation practices in irrigation systems occurred quite rapidly and were to some extent induced by the change in technology and the increasing demand for foods.

The principles of water distribution are still practiced with some adjustments in their elements. Sugarcane is no longer the first priority crop even-though the Glebagan system is still practiced.

Pasten is still used as a decision making criteria in water allocation and the Golongan system is continually planned for the early planting season not for the purpose of continuous supply of land for sugarcane, but primarily for efficient allocation of water and labor supply during the land preparation period.

No further studies focus on the refinement of water allocation criteria or on the adjustments of the components of cultural plan in response to the change in cultivation practices. RISS (1975) found some cases of distortion of the existing water allocation system in some of irrigation system in Central Java.

Study in Pekalen Sampean reveals that the Golongan system has been developed in a more complex arrangement than that during the colonial past; normal pasten however, is still fixed, not changing over time as suggested by Van der Giessen, a concept that requires elaboration of demand for water over time. (AES, 1975).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AES, 1975. Benefit Monitoring Study of Rentang Irrigation Project West Java (Second Study, sample survey I, 1977/78) Agro Economic survey report No. 4/80/2.

Clason, E.W.H., 1936. Econonasche beschouwingen over de izrigative op Java on Madoera, (Eeconomic evaluation for irrigation in Java and Madura) De inginieur Netherlandsch, lndie.

Graadt van Roggen, J.F. 1935. Plant en water regelingen in de Provinciale waterstaats afdeling "Pemali Comal" Plant and water control in Pemali Comal irrigation scheme. De ingenieur in Ncdcrlandsh-Indie 1935.

Gruyter, De P., 1933. Plant en water regelingen (plant and water control) De waRcrstaats. Ingenieur No. 1. 1933.

Happe, P.L.E.,1936; Water bchecr and water schappen: De Ingenieur in Nederlandsh Indie, No. 8-1936.

Hasselman, C, J. 1914. Algemeen overzcht van de uitkomsten van het welvaart onderzoek, gehoudcn op Java en Madoera in 1904-1905. S'gravenhage:Martinus Nijhoff, 1944.


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Hendriks, Willem J., 1979. Dacrah aliran sungai Cimanuk sebagai suatu ekosistem. Pengendalian dan penguasaan air dan tanah. (Cimanuk river basin as an ecosystem. Control on water Land). Lokakarya sejarah sosial ekonomi pedesaan, Cipayung 22-24 Januari 1979. Survai Agro ekonomi, Erasmus Universiteit Rottcrdam, Institut Pertanian Bogor.

Maanen, Th. D. Van, 1931. Irrigatie in Nederlandsch indie. (Irrigation in Indonesia), Uitgave, Visser and co., Batavia.

Metzelaar, J.Th., 1932: Het wadoekstelsel en zijn waarde voor den Landbouw (Buiteuzorg, Java) V II, 1931/32.

Middleburg, D.J.A.,1937. Waarnemingen Betreffende water verbruik op Mais, Aardnoten en Uien in de Rcsidentie Pekalongan in 1930, 1931, en 1932. (Observation on water requirement of corn, peanuts, and onion in Pelcalongan in 1930, 1931 and 1931). Landbouw, Buitzenzorg, Java, XII, No. 9, 1937.

Paerels, B.H. en Eysvogcl, W.F.,1926. Eenige opmerkingen omtrent waterverdeeling. De waterstaats ingenieur 14 (1926): 338-378.

RISS, 1975. A Research on Water management at the Farm Level. An Indonesia case study. Research institute in social Sciences. Satyawacana-University Salatiga--Indonesia, 1975.

Swaan, W., 1933. water verdccling in Het tertiare vak. (water distribution in Tertiary Unit), de waterstaat ingenieur, No 7, 1931.

Van der Giessen, C., 1946. Bevloeing van Rijst op Java en Madoera, (irrigation of rice in Java and madura) Landbouw, Batavia, Java, XIX, P 99-121.

Van der Ploeg, J. 1937. Eenige Landbouwkundige aanteekeningen bij het algemeen waterreglement 1936. (Some agricultural notes regarding general water law), Landbouw (Buitenzprg, Java) XIII No. 7/8 P 1-24.

Witzenburg, J. H. van, 1936, Wartcrbeheer en waterschappen (irrigation management and irrigation scheme), de ingenieur in Nederlansch indie, vo16.

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID An Outline Review of Lawland Development in Indonesia

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

AN OUTLINE REVIEW OF IRRIGATION BASED TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA



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AN OUTLINE REVIEW OF IRRIGATION BASED TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA1

By:A.Hafied A. Gany

ABSTRACT

The Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia if one of several human resettlements endeavors, conducted in the objective of improving the distribution of



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human resources in the country. The program is meant to modify population density by resettling people from the heavily populated areas on the Inner Islands (Java, Madura, Bali, and Lombok Islands), into areas with least population of the Outer Islands of the archipelago, thereby contributing to large-scale development that are currently lagging behind in development.

Based on previous experience, however, indicates that the Transmigration process has met with varying levels of success and the development of new irrigated lands for human settlement often falls short of expectations. Some of the reasons for this are purely budget related. However, there are also other reasons both technical and non-technical, that can explain the often disappointing-rate of development. In fact, the successful implementation of a transmigration scheme demands not only good engineering but also a wide range of appropriate and timely socio-economic, and to some extents, cultural supports.

This paper presents a brief analysis of the main problems encountered and the formulation of specific strategies and recommendations for technical and socio-economical interventions that may improve the success of irrigation based transmigration program in the future.

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world; its population reached about 168 million in 1986 and is estimated to be 220 million in 2004. According to a census undertaken by the Dutch Colonial Government in 1930, the total population of the country at that time was 60,727,233 (Wijoyonitisastro, 1970:106). The rapid increase in population in the last half century has caused serious problems. What makes the problem especially acute is the fact that 120 million people, or more than 60% of the total population alone, live on Java, which constitutes only about 7% of the country's land area.

The resettlement program was initiated by the. Dutch Colonial Government in 1905, as an instrument that served a number of colonial goals and interests by moving people from Java, Madura, Bali, and Lombok Islands (the "inner" island) to the less densely 1 This supplement paper has been based on Chapter III of Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Manitoba,

Canada entitled: “The Irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia; An Interdisciplinary Study of Population Settlement and Related Strategies” by A. Hafied A. Gany, 1993.


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populated areas in the "outer" islands.2 The program was interrupted by Second World War but resumed five years after Indonesia obtained its independence. At that time it aimed primarily at two goals, namely, increasing the labor supply in the areas of resettlement for an intended early industrialization and to create a more even population distribution between the Inner and the Outer Islands.

During the long history of the program more than two million people have been resettled – constitutes at one of the largest population resettlement in this century. In terms of demographic impact on the population of Java this figure is rather insignificant. However, a report by the World Bank (1988:iii) stated that according to some studies, the transmigration had a significant beneficial effect on local employment and regional development.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The problem of over population in rural Java had already become noticeable when the population of the island approached about 30 million people early in the 19th century. At that time, two direct causes of poverty in Java were identified, the fragmentation of agricultural lands, and the escalating growth of the population beyond the agricultural resource base. But during the 19th century the Dutch Colonial Government can do nothing to anticipate resolving this problem.

In the meantime, however, events took place that gradually brought a change in the colonial policy, which until then had caused serious and persistent impoverishment of the population, especially in Java. The changes were in part of an attempt to improve the social and economic conditions of the people. For this reason the new colonial policy was called the "Etische Politiek", or the ethical policy. The new welfare program had as its slogan "Irrigation, Emigration and Education".

There were also political reasons for the change: From 1840 onward -- after recovering from the costly Java War (Diponegoro Government began to pay more attention to the Outer Islands, if for no other reason than to prevent other European colonial power from intervening (Tirtosudarmo, 1990:2-3). By the end of the 19th century, the Dutch Colonial policy was firmly committed to expanding Dutch control over the entire archipelago.

In 1902 the Dutch Colonial Government commissioned a study to examine the possibility of resolving the problem of over–population and land fragmentation on Java where the large local population surplus was regarded by the Dutch as a potential source of political tension and unrest. This study recommended moving people from Java to the sparsely populated areas in other parts of Indonesia. In response to this recommendation, the first resettlement experiment was carried out three years later by moving 155 families from Java to Lampung, Southern Sumatra. This was the start of an unprecedented human resettlement program in Indonesia. The objective of the resettlement program was not only to reduce the population pressure

2 At that time, the program was referred to by the Dutch Colonial Government as "Colonisatie",

known in Indonesia as "kolonisasi", then later transformed into "Transmigrasi" or trans-migration after Indonesia obtained its independence from the Dutch Colonial Government.

MSRI and INACID An Outline Review of Lawland Development in Indonesia
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in Java but also to contribute to the development of the sparsely populated "Outer Islands"3 by providing more manpower for agricultural development.

A number of stages can be distinguished in the history of the resettlement program. The first stage started in 1905 when, under the certificate of approval #46, dated October 19th, 1905, Way Semah-1 Weir, in Gedong Tataan is amongst the



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migration was initiated by H. G. Heytings who, with

the help of two assistants and two irrigation water masters,4 moved 155 families from Java to Gedong Tataan in the South Lampung District of Southern Sumatra.5

Colonial Dutch Gulden and credit to a maximum of 300 Gulden.6 The credit carried an annual interest rate of nine percent with a two-year grace period.

The third phase occurred between 1929 and 1941, coinciding with the Great World Depression and the beginning of the Second World War. In this phase the rate of settlement increased. According to Heeren, (1967:8), a total of 189,983 people were resettled to the Outer Islands in the period from 1905 to 1941.

The second stage of resettlement, from 1911 to 1929, was called "The Lampung Bank of Credit" period. By the end of 1911, there were only 4,818 Javanese migrants in Lampung (Heeren, 1979:10). At that time the Bank of Credit was established by the Dutch Colonial Government to provide the transmigrant families with a cash bonus of 22.5

3 The term "outer island" was first introduced by Geertz (Geertz, 1963) to refer to the islands in

Indonesia other than Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok, which are referred to as the "inner islands" The outer islands are predominantly the transmigrant destination areas, while the inner islands are the transmigrant source areas.

4 This information was supplied to the author in 1970 by Sabikoen (The retired chief of Central Lampung Public Works Service), and also in his unpublished report, "Historical Background of Irrigation in Lampung". Sabikoen was involved in the preparation of irrigation infrastructures for this pioneer settlement.

5 The exact location was in the Gedong Tataan area in the Lampung District of Southern Sumatra. Since 1964, the Lampung District has become an independent province separated from the South Sumatra Province.

6 Based upon information obtained from interviews by the author with some retired land surveyors. The value of Gulden (the Dutch Colonial Government currency) was estimated by means of comparing the price of white rice, at that time about 10 to 15 kg per one Gulden, to a current exchange rate in Indonesia of about US$0.415 per one Gulden (April 2004).

oldest irrigation infrastructures for the pioneer transmigrant settlers in Lampung Region


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Some years after the country had obtained its independence, resettlement was resumed. Between 1950 and 1974, some 500,518 people, averaging 24,021 people per annum were resettled in the Outer Islands. It was predicted by Jones that the overall achievement of the transmigration program since its early implement-tation until 1974 would be slightly less than one million people (991,000), (Jones, as quoted by Heeren, 1967: ix).

In the third five-year development plan (Repelita III, 1979-1984) the transmigration program was increased substantially. While by 1980, a total of about one million people had been resettled in the entire program, during Repelita III 366,000 families, and nearly 1.5 million people were sponsored for resettlement in the outer islands. During this period, transmigration was the largest voluntary government sponsored settlement program in the world (World Bank, 1983:3). Nevertheless, it has been argued that population redistribution role of transmigration has been exaggerated due to the fact that there are also some movement from Java to the Outer Islands outside of the transmigration program.

AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM

Definition of Transmigration Transmigration is officially defined in the “Basic Transmigration Acts [1972]”as:

"……...the resettlement and/or relocation of population from one region to another within the territory of Indonesia in the framework of national development or for other reasons considered necessary by the government......".

The program is aimed at creating a more even population distribution over the country's territory, while at the same time promoting regional development in the resettlement areas and the areas of origin, as well as fostering national integration and unity and strengthening national security.

Categories: Indonesian transmigrants are classified into four broad categories: (1) General transmigrants, consisting of landless agricultural laborers or subsistence farmers who are supported by the government through agricultural land, transportation, housing, social services, and initial agricultural equipment and other inputs; (2) Local transmigrants, consisting of local people originating from the resettlement areas, who are given the same facilities and supports as general transmigrants; (3) Registered spontaneous transmigrants, which are those who move at their own expense, or are partly assisted by the government and settle where they prefer. Registered spontaneous transmigrant is referred to as "swakarsa berbantuan" or partly assisted spontaneous transmigrant (Otten, 1980:41); and (4) Unregistered spontaneous transmigrants, which are the unassisted and unregistered transmigrants, to join their relatives in the resettlement locations. Resettlement under the transmigration program has been based on at least four types of projects: (1) The so called irrigation-based projects, which were developed earlier in the history of transmigration. This development gradually slowed down in 1970 when government investment in irrigation was sharply reduced due to financial constraints; (2) Swamp-reclamation based projects, mostly in Kalimantan and the eastern part of Sumatra; (3) rainfed based projects, which are intended to support rainfed agriculture in


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the Outer Islands, where irrigation is not possible or not economically feasible; and (4) Cash-crop based schemes, conducted under the Nucleus Estate and Small-holder Program (NES),7 and which cultivate palm oil, rubber, coconut, sugar cane and cotton for the production of cash crops (World Bank,1988: xix).

Objectives of the Transmigration Program The objectives of the transmigration program are demographic, political and economical in nature. Three demographic parameters must be considered in the justification of the need for, and the goals of, the transmigration program. These are: the size, the growth, and the distribution of the population. This population pattern of size, growth and distribution are seen by the government of Indonesia as crucial obstacles to the country's development. The transmigration is therefore regarded as an important tool in the attempt to reduce land and population pressure and to obtain a better demographic balance.

The transmigration program is also considered to be a means of "national integration" of the 370 ethnic groups that live in Indonesia and that speak 67 major languages.8 This integration is pursued by including and integrating the local people into the new communities and by structuring the settlement pattern so as to promote sedentary agricultural practices thereby reducing shifting cultivation and hunting and gathering that is still practiced in the sparsely populated areas, By thus striving for what is called "national resilience", the transmigration program is regarded as vital to Indonesia's national security.

Finally, economic development is' also a major objective of the transmigration program. This objective is pursued by reducing the negative impacts of the population in Java as well as by providing the Outer Islands with more adequate manpower in the agricultural sector.

DEVELOPMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM The success of a transmigration project depends on its ability to create new settlements and villages which form rural communities that are both economically and spiritually sound and that maintain a stable and. balanced utilization of natural and human resources.

Five stages can be distinguished in the development of stable settlements. These are: (1) the period of survival, (2) the stabilization period, (3) the period of becoming self supporting, (4) the period of development, and (5) the completion period in which the project development sustains itself (Directorate General of Transmigration, 1970). The most critical stage is the survival period, followed by the stabilization period. If the transmigrants survive the first five or six years, then their settlement can most likely be termed a success.

The five development stages are shown diagrammatically in Figure 1. This figure indicates that a high resource input is needed during the early stage of settlement, when the resource output is still low. This implies that during this critical stage the transmigrants should receive significant support to meet their basic needs while they are pursuing their initial resettlement activities. No revenue can be expected from the 7 This program began in 1978 and was mostly based on tree crops plantation (World Bank, 1988). 8 Iwan Gayo, 1990. "Buku Pintar Indonesia": p. 9.


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transmigrants until they become used to the new way of life and the new environmental situation. The most important requirement during the "survival stage" is to achieve initial adaptation9 and a dependable food supply as well as supply of other necessary agricultural inputs.

Balance Point of Input and Output

Implementation Time YEAR

INPUT

OUTPUT

Dev

elop

men

t Pro

gres

s

0A

BC

1 2 3 4 5

LEGEND

A = Survival Stage

B = Stabilization Stage

C = Self Supporting Stage

D = Development Stage

E = Self Generating Stage



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DE

Figure 1. Development Stages of the Transmigration Resettlement The second and third years, which constitute the "stabilization period", should also be carefully observed, because in many instances the first and the second crops suffer from problems such as agricultural pests and nutrient deficiencies. If the first two stages are successful, then the farmer will most likely get substantially more revenue, which he needs to carry him through the third or "self supporting stage".

At the fourth stage, the period of "development", the transmigrant should be encouraged to implement a saving plan, to begin family budgeting and to establish, with other farmers, a cooperative marketing system to deal with crop production. Toward the last phase, which is the "period of sustainable development", the transmigrants should have the ability to sustain themselves and to be no longer dependent on the implementing agencies.

9 The importance of initial adaptation to resettlement is also pin pointed by Fernea based upon experience

in the Egyptian Nubian Resettlement. (Fernea, R. A. and J. Kennedy, 1966).


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ADMINISTRATION OF THE TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM Resettlement through the transmigration program requires a good deal of inter-agency coordination. The Ministry of Transmigration has a major responsibility for the physical implementation. This ministry has regional offices that are scattered over all provincial government administrations. However, the Ministry of Internal Affairs is responsible for coordinating and organizing the people that are involved while the Ministry of Public Works is responsible for land clearing, irrigation substructure and for road construction. The Ministry of Agriculture together with several other ministries are in charge of natural resources, The Agency for Economic Planning, the Ministries of Health, of Education and of Community Development, as well as the ubiquitous Treasury Board, are other departments involved. These authorities should establish a working relationship through a consultative mechanism. This usually takes the form of an "advisory body", which ensures that a clear working responsibility, which can operate in accordance with specified schedules and terms of reference, exists in the bureaucratic structure.10

Provision of Irrigated Lands: Each family receives from the government a small standard house on 0.25 ha of land in the newly established village, together with 1.00 ha of cleared land that can potentially be used for an irrigated paddy field and another 0.75 ha of upland for orchards and other upland crop cultivation. The location of the agricultural land is presumed to lie within a reasonable walking distance from the village. The transmigrants are also provided with supplies of food and other necessities for one year, until the first crop is harvested. In addition to the above supplies and facilities, the transmigrants are also provided with planting materials for orchards and minor crops, with small livestock, and with the agricultural equipment and facilities they need.

Achievement Of The Demographic Objective: In terms of the resettled number of people the transmigration program has achieved a degree of success. It managed to resettle 52,000 families during the second Five Year Development Plan (1974-1979), a figure, which rose to 366,000 families or nearly 1.5 million people during the period of 1979-1984. While by 1980 about one million people had been resettled through sponsored transmigration, the population of the Outer Islands has increased by about two million people as the combined result of migration and the natural increase associated with it. The total resettlement figures are presented in Table -1, and the resettlement distribution is presented in Table -2, figure-2 shows the flow of transmigrants graphically. In terms of its effect on the over-population, the results of the program are not spectacular. The data indicate that over 34 years about one million five hundred thousand people were resettled. From the view point of demographic impact, this represents only 1.50 of the total inner islands' population or only 150 of the population growth during that period (World Bank, 1988). 10 According to Presidential Decree No.59/1984, regarding inter-agency coordination for

transmigration implementation. "...transmigration implementation is solely the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transmigration, but the execution should be coordinated with the other relevant ministries, the Ministry of Public Works, the Ministry of Agricultures, the Ministry of Forestry, the Ministry of Transportations, the Ministry of Cooperative Affairs, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Environment, and the Agency for Economic Planning and other government institutions..." (Article 1.).

AUSTRALIA

Figure 2. The Flow of Transmigration Movement in Indonesia (1950-1986)

Table 1 List of Achievement of Semi-voluntary assisted migration in Indonesia, 1950-1984o]

Year of Arrival

Five- year plan

Total families moved

Local families

}

Families Resettled

)

Total families settled

Total people settled


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427.100

40.2

00

98.70032.200

Person /km2

10 - 100100 - 300300 - 600600 - 1.000Over 11.000Transmigration Families

MALAYSIA

SINGAPORE

BRUNAI

THE PHILIPPINES

MALAYSIA



308

1950-54 - 21,037 0 1,280 22,317 87, 0001955-59 - 32,114 0 128 32,242 134, 0001960-64 - 26,456 0 0 26,456 111, 0001965-69 - 21,633 0 0 21,633 92, 0001969-74 (I) 39,436 0 75 39,511 176,000

1974-79 (II) 44,484 7,600 0 52,084 228,000Subtotal 185,160 7,600 1,483 194,243 828,000

1979-84 (III) 301,279 22,284 42,414 365,977D ) 1,492,000Grand Total 486,439 29,974 43,987 560,220 2,320,000

Notes: o ] Settlement figures varied widely in government publications.

} Indigenous families who have been settled in transmigration sites. ) Resettlement of sponsored or spontaneous migrants from within the province.

• ) Government also found about 170,000 families moved spontaneously.

Source: Official Summary of Pelita III, Ministry of Transmigration as quoted by the World Bank (1988)


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Table 2. Resettlement Distribution of Transmigration (1950-1986)

Resettlement Distribution (Families) Year Sumatera Kalimantan Sulawesi Irian Jaya Total

1950/54 20,400 1,400 500 - 22,300



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1955/59 28,900 2,600 700 - 32,200 1960/64 21,000 4,500 1,000 - 26,500 1965/69 16,500 2,100 2,700 300 21,6001970/74 22,000 6,000 11,400 100 39,500 1975/79 33,000 11,000 9,000 2,000 55,000 1980/84 227,000 70,600 51,700 16,600 366,0001985/86 58,200 42,000 21,700 13,200 135,100

Total 427,100 140,200 98,700 32,300 698,200

Percent 61% 20% 14% 5% 100%

Notes: o) Includes the Maluku (Moluccas) and other small eastern islands Source: Ministry of Transmigration

Nevertheless, the cumulative effect of the resettlement even at these rates is still significant. According to the projections of the World Bank, the population of Java will be 9% less by the year 2020 than it would have been without the program and the increase in the labor force will be 19% less. The sponsored migration alone, without the accompanying unassisted spontaneous migration would reduce the expected 2020 population in Java by 3-4% and absorb 7-8% of the increase in labor force (World Bank, 1988, pp. iii-iv).

EMPLOYMENT CREATION AND TRANSMIGRANT WELFARE In terms of employment creation, significant achievements can be attributed to the transmigration program. It is estimated that the transmigrants created about 18 million man-days of work. This amounts to 63,000 man-years of full-time work, which is roughly 100 working days in a year for 240,000 workers (World Bank, 1988:xxiv).

Within the third Five Year Development Plan about 500,000 to 600,000 permanent jobs were created by the program, at a cost of US$3,000 to US$4,000 per job in rainfed food crop schemes, and US$3, 500 to US$4, 500 per job in orchard-based settlements. These figures do not include the indirect job creation occurring as a result of the transmigration program. The cost figures of the employment rates created by the transmigration program are relatively high in comparison to the employment income level in the services sector in Indonesia but low in comparison to the level of income the in industrial sector which is averaging about US$ 10,000 - US$20,000 per job.


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The third problem was that the newly established government had no experience in social and economic planning, nor in the implementation of social change. As a result considerable emphasis was placed on the physical and economical aspects of the planning while the social aspects were largely ignored. Recently the social dimensions of development have become a major concern of the government and more emphasis is being placed on social policy and planning in the transmigration program. Until now, however, the social aspects have been studied in the relatively narrow context of direct past experience. A more systematic approach to the social implications of the development is needed. Social planning of transmigration As with other other programs, proper social planning is crucial to the failure or success of a transmigration program. The planner should consider three aspects: (1) the physical environment for the transmigrant, that is their new habitat, the resettlement area, the roads, the buildings, the schools, the markets and so on; (2) their social development, in terms of the development of the new institutions that are needed, encouragement of new attitudes, the provision of teachers, medical aid, agricultural extension officers and the like; and (3) the actual transfer of the people, including transportation, moving of livestock and belongings, reception and settlement in the relocation areas, and measures to maintain socio-ecological balance at the time they arrive and are adjusting themselves to the new area. A crucial aspect of the actual planning of a transmigration project is the time required for the planning activity. On the one hand, considerable time is needed for the collection of the necessary data and their incorporation in planning. On the other hand, there is usually a great urgency to start the resettlement as soon as possible. A compromise between these conflicting demands is evidently necessary. The social surveys that were conducted in the past depended mostly on old human and animal census data. Consequently, many problems were hidden and conclusions were often substantially biased. When foreign aid was involved, the planning policy was often dictated by expatriate consultants and the planning rarely included the local citizens. As a result the approach of the planners was usually far too academic. They frequently neglected the most important information such as (1) present settlement pattern; (2) housing types; (3) the social networks between dwellings; (4) the existing land use system; (5) the attitude of people toward farming and toward past attempts of the government to introduce agricultural innovation; (6) the leadership structure and the relevant aspects of the social organization and social values; and (7) the attitude of the local people with respect to the influx of people from outside the area. In addition to the necessary physical and social surveys, the planning should also include economic and ecological surveys. The following aspects should be considered: (1) the nature of available resources including natural vegetation, animal habitat, river fish populations etc.; (2) the length of the agricultural season; (3) the present economic situation of the people to be resettled; (4) division of labor forces by gender and age; (5) the amount of time spent by each type of laborer for different crops and activities


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throughout agricultural cycles; (6) new techniques and agricultural implements; (7) the abilities and interests of the local population in implementing new techniques; (8) the nature of community development services; and (9) credit and marketing facilities.

One of the difficulties of fostering development in Indonesia through the transmigration resettlement program is the ethnic diversity of the people. There are 370 ethnic groups with 67 major languages a feature, which demonstrates the extent to which the country is multi-dimensional in culture and traditional heritage. This makes social planning difficult. Values, which apply to a particular ethnic group but may be inappropriate in other groups. Before deciding on the resettlement location, the socio-cultural dimensions and values of the ethnic groups that will be affected by the resettlement program should be clearly understood. Otherwise, the resettlement may create more serious ethnic problems instead of achieving the development objectives. This problem is aggravated by the fact that the transmigration is based on small land holding practice. The multitude of farm units means that more people are involved, a feature which increases the social problems.

Transmigration is, therefore, always accompanied with its social complications. Such accompaniment adds to the cost of the undertaking, depending on the nature of the policy and the objective of the resettlement, especially if it includes the cost of prolonged food relief, the loss of human productivity, low motivation and so on.

PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS Problems of Land Allocation One of the most significant problems of transmigration implementation is land allocation and compensation for property lost by the local inhabitant.11 Often, the land is undervalued while the compensation claimed by the local people is unjustified. This is the more serious when the implementation is poorly or hurriedly undertaken because of inadequate funds or inexperienced personnel. Unclear land ownership is another problem that besets the settlers. This problem is especially complicated when dealing with "absentee land ownership" (i.e. when land owners do not reside in the area where the lands are administered). The problem is acute since, at the present time in Indonesia, there is no affordable land registration program that is responsive to the needs of small-holders (World Bank, 1988).12 An important contributing factor to the problems of land allocation is inadequate site preparation and poor logistic planning prior to the arrival of the transmigrants. Very often the construction of new settlements, including land clearing, provision of facilities and housing and land administration, is still incomplete when the transmigrants arrive. Site selection and clearing is often done on a "plan-as-you-proceed basis" so as to give the

11 The problem of land allocation and land compensation also hampered a number of large

dam displacements in India (Singh, in Fernandes, 1989:91-103). 12 Based upon experience in the difficulty of solving land problems in the past, the. Government of

Indonesia has paid special attention to the importance of proper land administration. This is evident from the establishment of State Ministry of Agrarian Affairs in the Sixth (1993-98) Development Cabinet of Indonesia (Jakarta Post, March 18, 1993)


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migrants a quick start in the settlement process. As a result, the implementation is often hampered by serious problems concerning the demarcation of adequate and suitable land for agriculture. Irrigation-Based Resettlement A careful distribution of land for agricultural and household use is especially critical for irrigation-based migration because of the work the farmer has to do to develop the land for this purpose. Appropriate distribution and utilization of the land requires, however, completion of the engineering aspects of the underlying irrigation project, which can be very time consuming. It is not uncommon, however, that the pressure to "get on" with the transmigration causes people to be moved to the designated area when the irrigation canal alignment, the village; location, and the allocation of irrigation land-plots are i yet undecided let alone complete. In these cases there are three possible and not mutually exclusive scenarios.

(1) The transmigrant is resettled prior to the establishment of irrigation infrastructures and has to wait for the construction of irrigation facilities.

(2) Much of the land allocation is inconsistent with the subsequently developed structural irrigation design.13

(3) Later, at the construction stage of the irrigation works, the canals and other facilities must then, for engineering reasons, often trespass over allocated transrnigrant land.

With any of these scenarios the land problem is by no means easy to resolve.

Size of Allocated Land Holding The transmigrant source area is Java where the average land holding in irrigated areas is only between 0.25-0.30 ha. This compares with a national average at about 1.00ha per holding. The holdings on Java, however, are highly productive because of the high fertility as resulted from occasional precipitation of volcanic ash and the intensive cultivation. Most of this type of agricultural land is suitable far double cropping or even multiple cropping. In the Outer Islands, however, most of the land has poorer fertility and requires more fertilizer and water. It is thus not correct to use an allocation pattern that is based simply on average land holdings.

The question of how large a holding should be allocated per family must be answered in the light of two conditions: (1) the holding should be large enough to produce an adequate living standard for the family, and (2) the size must not be more than the settlers' family is able to cultivate.

In the past, the agencies involved in resettlement had a tendency to allocate less land than was required for the settlers to make an adequate living. An impression held by author on the basis of his experience with this type of project that some of the schemes were unsuccessful for this reason and that economic necessity caused settlers to drift into other employment. This impression, however, is subject to further research and analysis.

13 For example, there are many cases where transmigrant villages overlap land, which are

supposed to be irrigation areas. Alternatively, the proposed irrigation areas are often allocated for public facilities or for other non-agricultural purposes


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Land Preparation for the Newly Established Irrigation Area Land preparation for newly established irrigation schemes is one of the most important structural problems as far as transmigration implementation is concerned. Long-term records show that land preparation tends to lag behind schedule. This is often a direct consequence of the fact that the initial water requirement for the preparation of lowland paddy fields is extremely high, much higher than the amount needed when land development is complete and irrigation practice has become stabilized. This fact complicates both engineering and social planning.

The specific reasons for this complication are as follows: (1) although technically possible, it is not economically feasible to construct an irrigation facility that satisfies the highly varying water demands and as a result the development must be implemented in stages; (2) the high water consumption required for preparing the land lasts for for about four to five years; this is just the period of time over which the transmigrants are expected to become self-sustainable and this expectation is frustrated by water shortages; (3) the newly resettled transmigrants face water shortages at the very time that he needs to be reassured that the agricultural practice is worthwhile and can permanently support them; (4) during the critical settlement period, the transmigrant farmers may still be suffering from mental stress as a result of resettlement, and can hardly be expected to participate fully in development activities; (5) being in a highly stressful condition, the transmigrants need reassurance, particularly regarding their legal land ownership status, which may not be forthcoming. At the same time, they also need financial support for their subsistence, which may not be adequate; and (6) too long a period of extension of external assistance can lead the transmigrant to develop attitudes of dependency.

NON-STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

General Planning Problems The most common problem in the transmigration program is the time it takes, and the difficulty settlers have, in adapting to their new surroundings and way of life. This problem is usually rooted in the weaknesses of planning.

Often, the planning of settlements reflects little knowledge or experience about migration. For example, many problems arose as a result of the failure of social planners to translate social sciences into institutionalized policy and congruent operational procedures. This fault often resulted in the exclusion of social issues from the planning process.

Similarly, the non-technical aspects of resettlement infrastructures are often simply overlooked or neglected by planners. For the sake of simplicity the infrastructure, such as housing or other facilities, was often standardized. This was done, however, without considering what the settlers were used to and what matched their life style and habits. As a result, the settlers had to struggle to make use of the facilities that appeared unfamiliar and therefore unsuitable to them. This in turn increased the time required for a successful adaptation.

The issue of planning and policy formulation in the transmigration program is particularly crucial because it has to be undertaken through inter-agency coordination.


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The World Bank pays special attention to this matter as is evident from the following suggestions.

"To enhance the quality of new settlement mechanisms must be developed within the Ministry of Transmigration to review management issues on a regular basis and to improve policy formulation and inter-agency coordination. Action plans should also be developed to overcome the most serious problems encountered in implementation. These should be focused on settlement design (including selection of farm model, farm layout and incorporation of spontaneous migrants), physical development (land clearing, road construction and maintenance, and contractor supervision), the provision of agricultural supporting services, and program planning and coordination (planning, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation). Steps are also required to establish a system for assuring the orderly transfer of settlement to provincial governments" (World Bank, 1988:xii).

Unfortunately, the resettlement and relocation approach to transmigration has often been and, in many cases, still is handled as "salvage and welfare" operations rather than as development operations. As suggested previously, much of this is the direct result of not allowing enough time for proper planning before the actual movement of people takes place.

Another major shortcoming of the planning process is the very low priority the implementation agencies place on consistent monitoring and evaluation of the post resettlement performance of the scheme, if indeed, it is considered at all. It is therefore difficult to assess the actual performance of the project in terms of the settlers' success in adaptation, the standard of living they have achieved, their wage, farm income and so on. The absence of this important information has an apparent adverse effect on the planning of future programs. In other words, problems, which were experienced in the past, will be repeatedly encountered in future programs.

Socio-cultural Consequences of Transmigration

One of the most sensitive issues in the transmigration program is the cultural impact of resettlement. Transmigrants are usually moved to regions where the population is racially and culturally distinct. This complicates the adaptation process since the cultural identity of the local people should be respected.

The engineering bias in past planning of the new infrastructure was reflected in a lack of attention given to the integration with the host population. Several transmigration settlements in the past were hampered by the problems created by the lack of consideration. The problems were especially serious if the local people were excluded from participating in the resettlement scheme and remained as a small-scattered minority group. However, in the most recent transmigration programs this problem was solved by an integration approach. In this approach, the small local minority groups are included in the transmigration program and given the same treatment and support as the general transmigrants.


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Other often encountered problems stemmed from an inappropriate selection of transmigrants in terms of the previous socio-cultural background. Adaptation problems resulted from failure to consider the previous experience and level of knowledge of the transmigrant. For instance, many transmigrants came from non-farming communities such as those who previously resided in urban areas. These migrants often have the greatest propensity to return to their area of origin rather than trying to integrate themselves into the social and cultural practices of the host rural population. Integration is essential or the project will suffer from potential conflict with the host population.

Other social problems associated with resettlement are: (1) the disruption of the traditional local settlement and the difficulty to meet the requirements of both the transmigrant settlers and the local people. This condition often creates by social or cultural conflicts; (2) disruptive stress resulted from the separation of kin due to the dispersion in scattered sites; this aspect causes considerable time and effort being spent in maintaining emotional relationships rather than in the pursuit of adaptation to the new social system; (3) disorientation of social relationships due to changing alliances in the new destination; (4) individual reluctance to establish new social networks due to the human tendency of attempting to maintain old and defunct associations; (5) family crises associated with the move and prolonged anxiety due to the difficulties in establishing a new productive system; (6) distress as the result of material losses suffered in the move from area of origin to the settlement area; and (7) disorientation of routine ritual ceremonies due to ad-hoc changes in alliances with people belonging to the same religion, culture or belief.

These factors produce social stress and a feeling of powerlessness and alienation. Such conditions will persist till the settlers are able adapt to the new environment. These socio-cultural consequences of the transmigration program must be considered by the planners, as well as the implementing agencies, in dealing with the adaptation problem in future resettlement programs.

When the primary reason for resettlement is political then the danger is great that insufficient attention will be given to the technical, the economic and the socio-cultural aspects. In such cases, the simplest and cheapest form of resettlement had usually been adopted. As a result, the resettlement schemes are hardly expected to achieve significance enhancement of the quality of life.

In the case of transmigration program, population resettlement is primarily aimed at relieving demographic pressures and at enhancing social and economic conditions. However, there are a number of examples which indicate that transmigration resettlement programs have also been used for other reasons (Tirtosudarmo, 1990:10), For example, some involuntary resettlement is conducted under the transmigration programs due to the inundation of lands by large dams, natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, land slides and earthquakes. Some resettlement also involves retired army personnel, civil servants, marines, and police officers (Otten, 1988). In addition transmigration serves the national aims of nation building through integration reducing ethnic disparity, regional development, national unity and security, particularly in securing borders in Irian Jaya and Kalimantan.


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LESSON LEARNED Concerning the longterm development prospects, it is probable that the transmigration program will be continued in the future. It is, therefore, essential to consider and clarify the policy objectives of the resettlement programs. These objectives must take into account the constraints imposed by the prevailing social values and norms of the settlers as well as the socio-economic conditions of the region in which the transmigration program is undertaken.

It is essential for the success of future programs that the implementation is accompanied by consistent monitoring and evaluating of actual conditions in the resettlement schemes from phase to phase. To date this has not been done in a systematic way, and without significant improvement in this respect, future development of the transmigration program will continuously be hampered by unforeseen problems and constraints.

It is not easy to set a clear policy that governs what should be done to make future settlement schemes more successful. Much depends on the agricultural potential of a project. This factor largely determines the choice between farming systems, i.e., whether the project is to be based on a "food crop system", a "swamp reclamation system", a "tree crop development" or whether some form of non-agricultural resettlement must be chosen.

Rainfed agriculture seems to have poor prospects, due to low productivity, soil limitations and limited market prospects for the food crops produced. Irrigation-based resettlement, on the other hand, requires a high capital cost and a long development because of the inherent problem of high water requirements for the newly established paddy type projects. This issue still needs further research.

Swamp reclamation schemes on the other hand, have good prospects but also require careful studies of the agricultural prospects and the human settlement environment. Tree crop development and cash crop systems also have good prospects, but the tree crops require a long time to become productive and also great skill in the post harvest operations, including secondary processing, storage, and marketing. Increasing production and reducing marketing constraints -- including crop diversification and encouragement of poultry, livestock and fish ponds operations -- are basic requirements for sustainable agriculture. This, however, is not just time consuming, but also requires active participation by the farmer.

With continuous financial constraints, the danger persists that the transmigration programs of the future will be dictated by a higher priority on the number of settlers than on the quality of the resettlement. Such a resettlement implementation could not be expected to achieve a self-sustainable level of development. Moreover, a resettlement implementation that aims at achieving rapid results will lack the required capability to properly plan, implement, monitor and evaluate the resettlement projects which is essential for their success. Proper planning of the transmigration is crucial. It should ensure that agro-ecological conditions in the transmigration sites are well suited to food crop production especially since land availability will be a serious constraint in future resettlement programs. For instance, resettlement areas in some provinces of Sumatra are already fully occupied and only limited prospects remain for large-scale settlement. There is still an opportunity for


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large-scale settlements in West, Central and East Kalimantan albeit with some limitations imposed by forestry constraints. In Irian Jaya, the prospects for resettlement are still consider-able provided that due consideration is given to social and environmental constraints. The social dimensions of transmigration have in the past been studied in a relatively narrow context. Because of the interaction between the social and technical problems it is essential to use an integrated approach, incorporating the social aspects in conjunction with -the technical and economic dimensions of the development projects.

Land allocation for transmigrants is another aspect from which a number of problems arose in the past. Because of the urgent requirement to resettle people as soon as possible, the master-plan for the future land use in the resettlement area was frequently modified or abandoned. In these cases, human settlement tends to cause an imbalance between the productive functions and the ecological aspect of the land. Additional land allocation problems stemmed from the fact that the government did not immediately provide security of land tenure upon settlement. Furthermore, without adequate pre-resettlement preparation by the implementing agency, transmigrants encounter undue stress upon arrival at the site, which retards their development activities.

Current experience in irrigation development indicates that there must be a command area large enough to economically serve the irrigation requirements and still small enough to be managed efficiently. The question than is: “To what extent is the single irrigation command area determined in order that it can be managed effectively?” The answer to this question is still open for future research as it is beyond the scope of the present study.

Today, despite the transmigration program has met with success in terms of total numbers relocated and total increase in agricultural production it remains a rural development initiative that is questionable in-terms of its cost-effectiveness. It requires heavy capital investment, in the form of new irrigation projects that are needed to make new settlements operational. There is also considerable evidence that the settlers do not always accept or adapt to their new environment and agricultural practice as readily as planners anticipate, or as politicians promise.

Among the different types of resettlement projects under the transmigration program, the irrigation based transmigration program still has good prospects for the future, provided



An example of the established irrigated paddy field owned by the earlier transmigrant settlement in

South Gedong Tataan, Lampung. The area was

previously a heavy jungle and hardly accessible by

appropriate inland transportation.


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that the lessons of past experience are applied.

Today, it is evidence in Lampung province, the birthplace of the irrigation based transmigration program, that the overall development has been progressing quite so amazing that the area is now amongst the top developing provinces in Indonesia. The central Lampung for instance, the transmigrants had long been waiting for the construction of an upstream reservoir since 1930’s – as previously designed for immediately constructed as soon as the human settlement had been undertaken. However the reservoir (The Batu Tegi Dam, shown in the photograph) was only completed and fully operated on March 2004, or after 74 years since the transmigrants had been resettled.

The Batu Tegi Dam, in South Lampung, had just

completed on March 2004, despite that the

irrigation based human settlement in the Central

Lampung had been undertaken since 1930s.



319

REFERENCE: Gany, A. Hafied A., 1993. The irrigation Based Transmigration Program in Indonesia:

An Interdisciplinary Study of Population Settlementand Related Strategies. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

---------, and Halli, S.S., 1993. Land Development and Transmigrant Farmers in Southern Sumatra, Indonesia. In International Migration. Quarterly Review Vol. XXXI No. 4, 1993. International Organization for Migration (IOM), PO Box 71, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.

---------, 1980. Pola Pemukiman Petani Berpemilikan Kecil dalamUsaha Pengembangan Irigasi, PRISMA, No. 7, July 1980. Jakarta Indonesia.

Hardjono, Joan, 1988. The Indonesian Transmigration Program in Historical Perspective. International Migration, Vol. 26:4, pp. 427-439.

---------, 1986. Transmigration: Looking to the Future. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 22:2, pp. 28-53.

Heeren, H.J.,1967. “Transmigratie in Indonesie”, Translated into Indonesian by Hans Daeng & Willie Koen, Transmigrasi di Indonesia, Yayasan Obor Indonesia, Jakarta, 1967.


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---------, 1980. Population Movement in Indonesia during the Colonial Period. In J.J. Fox (ed), Indonesia, the Making a Culture. Chamber: Research School of Pacific Studies, A.N.U.

---------, 1982. Migration, Urbanization, and Development in Indonesia. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.


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SUPPLEMENT PAPER

AN OUTLINE REVIEW OF LOWLAND DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

Edited and Translated By: A. Hafied A. Gany


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AN OVERVIEW OF LOWLAND DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA1 (Edited and translated by A. Hafied A. Gany)



I PREFACE

Lowland in Indonesia, including inland and tidal swamps are considered as the highly potential natural resources scattered over the archipelago. The overall lowlands areas are currently estimated at about 33.4 million ha, consisted of tidal lowlands at about 20 million ha and the rest are inland swamps. Most of the potential areas are located on Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Irian (Papua) Islands. With the escalating demands for food as well as land demands for human settlement and industries, the appropriate lowlands development would contribute significantly to the needs.

During the initial stage of lowland development, the traditional experience of the Buginese and Banjar Ethnic Groups had been implemented since 1920’s. This traditional practice was then followed-up by the government efforts through transmigration program as well as program on self-sufficiency on food by virtue of technical lowland development at the early stage of the first Five-Year-Development Program in 1969. In line with the government involvement as well as private sector in this sector of development, the lowland development has been improving through the consistent experience and research activities. Meanwhile, as an archipelago with a total coastal length of about 81,000 km and with a number of estuaries, Indonesia also has a huge potential of as well challenges on the development of coastal and estuaries, including the problems of coastal erosion and sedimentation on estuaries. The problems of coastal degradations, particularly on coastal abrasions require intensive

1 Adapted with some updated figures from the Indonesian booklet on Lowland, published by the Water

Resources Research Institute, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures, Bandung March 2002, Edited by Bambang Supartanto, et.al., Research Station for Lowlands and Coastal areas.


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efforts of the government as well as the immediate concerned communities. For instance, the road damages, degradation of coastal area for tourism and recreation, as well as human settlement would bring about hazardous impacts to the socio-economic living and environment of the communities. The continuous occurrence of sedimentation at the river estuaries, on the other hand would hamper significantly to the life activities as well as navigation, apart from the flooding consequences due to the obstruction of water flows from inland areas (human settlement, as well as agricultural areas) to the sea.

II. LOWLAND DEVELOPMENT

General Overview Lowland Areas

The total land areas in Indonesia is currently recorded at ± 33.4 million ha, consisted of tidal swamps at about ± 20.1 million ha and inland swamps at about ±13.3 million ha, scattered over the islands of: (1) Sumatra at about 10.87 million ha; (2) Kalimantan at about 10.56 million ha; (3) Sulawesi at about 1.45 million ha; and (4) Papua at about 10.52 million ha.

Lowland development for agricultural practices in Indonesia have been initiated by the Bugisnese and Banjarnese farmers since 1920’s through either by the community or by the support of the government.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of lowland potential and development in Indonesia Classification of Swamp Lands

Have not Developed

15,256,438 ha

Being Planned 1,000,000 ha

Already Developed

3,840,362 ha

Have not Developed

11,770,151 ha

Already Developed

1,546,619 ha

LOWLANDS IN INDONESIA 33,413,570 ha

Tidal Lowlands Areas 20,096,800 ha

Inland Swamps Area 13,316,770 ha

Developed by the Government

943,125 ha

Developed by the community

2,897,237 ha

Developed by the Government 447,535 ha

Developed by the Community 1,099,084 ha

Source: DGWRD, MPW, 2002


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Tidal Lowland Swamps Tidal lowlands are the swamp area near the coastal vicinity that is affected by tidal movement of the river level as the result of tidal fluctuation of the sea. According to hydro-topography the tidal lowlands are divided into four categories:

Category of Hydro-topography of tidal swamps

Maximum tide level on rainy season

Maximum tide level on dry season

Low tide rainy season

Low tide dry season



Sumber Ditjen Pengairan 1998

Category A: The lowlands areas that are frequently inundated by high tide due to fluctuations of water level at the river. This type of land is highly suitable for cultivating lowland paddies. Category B: The lowland area that are occasionally inundated by high tide due to fluctuations of water at the river. This type of land is suitable for mono-crop lowland paddy cultivation during the rainy season and second crops during the dry season. Category C: The lowland areas that have never been inundated by the highest tide due to fluctuations of surface water of the river, however, the tides are still have effects on the fluctuations of ground water up to 50 cm below top soil surface. This type of land is suitable for annual paddy crop during the rainy season and second (upland) crops during the dry season. Category D: The lowland areas that have never been inundated by the highest tide due to fluctuations of surface water of the river and having ground water surface deeper than 50 cm from top soil surface. This type of land is suitable for upland crops and plantations. Inland Swamps Inland swamp is the type of lowland that is not affected by tide fluctuations. This type of low land is divided into three hydro-topographical zones namely: (1) The “lebak pematang” zone, which is the shallow dyke with short term inundating period; (2) The “lebak pertengahan” zone, which is relatively deep and with longer time inundation;


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(3) The “lebak dalam” zone, which is deeper than the other categories, yet with longer inundation period or permanently inundated. In general, the inland swamp developments are prioritised on the “lebak pematang” and “lebak tengahan” zones, while the “lebak dalam” zone is kept preserved under its natural condition. Please see the inland swamp category as illustrated in the following figure.

Hydro-topographical category of inland swamp

High flood Water Level

Intermidiate Level

Dry season water level

Low water level

Lebak Pematang

Zone I

Lebak Tengahan

Zone II

Lebak Dalam

Zone III

Stages of Lowland Development



One of the determinant factors for successful lowland development is the appropriateness of land preparation technique together with effective water management in such a way to be able to maintain the optimum plant growth. Given the vulnerability nature of the lowlands, the development must be conducted judiciously and gradually by carefully considering both technical and non-technical aspects such as socio-economic as well as environment. The lowland development phase consists of three stages. Stage I: Initial land reclamation process is conducted by constructing a series of simple hydraulic infrastructures, such as open channel drainages with regulatory structures. At this stage, the water management is merely dependent upon the natural condition. Stage II: Follow-up development as the continuation of Stage I is conducted by means of improvement and upgrading of the existing irrigation infrastructures. The existing water channels usually equipped with regulatory structures and levees for flood control and flood prevention. In this stage, it is important to guarantee the reasonable level of fresh water circulation by separating the conveyance water supply and drainage conveyance. Stage III: Efficient utilization of the available lowland and water resources by means of fully operating and maintaining the developed infrastructures. Under this development stage, the water and land management are already stabilized with independent and sustainable operation.

Previous Lowland Development Implementation 1. Lowland reclamation in Indonesia had actually been initiated during the Dutch Colonial Period. The Government of Indonesia then continue the previous attempt to implement lowland development earlier in 1960s by expanding the Alabio Polder of 6,000 ha in South Kalimantan Province and Mentaren lowland scheme of 2,300 ha in Central Kalimantan. During the same period several other canalisation projects were


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conducted in South Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan Provinces Province such as Anjir Tamban, Serapat, Besarang, Kelampan and Marabahan. Basically these canalisation works were previously intended for water transportation for accessing the isolated areas in Central Kalimantan. The projects were indeed stimulating the local inhabitants to cultivate the available lowlands for agricultural purposes along the both sides of the channels.

Regulatory structure of Alabio Polder South Kalimantan Province

Paddy field at tidal lowland at Puntik Terantang, South Kalimantan

2. Following the previous experience, the government of Indonesia resumed promoting the large-scale low land development since 1969 with special purpose to support the transmigration program and pursuing the program for self-sufficiency on food,
particularly rice as the staple food of the people. See the following table for distribution.
Tertiary hydraulic structure at Rawa Seragi, Lampung Province

Regulatory structure at Teluk Kiawang, Riau Province




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Table: Distributions of Lowlands Development and potential

Sumatra ( ha )

Kalimantan ( ha )

Sulawesi ( ha )

Papua ( ha )

1. Swamp Lands 9,843,335 8,442,028 - 10,522,720

2. Conservation and Preservation

2,329,260 2,275,268 - -



3. Lowlands development potential.

7,501,965 6,136,260 - -

4. Swamp reclamation

3,199,020 848,402 - -

5. Swamp Reclamation by the Government: - Paddy field - Garden - Fishpond

390,278 156,072 4,000

314,655 84,559 1,000

11,950 3,082 19,385

5,165 3,850

-

Source: Dirgen. of WRD, 1998

Problems In general the lowland development implementation is conducted in such a way that it create new environment that is conducive to agricultural development and human settlement. Despite this objective, the agricultural development in lowland areas are relatively less productive as compared to the upland areas, beside the underlying constraints on it accessibility as well as environmental sustainability. The problems of lowland development are usually associated with multi-dimensional aspects such as: water allocation and management, agronomy, socio-economic, and environment. Water Allocation and Management

The implementation of gradual approach on lowland development is mostly associated with land reclamation technology, which is relatively new for Indonesian engineers. Therefore, planning methodology and standards are yet available, and hence much experience and empirical works are needed on the basis of trial and errors.

Implementation of large-scale land reclamation is highly susceptible to environment. Therefore extra efforts and investments are required for planning as well as construction implementation if the unwanted impacts are to be avoided.

The inappropriate water allocation and management would bring about significant reduction of agricultural productivity due to land salinity as well as excessive seawater intrusion.

The effort to separate conveyance and drainage channels usually encountered by a


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number of constraints such as the following: (1) The farmers are not patient enough to wait before water is distributed to meet their demands for agricultural purposes; (2) Water requirements are not normally similar one each individual farmer; (3) The water channels are commonly utilized for water transportation, and hence the regulatory structures such as, flap gates and check structures are regarded by the farmers as the obvious obstacle on water transportation rather than solution; (4) Lacking of operation and maintenance endeavours would result in a number of problems, including sedimentation and poor performance of the overall scheme.

Socio-economic and Agro-economic Aspects Based upon experience in the past low land development implementation, much attention had been given on the technical as well as civil engineering aspects and less attention were addressed on the non technical aspects, including the lack of continuous monitoring and concern land development, gradual process of the maturity of land consolidation. And hence, agricultural productivity had not been performed at the optimum level. The most important parameters that need to be scrutinized in the lowland development are: (1) Soil fertility in the context of improvement of the magnitude of soil acidity and

optimum application of fertilizer; (2) The physical characteristic of lowland swamp in relation with the depth of pit soil

and acid soils as the most dominant factors of the degree of accumulation of soil acidity; and

(3) Continuance of fresh water circulation for maintaining consistence soil leaching. Particularly for the irrigation based transmigration area, due to the lack of previous experience in irrigation based lowland development, the development of lowland paddy cultivation as previously intended for, tends to be gradually transformed into non paddy plantation which requires less intensive undertakings. Being the case, lowland development would then be adjusted to the heavier attention on the land suitability with agricultural production rather than the traditional paddy mono-cropping pattern. And hence, the preliminary planning should consider soundly the physical characteristic of land hydro-topography, as well as soil typology for obtaining the most appropriate cropping pattern. Other determinant non-technical aspect of lowland development is the accessibility of the area, both for transportation of agricultural inputs as well as marketing of agricultural products. In addition, the land development problem become more significant for being continuously suffered from the lack of human resources and institutional capacity for performing the appropriate lowland irrigation based agricultural development.


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Regulatory structures for lowland at Saembawalati Schemes, Central Sulawesi

Drainage channel for lowland development in Papua Province



Environmental Aspects One of the most vulnerable aspects of lowland development to take into consideration is the impact of physical intervention on the sustainable balance of aquatic ecosystem. This is partly due to the nature of the swamp area as the marginal land for agricultural development. Therefore, any abrupt change due to development intervention such as land reclamation, would encounter the natural balance of aquatic habitat, including the natural equilibrium of pests, aquatic weed, and other such bio-environment.

Other crucial environment aspects of lowland development is about the impacts of escalating degradation of upper watershed of the river basin due to uncontrollable human activities such as traditional shifting cultivation, logging and other such activities. This aspect, therefore, needs to be scrutinized through appropriate integrated watershed management. Further to this, the lowland development must be addressed by virtue of environmental-friendly approach, should the agricultural practices in such an area to be environmentally sustainable.

Lowland Development In an effort to control land and water for optimum agricultural lowland development and management, as prescribed by the Government Regulation No. 27/1991 regarding lowland swamps, deliberation is vitally important on lowland conservation, preservation, as well as improvement as the inseparable site of the coin, which is physical development. For maintaining consistency on integrated lowland management, the operation and maintenance approach should be regarded as an integrated component of lowland on regional complement with each other by means of systemic approach. The integrated system must at least accommodate the following aspects: (1) Accessibility of the area for distribution of agricultural inputs as well as transportation of agricultural products; (2) Production and Marketing system for obtaining an optimum production as the sub system of national economic development entity; (2) Provision of raw water and clean water for urban and domestic utilization; and (3) Provision of appropriate treatment of domestic as well as



industrial wastes.

Diversion Water Gate for lowland at

Dadahup, Central Kalimantan Developed agricultural land for lowland paddy at Telang Saleh, South Sumatra



Given adequate consideration on the technical, socio-economic and environment, the lowland management principles need to be implemented on systematical staging which are; the fist stage as an initial implementation; second stage as the growing stage; and the third as the full development stage.

At the first stage, the process of land reclamation is geared toward physical development of basic water resources infrastructures such as canalisation with open channel, with the main function as water channel for drainage and soil leaching by means of gravity flow. The water control at this stage is merely dependent upon the natural condition, with additional role as to provide water control for plant growth at the subsystem level. Similarly, other basic appurtenances and supporting structures are provided at the minimum extent.

At the second stage of development, the construction executions are concentrated on the improvement of the previous infrastructures and resolving the problems and constraints that have yet discovered at the previous works, as well as improvement of functions of the already developed infrastructures by virtue of integrated and multi-sectoral approach. The canalisation networks are adjusted with local water management condition and the related circumstances. The canalisation networks may be operated to meet the function as technical drainage facilities, storage facility, water inlet, or as flood control facilities. With the same rationale, the agricultural cropping pattern is taken care for appropriate support on agricultural potential of the land. To avoid the over diversified land preparation and cropping patterns, planting schedules and other similar matters, the water management are set up on zoning basis (water management zoning).

At the third stage or development stage, the activities are determined based on the premise of the full utilization of the available water and land resources, with the effective support of human resources as well as institutional arrangement. The main premise of the third stage lowland development is on the achievement of full development and effective operation of polder system compounded with efficient services of irrigation operation, agricultural mechanization as well as other lowland agricultural practices in a broader spectrum.


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Taking into consideration of lowland development on stages basis in general, the development of tidal lowlands are also implemented through consecutive implementation stages with the special scrutiny on some major principles as follows: (1) Lowland development should allow adequate time for agricultural land maturity, oxidation of pyrite soil, leaching of hazardous material, land preparation, improvement of soil-plant bearing capacity, determination of cropping patterns, agricultural extensions, training, institutional set up and other such agricultural related implementation; (2) Any development measures must give special deliberation on the way to produce optimum achievement under the limited capital investment; (3) The actual implementation in specific locality should always open for accommodating the new adjustment due to the yet limited knowledge and empirical experiences, as well as technology on lowland development; (4) Implementation of large scale low land development in a short time implementation would bring about a series of negative consequences on environment, that might even beyond our capacity to cope with; (5) Special consideration on the constraints of productive-age agricultural labour sources from within the farming community in the particular lowland settlement, must be made from the early stage of planning toward a long time perspective. The alternative of employment of family labour in combination with outsourcing from future labour market potential must be incorporated in the planning horizon.

From the past experience in lowland development, the overall implementation period may take up to 30 years from planning stage to full development, having three stage as follows:

Stage I: Ten years implementation, from the first year to the 10th for conducting preparatory works, reconnaissance study, survey, investigation, planning, construction, post construction rehabilitation, as well as initial operation and maintenance transition.

Stage II: Ten years implementation, from the 11th to the 20th year for conducting the monitoring and evaluation activities including the follow up improvement as well as the periodical review and adjustment of operation and maintenance implementation.

Stage III: Ten years implementation from the 21st to the 30th years for conducting the full development and management stages by means of systemic approach.

The activities beyond the 30th year are essentially aimed for maintaining the consistency of Operation and maintenance for assuring sustainable lowland development and management in line with the sustainable balance of environment for future generation.

Learning from experience of the failures and successes of lowland development, it is imperative that the future program should be set up in accordance with appropriate policy and strategies without disregarding the non-structural dimensions of the technical based lowland development and management implementation. The general conceptions of sustainable lowland development and management policy and strategy in Indonesia are presented at the following table.


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Table: General conception of lowland development and management policy and strategy in Indonesia.



INITIAL PHASE FOLLOW-UP PHASE GOVERNMENT POLICY

Rice self sufficiency Transmigration Regional development Income distribution Regional Security,

coastal zones

Integrated approach Crop Diversification Participatory approach Private sector Export commodity Income growth Environmental sustainability Decentralization

STRATEGY

New area development Low cost appropriate technology

Small farming enterprise based on rainfed and upland crops

Enhancement of farmers’ prosperity

Rehabilitation and upgrading of irrigation infrastructures

Stable operation and maintenance Institutional Strengthening Agricultural intensification Improvement of agricultural extension and other social services

Environmental sustainability WATER RESOURCES INFRASTRUC-TURES

Open drainage system/ natural and flood control

Tidal irrigation as far as possible

Provision of water tanks for rain water

Controlled drainage system Improvement of water and land management system

Enhancement of flood control Water conservation approach Improvement of facilities for provision of drinking water

OTHER INFRASTRUC-TURES

Basic health facilities and other public facilities

Accessibility/ communication by means of water transportation

Basic agricultural support facilities

Enhancement of health services and other public services

Provision of access roads and rural farm roads

Provision of agricultural processing centre and marketing facilities

Source: Directorate General of WRD, 1998 The roles of Research and Development Lowlands Area Given the fact that lowland development in Indonesia is still at the least developed stage, therefore, it requires a continuous and consistent research and development (R&D)


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activities for uncovering the underlying phenomenon associated with area development. The role of R&D is highly instrumental for scrutinizing the problems and constraints associated with lowlands, and hence the lowland resources potential would be utilized at the optimum possible extent without causing hazardous consequences on environmental sustainability. To meet this objective, there are three immediate R&D objects that should be prioritised: (1) Swamp and/or reclamation development; (2) Swamp protection and
preservation; and (3) Technical guidance and surveillance for swam area development. Tertiary canal excavation in Tarantang Resin-fibre automatic flap-gate in Puntik


In accordance with the above R&D roles and targets, the following principles have to be considered in conducting R&D activities:

1) R&D activities that are supportive to lowland development should be followed up with the immediate objectives as to produce series of outputs including among others: (i) R&D products such as technical standards, manuals, appropriate technology and the likes; (ii) Scientific backbone support products such as technical support, technical certification, technical arbitration and so on; (iii) Dissemination and socialization of the R&D products through scientific colloquiums, technical discussions, training, extensions, technical and scientific publications, and information system, as well as professional networking.

2) R&D activities are instrumental to supporting swamp protections have to be followed up series of technical measures such as: (i) Soil acidity control, flood protection, drought control, saline water intrusion, and overall water control and management system; (ii) Mitigation of swamp land water pollution in the context of maintaining appropriate balance of living ecosystem; (iii) Appropriate maintenance of soil fertility; (iv) Mitigation of sustainable lowland ecosystem; and (v) Mitigation and control of social and economic as well as environment impacts of lowland development and management.

South Kalimantan Province Terantang, South Kalimantan Province

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Inland swamp area Water diversion structure at Rawa
Future Perspective The future prospects of lowland for agricultural development, particularly for food crops, horticulture, plantation and fishponds are highly potential. There are varieties of agricultural commodities that suitable to be developed in the lowlands areas, namely coconut, palm oil, cocoa-sheed, rambutan, oranges and pineapple. Private sector participation in the lowland development for agricultural plantation could be undertaken through some kind of Community Owned Core Plantation in combination with Transmigration Program (Perkebunan Inti Rakyat – PIR Trans), or through Private owned large-estate (Perkebunan Besar Swasta Nasional – PBSN). The “PIR-Trans” pattern for hybrid coconut has been implemented in Guntung, Riau Province for 70,000 ha while palm oil plantation has also been developed in Gasingda
Muning, South Sumatra Province

Serda, South Sumatra Province with a total area of about 20,000 ha.

Hybrid coconut plantation with “PIR” Palm oil plantation with “PIR” Trans-



Meanwhile, the tidal lowlands that are affected by brackish water are suitable for aquaculture such as prawn fishpond, milkfish and other brackish water fisheries. The brackish water fishponds are now developed in the northern coast of Java Island, Aceh Province, North Sumatra, South Sulawesi and Souteast Sulawesi Provinces. The “TIR”

Transmigration scheme in Guntung, Riau Province

migration scheme in Gasing Puntihan, South Sumatra Province


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development pattern has good prospects for private sector as the core business enterprise in conjunction with brackish water fisheries by involving transmigrants settlers as their associates.

For obtaining the maximum advantages, the future lowland developments are encountered by a number challenges and constraints including among others: (1) Lowland development involves cross-sectoral activities, therefore it requires intensive inter-agency coordination among the relevant institutions, to be properly maintained and enhanced from time to time; (2) Lowland development takes relatively a long time process, which demands for long-term commitment on financial investment; (3) Given the facts that lowland development possesses good prospect for agricultural development in a large spectrum, therefore, development planning of lowlands would be increasingly become more complex in line with the demands for sustainable and environmentally sound development; (4) The follow up stages of lowland development (Stage II and Stage III) requires adequate economic and social infrastructure supports in line with the underlying demands for sosio-economic development; (5) The complexities associated with the prospective lowland development would require more than just capable human resources but also demanding for highly qualified personnel who are knowledgeable, dedicated and well experienced having supported by appropriate management effective training program as well as reliable R&D support; (6) In order to gain a maximum advantage of the developed lowland infrastructures, effective operation and maintenance of the water resources facilities must be undertaken and improved by the water users’ association from time to time.

DEGRADATION OF COASTS AND RIVER ESTUARIES Problems of coast and river estuary degradation in Indonesia are having different magnitudes from province to province scattered over the coastal-based provinces, and yet, the underlying measures to deal with the problems have not met the favourable results. Due to the eminent constraints on provision of budgetary supports, the erosion control program due to abrasion that have been commenced so far, were mostly based upon scale of priorities in line with the factual conditions of the respective locality.

The white sandy-beach has a good prospect for encouraging tourism industry




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To give actual configuration of the magnitude of river estuary and coastal degradation, the Research Institute of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures has conducted research and thereby making inventory in the entire coastal-based provinces in Indonesia. In addition to the inventory, the scales of priority for development have also been determined. Determination of the scale of priority has been based on the principle of giving weight against 60 river estuaries and coastal areas that are currently being suffered from physical problems. Subsequently, the field research discovered that there are actually 80 coastal and river estuary sites in 31 locations that have currently been suffered from the same problems.

Coastal Problems In line with the developing economy of the country, the potential coastal areas in Indonesia have been developed remarkably that it has been contribution not only to the stabilization of food security and off shore fisheries, but also to the multifunctionalities’ transformation into both public utilities (human settlement and tourism industries) and economic function such as (provision of economic infrastructures, trade and industries). On the other hand, this remarkable achievement has generated new problems on the side effect of the development, among others are: coastal abrasion that cause significant decrease in coastal areas; sedimentation and aggradations of river estuaries; environmental degradation; escalation of slumps settlement at the coastal areas; sea water intrusion; over exploitation of coastal resources due to the absence of regulatory instruments for coastal and estuary development, management protection and
conservation at the national level.
Coastal erosion as the cause of breaching off the road embankment

at the mouth of “Sungai Duri” River in West Sumatra Province



Characteristic of Coastal Problems In general, problems of coastal and river estuaries are characterized into several categories. These are erosion, abrasion, sedimentation, seawater intrusion, seawater contamination, degradation of coastal vegetation and degradation of coral reef.

Erosion: Coastal erosion is the process of declining of coastline from the original location among others due to defend itself from appropriate balance between the


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sediment deposit and transport influenced by the hydro-dynamic force of sea wave.

Abrasion: Abrasion is the process of erosion followed by the sliding or deteriorating of massive soil or rock materials of the coastal bank. Abrasion occurs due to the absence of internal strength of mat material to defend itself against weathered decay, at the same time, the strength superseding the hydrodynamic force of sea wave.

Sedimentation: Sedimentation is the process of occurrence of sediment deposit at the mouth of the river, which brings about consequences such as interruption of water flow, plugging of river mouth, and formation of sediment deposits, obstructing the functions of hydraulic infrastructures.

Estuary sedimentation entails problem of riverbed aggradations and narrowing the river



transportation channels

Salt intrusion: Salt intrusion is the process of seawater flow toward inland direction through river or water channel. The salt intrusion usually occurs during the dry season when the river or channel discharge becomes low enough to resist the seawater penetration toward inland direction. In case of underground salt intrusion, the seawater usually penetrates toward inland direction at the time the groundwater becomes low enough due to over extraction beyond the natural water depletion capacity.

Contamination of seawater: Contamination of seawater occurs when the coastal seawater is no longer to make self-purification due to excessive amount of contaminant discharge, which may originate from domestic wastes, industrial wastes, fishpond wastes, and agricultural wastes such as pesticides, fertilizer and so on. The contaminant from the sea may originate from offshore oil mining and refinery, residual oil and wastes from sea transportation. Degradation of Coastal Vegetation: Coastal vegetation normally consists of mangrove and “api-api”, which grow along the muddy estuaries. The coastal vegetation has a very important role as the breeding ground of aquatic biota, and hatching ground for brackish water fishes, as well as other marine life’s ecosystem. Increasing pollution, urban development, mining activities, deforestation and destructive fishing are endangering the marine life. Beside, the coastal vegetation also functions as vegetative protection from coastal abrasion due to wave energy and/or tsunami. Degradation of Coral Reef: The natural condition of coral reef contains a series of life complexities, which provide different ways for fishes to feed, live and reproduce. As


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many as the species numbers are the different ways of hunting, feeding, hiding, reproducing and living. Of all the creatures dwelling on coral reefs, none are more active or obvious than the fishes. Degradation of coral reef due to human intervention, sand and coral mining for construction material would bring about obvious consequences that the coral reef ecology would no longer perform its optimum function as to accommodate marine fishes for providing the best opportunity to maintain the sustainability of marine ecology.

The main Causes of Coastal Erosion: Coastal erosion usually resulted from the increasing unbalance of drift of sediment transport either due to human intervention or by natural induced phenomenon. The natural cause of erosion usually due to a number of circumstances such as: (i) natural characteristic of young coastal formation with least source of sediment materials relative to the transported sediment; (ii) land subsidence; (iii) offshore sediment transport; (iv) natural changes of wave characteristic; and (v) global rise of sea level.

Beside the natural occurrence, the coastal erosion frequently induces by human intervention such as sand or coral mining, inappropriate placement of cribs or other hydraulic structures including among others: (i) misplacement of hydraulic structures so to interrupt the natural wave movement; (ii) sand mining at the coast or river estuary; (iii) repositioning of the river mouth; (iv) contamination of seawater (degradation of coral reef ecosystem, and hence to diminish the vegetative protection of coastal vegetations); (v) the side impacts of long storage or upstream reservoirs (reducing the sediment transport); and (vi) the impacts of natural disasters such as wavy storm and/or tsunami.

Future Perspective Given the fact that the costal and estuary development and management in Indonesia are still suffered from inadequate well-trained personnel’s on the one hand and the lack of reliable equipment and facilities, the complexities would remain the issues in the near future. This is particularly true for the staff of the local autonomous governments in the many coastal and estuary-based provinces in Indonesia. Being the case, the coastal and estuary development and management have yet carried out consistently. On the other hand, the predominant budgetary constraints are still become one of the most significant factors in the determination of development priorities. And hence, only very limited coastal and estuary areas are receiving development priorities. With all the underlying problems and constraints, there are five major targets to recommend for coastal and estuary development and management implementations in the near future. These are: (1) Enhancement of R&D activities for allowing strategic recommendations in coastal and estuary technology, while conducting empowerment of human resources in the field of coastal and estuary technologies through consistent training; (2) Implementation of inter-sectoral and inter-regency coordination amongst the relevant agencies and institutions; (3) Encouragement of private sector participation while pursuing integrated coastal and estuary management without jeopardizing sustainable environmental ecosystem; (4) Provision of adequate research and laboratory equipments for conducting consistent scrutiny on Coastal and estuary problems; (5) Encouragement of consistent, integrated, and reliable data collecting and database management on coastal and estuaries.

An Outline Review of Lawland Development in Indonesia


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338

87. Senggig i88. Dili89. Sinam90. Tanjung Paga

91. Sei Duri92. Kampung Bugis93. Batu Licin94. Duan Panua

95. Manado96. Kalase97. Ambon98. Ternate99. Tidore

SULAWESI SEA

BANDA SEA

EAST NUSATENGGARA

IRIAN JAYA

MALUKUSOUTH EAST SULAWESI

SOUTH SULAWESI

NORTH SULAWESI

CENTRALSULAWESI

HALMAHERA

0 130 260

SCALE

390 KM

ARAFURU SEA

REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

88

94

95

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400

10 LU0

5 LU0

0 LU0

5 LS0

10 LS0

96

98

99

97

ap

and estuaries with certain problems

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID

History in Brief


1. Ule Lheu2. Krueng Aceh3. Sigli4. Meulaboh

5. Tapak Tuan6. Barus7. Sibolga8. Pariaman

9. Ketaping10. Padang11. Lais Ketahun12. Panjang

13. Baai Island14. Labuhan Marin53. Tuban54. Loh Gung

EAST CHINA SEA

JAVA SEA

DI. ACEH

RIAU

JAMBI

LAMPUNG

DKI JAKARTA

BENGKULU

NORTHSUMATRA

SOUTHSUMATRA

WESTJAVA

WEST NUSATENGGARA

EASTKALIMANTAN

SOUTHKALIMANTAN

CENTRALKALIMANTAN

WESTKALIMANTAN

CENTRAL JAVA

DI YOGYAKARTA EAST JAVA BALI

WESTSUMATRA

INDONESIAN OCEAN

13

45

67

89

10

11

1213

14

89

90

91

92

93

5354

55 8687

4729

40

41 45

52

950 1000 1050 1100 1150

15

16 28

2

Legend :River Mouth

no 15 - 40 on West Java Mapno 55 - 86 on Bali Map

no 41 - 52 on Central Java MCoastalRiver Mouth

Figure 2. location map of coastal


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CONCLUDING REMARKS Under the present implementation of regional autonomy, the dilemmatic issues of sustainable lowland and coastal development and management are not only become the national concern of development sectors but also become the central issue of local autonomous government. It is therefore imperative that the development and management should be based on integrated approach with systematic development stages, and most important is to maintain appropriate balance of lowland environmental ecosystem. In an attempt to pursue integrated lowland and coastal management, the development sectors, together with local autonomous government should consider the integrated principles as follows: (1) Application of inter-sectoral and inter-regencial coordination; (2) Giving the highest important to the national development objective; (3) Giving special attention on the empowerment human resources; (4) Consistent implementation of reliable and effective research and development related activities; (5) Setting up an optimum implementation planning through systemic approach.

BIBLIOGRAPHY CERC, 1984, Shore Protection Manual, Department of the Army, US Army Corps of

Engineers, Washington D.C. Directorate General of Water Resources Development, 1998, Framework for Future

Swamp Development in Indonesia, Jakarta. Directorate of Rural Water Resources Development, 2000, Framework for Future

Lowland Management, Jakarta. Directorate of Research on Water Resources Development, 1983. Study on the

Preliminary Planning for Coastal Protection and Coastal-Based Recreation infrastructures of Nusa Dua Beach, Bali., No.PS 836-HAP, Bandung.

Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, 1998. Coastal Area Development in Indonesia, Jakarta.

Komar P.D, 1984, CRC Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion, Coastal Research Centre, Florida.

Research and Development Institute of Water Resources, 1995. Research Studies on Development Phases of Tidal Lowland, Bandung.

-------, 1992, Inventory of Coastal and Estuary degradation in Indonesia, No. 02.00.104-HAB, Bandung.

-------, 1999, Problems and Perspective of Coastal and River Estuaries in Indonesia, Bandung


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Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

JATILUHUR MULTI PURPOSE RESERVOIR

By: Syaiful Mahdi


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341

JATILUHUR MULTI PURPOSE RESERVOIR

By: Syaiful Mahdi

The potential of Citarum River has been identified since early 20th Century. Three most possible locations for construction of three large dams were identified by Ir. W.J. van Blommenstein in 1948. These were Jatiluhur Reservoir, Cirata Reservoir, and Saguling Reservoir. Subsequently, Ir. Blommenstein had a very interesting obsession to put forward a great idea to divert water from Citarum River to Central and East Java Provinces.

Jatiluhur Reservoir was the first multi purpose reservoir constructed in Citarum River. The construction started in 1958 and completed in 1967. The other two reservoirs which, were constructed after the Jatiluhur were single purpose reservoirs, i.e. mainly for hydro power generator. For that reason, the two reservoirs were not discussed in this section. The two reservoirs are: i) Cirata, located just upstream of Jatiluhur Reservoir, having a total capacity of 800 MCM and hydropower generating of about 1,000 MW; and ii) Saguling, with a total capacity 980 MCM and hydropower generating capacity at about 700 MW. Figure 1. Depicting locations of the three reservoirs.

LEGEND :

Authority’s Se rvice Area

BEKASI

BOGOR

KARAWANG

PURWAKARTASUBANG

TO CIREBON

SUMEDANGCIMAHI

BANDUNG

JAVA SEAN

CIANJUR

SUKABUMI

IR. H. JUANDARESERVOIR

CURUGWEIR

CIRATARESERVOIR

CIPANCUHRESERVOIR

SAGULINGRESERVOIR

EAST TARUM CANAL

WEST TARUM CAN

AL

NORT TARUM CANAL

Citarum

Cilemahabang

Beka

si Ri

ver

Cika

rang

Cipaning

Cinoa

Cikeas

Cibeet

Cikundul

Ciso

kan

Cisomang

Cias

em

Citarik

Citar

um

Cipunagara

Cikand

u n

g

Cipunagara

Ciherang

Cihe raa

ng H

ru s

Cile

ungs

iCa

kung

Sunt

er

Cili

wung

CBS. Canal

Cihe

rang

Cilamaya

Cilam

aya

Ciga

dnug

Cias

em

Cipancuh

Cila

lana

ng

Cile

u leuyC

ijeng

kol

Cipun

agar

a

Cibinu

a ngWALAHAR

WEIR

JAKA RTAMUNICIPALITY



Main Canal

Weir and River

Highway

Mountain Figure 1. Location of the three reservoirs in the Citarum River


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Construction of Jatiluhur Reservoir gave special experience for Indonesia in terms of large project implementation. This partly because the project was planned, designed, and constructed during the most difficult economic condition of the country. In 1950’s which was termed as the “nation’s consolidation period” being under the worse and unstable economic as well as political condition. This condition was further aggravated by the fact all of the Dutch officials have to leave Indonesia in 1957, at the time Indonesian experts were still far for adequate to conduct large project such as Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir.

Under such a devastating condition, the government decided to implement some large projects among others Jatiluhur Multi Purpose Reservoir. See also Section 6.3.1. for more information about implementation of large projects within the period between 1950 and 1967.

The main principle attached to the development of Jatiluhur Project was that the water from Jatiluhur River for various purposes has to be released through three main canals i.e.: i) West Tarum Main Canal which provides irrigation water for the western part of the

project command area at a total of 80,000 hectares, as well as supply of raw water and flushing for Jakarta municipality;

ii) East Tarum Main Canal which provides irrigation water for the eastern part of the project command area at a total of 80,000 hectares; and

iii) North Tarum Main Canal for irrigating the northern part of the project area known as Walahar Irrigation area with a total of 80,000 ha command area.

The above Figure -1., shows the general map and alignment of the three main canals.

Water from Jatiluhur Reser-voir diverted to West Tarum Main Canal and East Tarum Main Canal through Curug Weir, while water allocation for North Tarum Main Canal diverted by Walahar Barrage. See figure at the end of this section depicting the bird΄s eye view of the Walahar Barrage.

To reach the elevation of West Tarum and East Tarum Main Canal commanded areas,

Scenic view of Jatiluhur



pumping stations are required. There are two pumping stations i.e. electric pumps, to pump water to the East Tarum Canal, and hydraulic pumps to pump water to the West Tarum Canal.

a) Curug Hydraulic Pumps The Curug hydraulic pump system is popularly known as Sediyatmo Pump. The pump was designed by Prof. Dr. Ir. Sediyatmo in 1956. The Curug Hydraulic Pump System


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consists of 17 pumps (derived from the date of Indonesian independence) with a capacity of five m3/second each. Total discharge to be pumped to West Tarum Canal is 85 m3/second including the water demand for raw water and flushing of the western part of

Semarang Hydraulic in 1935, where he worked. In the subsequent process, in 1936 Ir. Blommenstein assigned to a German company to find out the possibility of manufacturing of the pumps. But the use of such a pump was refused by the government.

Furthering this initiative, Prof. Sediyatmo made a design for such hydraulic pump and managed to make it happened in the curug weir stated above. For further information, see the cross section of Sediyatmo pump as shown in the following Figure 2.

MSRI and INACID Cover List of ContentHistory in Brief

Figure 2. Cross section of Sediyatmo Pump

Jakarta Metropolitan. Manufacturing of those pumps was initially offered to a Japanese company, however, due to some reasons, the offer was finally taken by a German Manufacturing Company.

Before Prof. Sediyatmo made the design of Curug Hydraulic Pumps in 1956, Ir. W.J. van Blommenstein, in the year 1935, had previously proposed hydraulic pump to be proposed for Gambarsari irrigation area in Central Java (see item iii) under Section 7.5.2.). Prior to his proposal, Ir. Blommenstein conducted a trial model in The bird’s air view of Curug Hydraulic Pumps

Irrigation History of Indonesia 343


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b) Integrated River Basin and Water Resources Management Eighty-five cubic meters per second of water required to supply to West Tarum Canal for the irrigation of the commanded areas of the canal, and raw water supplies as well as flushing of Jakarta. Part of the 85 m3/second is pumped from Curug Hydraulic Pumps, and other part is diverted from four rivers flowing in the command area of the canal: Cibeet River; Cikarang River; Bekasi River; and Ciliwung River. In the eastern part of the area, the integration of basin and water resources management conducted by incorporating Cilamaya River, Ciasem River, and Cipunegara River. This was apparently one of the earlier integrated basin water resources management in Indonesia. See the Figure 3 below. In addition, under this system all of irrigation the single command area of the three main canals, both the existing and the new developed schemes are also integrated in one management system.

Legend:

Jatiluhur Reservoir

West Tarum Canal

Bek

asi

Cib

eet R

.

Cili

wun

g

Cik

aran

g

Curug Hydraulic Pump

Walahar Barrage

North Tarum Canal

Cita

rum

R.

East Tarum Canal

Weir

Commanded area



Siphon

Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of Integrated Basin and Water Resources Management


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Walahar Barrage




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346

Cover List of ContentMSRI and INACID Bengawan Solo River Basin Development

History in Brief



SUPPLEMENT PAPER

BENGAWAN SOLO RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT

By: Syaiful Mahdi


History in Brief

347

BENGAWAN SOLO RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT

By: Syaiful Mahdi

Bengawan Solo River is the largest river on Java Island. The catchment’s area of the river is about 16,100 km2 and extended at 600 km of river channel length. The basin of the river lays in two provinces i.e. Central Java and East Java.

Geographically, The basin consists of three sub basins: i) upstream sub-basin with a total catchment area of 6,072 km2; ii) downstream sub-basin with the catchment area of 6,273
km2; and iii) Kali Madiun sub-basin with a total catchment area of 3,775 km2. The schematic figure of Bengawan Solo River Basin is presented in Figure 1 below.
Flood Way

BabatBojonegoro

Surabaya

Cepu

Ngawi

Mt. Pandan

Mt. WilisMt. Lawu

Sukoharjo

Colo Weir

WonogiriDam

Surakarta(Solo)

Mt. Merbabu Bengawan

(River) Solo

Mt. MerapiMadiun

Riv

er M

adiu

n

Blora

GersikBengawan (River) Solo

Mountain

Boundary of East Javaand Central Java

Legend :

Coastal Line

Catchment’s BoundaryRiver

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Bengawan Solo River Basin The development of Bengawan Solo River Basin has been initiated by the Dutch



347

Colonial Government since 1893. This development was amongst the large category of water resources development in Indonesia due to its very large scope of works. This development project was named after Solo Vallei Werken (Solo Valley Project). However this project was terminated due to its too costly development cost. In 1905, Dutch Colonial Government established Department of Agriculture and assigned to evaluate this project. This department reported that the soil of Solo valley did not support for


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sugarcane plantation. In turned, this project was cancelled, despite the large amount of budget had been spent. The Scope of works of Bengawan Solo Vallei Werken include: i) irrigation development in the whole area of Bojonegoro with a command area of 150,000 hectares; ii) flood control by short cutting of main river channel; and iii) Development of navigation canal. As compensation for cancellation of the above project, the government developed some small projects as listed in the following Table 1.

Table 1. List of projects implemented in lieu of the Solo Vallei Werken

No. Name of Project Area (ha) Water Source Off take

Structure Year of

Construction1. Kali Kening

Irrigation 2,700 Kening River Weir 1898 1)

2. Rengel Spring 5,250 Spring Canal 1903 - 1912



348

Irrigation 3. Pirang-Dander

Spring Irrigation 3,000 Spring and

Dander River Weir 1924 - 1928

4. Prijetan Reservoir2) 5,000 Prijaten River Dam and Weir

1910 -1918

5. Pacal Reservoir 3) 15,000 Pacal River Dam and Weir

1927 - 1933

6. Jero River Downstream Improvement 4)

Source: Ir. Soebandi Wirosoemarto; Progress of Water Resources Development Project in Indonesia, 1998

Notes: 1) = Firstly constructed in 1882, up-graded to semi-technical irrigation system 2) = Effective Volume 9.5 MCM 3) = Effective Volume 57 MCM 4) = Including construction of small field reservoirs for fishery and irrigation

In 1974 the Master Plan of Bengawan Solo River Basin Development proposed to develop 198,700 hectares of potential irrigated land, and development of some multi-purpose reservoirs, among others Bendo and Badegan Reservoirs. Presently (2004) the detailed design of Bendo Reservoir is being prepared while Badegan is still at the stage of feasibility study. Wonogiri Reservoir, which was firstly identified by Ir. Sarsito Mangunkusumo in 1941, was implemented in 1977 and completed in 1980. The effective storage capacity of this reservoir is about 730 MCM, providing for irrigation water for the total command area of about 23,200 ha through Colo Weir, and power generating of at a capacity of 15.5 MW. A problem faced after construction was associated with sedimentation that has been more than previously estimated. Under such a high sedimentation condition, the life time of the reservoir could only accommodate effective reservoir operation at about 27 years. For this reasons, six additional field reservoirs were constructed at the upstream site of the dam for the purpose of sediment control. In addition, a large number of check dams were

listed in the following Table 2.

Table 2. Sediment Control Reservoirs Upstream of Wonogiri Dam

No. Name of Reservoir Capacity (x 10-3 m3)

Wonogiri


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also constructed by Ministry of Public Works (presently known as Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures), and by the Ministry of Forestry. The Ministry of Forestry constructed more than 50 check dams and also conducted soil conservation in the whole catchment area of the Reservoir. The six sediment control dams are

Colo Weir



349

1. Parangjoho 105.0 2. Song Putri 65.0 3. Pidekso 67.5 4. Nawangan 28.6 5. Nekuk 10.0 6. Puter 6,200.0

Within the period of PELITA-II (1974–1979) a project named Madiun Irrigation Project was established (Madiun River is a tributary of Bengawan Solo River ). The progress op the project till 2004 as follows: + Rehabilitation of 140,000 hectares of paddy field; + Drainage improvement of 9,100 hectares; + Development of irrigation infrastructures such as inspection roads, management

building, and telecommunication facilities; + Pilot Project on Participatory Irrigation Management in the having a total area of

about 3,500 hectares; + Construction of Pondoh Reservoir, 28 MCM, and Sangiran Reservoir, with the

capacity of 9.00 MCM. Both Pondoh and Sangiran Reservoirs provide a total irrigation command area of 5,000 hectares of paddy field.

At present (2004) there are 44 reservoirs of various capacity (from 500,000 m3 to 730 MCM), in the basin of Bengawan Solo; some 17 reservoirs in the upstream sub-basin, 18 Reservoirs in the downstream sub-basin, eight reservoirs in the Madiun sub-basin, and one reservoir in ‘Grindulu’ River. The 44 reservoirs are listed in Table 3. by sub-basin. A Master Plan of Bengawan Solo River Basin Development so called ‘Comprehensive Development and Management Plans (CDMP) had been prepared since 2001 for the time horizon of 2025. The recommended programs of CDMP are:


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1) Development of 36 reservoirs and two barrages; First stage development (2001–2010) are 11 reservoirs and the two barrages, second stage (2011-2020) are 15 reservoirs, and third stage (2020-2025) 20 reservoirs to be developed;

2) Rehabilitation of 113,000 hectares the total 419,400 hectares of existing paddy fields. Those 113,000 hectares are located in upstream sub-basin (43,000 ha.), in downstream sub-basin (40,000 ha.), and Madiun sub-basin (30,000 ha). Schedule of development; upstream sub-basin 2011-2019, downstream sub-basin 2002-2010, and Madiun sub-basin 2016-2024.

3) Flood Control: - Downstream improvement between 2002 and 2009 - Upstream improvement between 2017 and 2025 - Madiun sub-basin between 2006 and 2020 - Girindulu River Improvement between 2003 and 2009 - Lawang River Improvement between 2007 and 2011 - Bengawan Jero Swamp Development between 2001 and 2004 - Rehabilitation of Flood Control Structures between 2001 and 2004

4) Other recommendations are: ground water development; domestic and industrial water supplies; water quality control; conservation; establishment and strengthening of institution; and others related activities.


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Table 3. Existing reservois in Bengawan Solo River Basin 2004

Basin/Reservoir Catchment (km2)

Volume (106 m3 )

Height of Dam (m’)

Length of Dam (m’)

Year of Construction

I. Solo Upstream



351

1. Plumbon 7.2 0.5 28.8 413 1928 2. Nawangan 2.7 0.7 25.0 250 1976 3. Song Putri 2.7 0.7 32.0 266 1984 4. Parangjoho 21.8 1.7 25.0 316 1980 5. Ngancar 12.4 2.1 25.4 181 1946 6. Nekuk 18.0 0.6 14.5 85 1987 7. Wonogiori 1) 1,350.0 730.0 40.0 830 1983 8. Delingan 12.0 2.1 27.0 886 1923 9. Jombor 19.0 3.4 5.0 2,236 1943 10. Krisak 3.5 2.7 20.0 350 1943 11. Lalung 27.0 4.2 12.0 3,300 1998 12. Mulur 7.9 2.7 7.3 2,035 1940 13. Cengklik 10.7 9.8 14.5 1,693 1931 14. Ketro 5.0 2.7 15.0 1,200 1984 15. Gebyar 15.0 0.7 15.0 N.A. 1942 16. Kembangan 7.3 0.6 10.0 1,590 1998 17. Botok 0.2 0.5 11.0 744 1998 II. Kali Madiun 1. Telaga Ngebel 21.0 19.2 42.0 N.A 1930 2. Telaga Sarangan 6.9 3.5 10.0 800 N.A. 3. Saradan 4.9 2.3 8.5 843 7998 4. Dawuhan 28.1 2.9 14.0 860 1962 5. Notopuro 6.5 1.6 8.0 2,114 1998 6. Pondok 32.9 28.0 32.0 298 1995 7. Sangiran 20.6 8.9 26.0 125 2000 8. Dung Bendo 4.7 1.7 17.5 325 1948 III. Solo Downstream 1. Pacal 84.0 57.0 41.0 90 1933 2. Prijetan 23.0 9.5 23.0 360 1916 3. Gondang 68.1 23.0 27.0 903 1986 4. German 4.6 1.3 3.0 1,250 2) 5. Bowo N.A. 1.7 9.0 600 2) 6. Caling N.A. 1.2 7.0 125 2) 7. Joto 6.0 0.6 4.5 3,450 2) 8 Sentir 1.2 1.2 6.5 3,650 2) 9. Kolen N.A. 0.6 4.5 800 2) 10. Makam Santri 3.0 6.5 5.5 500 2) 11. Paprit 3.0 2.8 5.0 500 2) 12. Gempol 6.0 2.6 3.0 300 2) 13. Blg Ganggan 0.5 0.6 3.5 3,890 2) 14. Plalangan N.A. 0.6 5.0 N.A. 2) 15. Legoh N.A. 0.6 5.0 N.A. 2) 16. Jojong N.A. 1.0 5.5 400 2) 17. Mentras N.A. 1.9 6.0 500 2) 18. Joho N.A. 1.8 5.0 700 1998 IV. Kali Grindulu 1. Aritan N.A. 0.6 N.A. N.A. 2)

Source: CDMP Study 1) After Primary Irrigation Data of Central Java, 2000, Central Java Provincial Water Resources Service,

2001 2) Data not available, but constructed after independence 1945.


History in Brief

352

Table 4. Reservoir and barrage proposed in the study of CDMP

Irrigated Land (ha) No.

Basin and Name of Catchment

(km2)

Effective Volume Existing Extension Total



352

Reservoir (x10-6 m3)I. Solo Upstream 11 Dams 214,25 7,205 9,289 16,494 1. Pidekso 117.0 83.10 2,233 0 2,233 2. Bakon 7.1 2.00 357 179 536 3. Mulur 7.9 9.00 0 0 0 4. Gondang 12.0 4.55 4,608 0 4,608 5. Ngrejeng 13.3 7.90 7 702 706 6. Mangir 11.4 8.00 0 695 695 7. Pungkruk 22.4 13.60 0 1,164 1,164 8. Dukuh 26.1 32.70 0 1,736 1,736 9. Alastuwo 25.6 19.70 0 2,106 2,106 10. Genen 12.5 23.40 0 1,512 1.,512 11. Sonde 17.0 10.30 0 1,195 1,195 II. Kali Madiun 6 Dams 213.60 24,531 2,331 26,862 1. Badegan 230.0 109.70 10,279 0 10,279 2. Bendo 121.0 42.70 11,402 0 11,402 3. Slahung 22.0 3.55 1,212 0 1,212 4. Telaga Ngebel 21.0 10.00 0 898 898 5. Tugu 3.7 3.55 970 0 970 6. Pakulan 22.5 44.10 668 1,433 2,101 III. Solo Downstream 17 Dams 455.02 18,693 20,452 39,145 1. Kendang 91.0 6.20 931 1,226 2,157 2. Jipang (Alt) 10,035.0 50.00 4,750 0 4,750 3. Jaga 42.0 34.50 532 1,771 2,303 4. Jegong 24.0 18.15 798 998 1,796 5. Pengkok 45.3 48.50 0 2,248 2,248 6. Ngawenang 9.1 4.60 169 958 1,127 7. Blungun 19.2 7.05 485 1,440 1,925 8. Tawun 36.0 27.00 0 1,299 1,299 9. Ngampon 17.0 14.10 1,469 158 1,627 10. Gonsen 59.0 41.70 0 2,077 2,077 11. Belah 40.0 30.15 0 1,983 1,983 12. Nglambangan 50.0 39.30 0 2,628 2,628 13. Belung 19.2 17.77 0 870 870 14. Mundu 15.1 14.55 0 1,399 1,399 15. Kerjo 45.0 22.25 2,914 495 3,409 16. Kedung Tete 19.2 44.5 3,731 0 3,731 17. Cawat 62.0 34.70 2,914 902 3,813 North Coast 1 Dam 12.50 0 0 0 1. Brenyang 7.6 12.50 0 0 0 IV. Kali Grindulu 1 Dam 41.25 0 3,502 3,502 1. Kedung Bendo 331.0 41.25 0 3,502 3,502

Source: Study of CDMP, 2001

Indonesian National Committee of International Commission on

Irrigation and Drainage - INACIDJalan Pattimura No.20 - Perc. No.7; Third Floor, Main Building

Kebayoran Baru - JAKARTA SELATAN; INDONESIA, 12110 62-21-7230317; 7230318; Fax: 62-21-7261956; 7200930

e-mail: [email protected]

ABOUT THE BOOK

The Irrigation History of Indonesia: This book illustrates the

chronological feature of irrigation history of Indonesia

emphasizing technological components. The volume covers

technological aspects, agricultural practices, institutional

aspects, legal and regulatory, socio-cultural within the general

outline among others: Introductory Background – Natural

characteristic, topography, rivers, climate and rainfalls; Pre-

historical evidence of irrigation practices; Development of

irrigated agriculture – upland areas, rain-fed, lowland paddies,

simple irrigation, semi technical irrigation, technical, upland

paddies, lowland (swamp lands) paddies; Irrigated agricultural

practices during the Hindu Era – Hindu Kingdoms; Dutch

Colonial Period; Dutch Ethical Policy; Irrigation Based

Transmigration Program; Establishment of Ministry of Public

Works; Post Independence Era; Five-Year Development Plans;

Lowlands (swamplands) development; Post Five-Year

Development plans; Chronological development of institutional

and regulatory aspects; Present status and condition of

irrigation in Indonesia – cropping patterns, institutional and

future prospects and so on.

ABOUT THE BOOK

The Irrigation History of Indonesia: This book illustrates the

chronological feature of irrigation history of Indonesia

emphasizing technological components. The volume covers

technological aspects, agricultural practices, institutional

aspects, legal and regulatory, socio-cultural within the general

outline among others: Introductory Background – Natural

characteristic, topography, rivers, climate and rainfalls; Pre-

historical evidence of irrigation practices; Development of

irrigated agriculture – upland areas, rain-fed, lowland paddies,

simple irrigation, semi technical irrigation, technical, upland

paddies, lowland (swamp lands) paddies; Irrigated agricultural

practices during the Hindu Era – Hindu Kingdoms; Dutch

Colonial Period; Dutch Ethical Policy; Irrigation Based

Transmigration Program; Establishment of Ministry of Public

Works; Post Independence Era; Five-Year Development Plans;

Lowlands (swamplands) development; Post Five-Year

Development plans; Chronological development of institutional

and regulatory aspects; Present status and condition of

irrigation in Indonesia – cropping patterns, institutional and

future prospects and so on.

ISBN 979-96442-3-2

2.a. kuliah (irrigationhistoryindonesia)

Documents

list of table

list of figure

cover list of contentmsri

inacid list of contenthistory

x list of photograph

ancient irrigation

minister of settlement

indonesias history