20736273 applied research

# Applied Research |The Sport Psychobgist, 1989, 3, 95-104

The Effect of Cognitive Strategieson the Free Throw Shooting Performance

of Young Athletes

Craig A. Wrisberg Mark H. AnshelUniversity of Tennessee, University of WoUongong

Knoxville

This study examined the relative effectiveness of various cognitive techniqueson the basketball free throw shooting performance of young athletes. Fortyboys (ages 10.2-12.4 years) who were subjectively rated as good free throwshooters by staff members at a 6-week summer sports camp were randomlyassigned to one of four training conditions. All initially perfonned 20 base-line trials of the free throw shot with a 45-sec intershot interval. After thelast baseline trial the boys in each group received instructions and practicedtheir respective preshot techniques. The next day they received a secondinstructional period followed by a series of 10 free throws. During the last15 seconds of the 45-sec intershot interval on these trials, subjects engagedin their respective preshot activity. An analysis of covariance was used todetermine group differences in free throw percentage during the test trials,with free throw percentage during baseline trials used as the covariate. Theresults suggested that mental imagery combined with arousal adjustment isa useful preshot cognitive strategy that young athletes may use to enhancetheir free throw shooting performance.

Advances in the field of applied sport psychology have particularly benefitedthe elite athlete, with a variety of cognitive techniques presently being employedto enhance perfonnance (e.g., Orlick, 1986). Mental training programs are nowa part of the Olympic experience for athletes in many countries. In addition, athleticdepartments at a number of major universities in the United States are welcomingthe services of sport psychologists for intercollegiate athletes/teams (Petruzzello,Landers, Linder, & Robinson, 1987). Presently a substantial literature documents.

Craig A. Wrisberg is with the Department of Physical Education and Dance,344 HPER, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-2700. Mark H. Anshelis with the Department of Human Movement and Sport Sciences at the University ofWoUongong, WoUongong, New South Wales, Australia.

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96 • Wrisberg and Anshel

both experimentally (Burton, 1983; Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Kolonay, 1977;Noel, 1980; Seaboume, Weinberg, Jackson, & Suinn, 1985; Weinberg,Seaboume, & Jackson, 1981) and with anecdotal or case study reports (Fenker& Lambiotte, 1987; Hamilton & Fremouw, 1985; Heyman, 1987; Suinn, 1972b,1976), the benefits to elite athletes of systematic application of psychological tech-niques in performance settings.

Of less prominence are investigations exploring the viability of cognitivestrategies in enhancing the performance of young athletes. In spite of the sugges-tion by some (e.g., Gould, 1982) that techniques employed by older athletes mightalso work with younger performers, there are little data to verify such a possi-bility. It appears that the young athlete may be particularly open and even eagerto leam techniques that would enhance his or her performance. Indeed, researchby Gill, Gross, and Huddleston (1983) revealed that younger performers are oftenmotivated to participate in sport because it gives them an opportunity to improvetheir skills and to have fun. Similarly, Klint and Weiss (1987) found that youngerathletes, particularly those who were more competent, rated skill developmentas the most important reason for their participation in sport.

The results of several recent studies suggest that young performers arecapable of benefiting from various types of mental training. Kulakova, Bassiyuni,and Chemikova (1980) reported that young male gymnasts (ages 10 to 12 years)were able to leam psychological self-regulation as a result of autogenic training.More recently, Blais and Vallerand (1986) found that young males (ages 10 to13 years) could leam to relax a specific muscle group (frontalis) through bio-feedback training. Their results also indicated that subjects were able to transferthe relaxation effect to a bogus precompetition situation, although their actualcompetitive performance on the novel task used (i.e., the stabilometer) was notfound to be reliably better than that of a control group. More recently, Simekand O'Brien (1988) found that the perceptual discrimination of balls and strikesand the frequency of hits of Little League baseball batters (ages 8 to 12 years)could be improved through an operant-chaining mastery program in which moredifficult behaviors build upon the mastery of simpler lead-up skills.

Many young athletes devote considerable time and effort to their sport.French and Thomas (1987) found that child experts (ages 8 to 12 years) prac-ticed basketball more hours per week and had more shooting skill and knowl-edge of the sport than did child novices from the same age range. However, thebiggest gains over a season of play for the expert performers in this study wereachieved in the knowledge component, with little change observed in the skillcomponents assessed (i.e., controlled dribbling and speed shooting). Thus it wasconcluded that the young athlete may acquire knowledge/game strategy fasterthan the motor skills needed to achieve quality performance. Taken together, theseresults suggest that the additional practice that more highly skilled young per-formers voluntarily engage in might be supplemented by cognitive strategiesdesigned to enhance the quality of their responses.

A number of studies exploring the efficacy of mental training programswith older athletes have focused on the effect of cognitive strategies on the perfor-mance of closed (self-paced) skills. Closed tasks are usually performed in a rela-tively stable environment in which the performer is allowed considerable freedomto prepare and execute the movement (Poulton, 1957). A classic example of a

Effect of Cognitive Strategies • 97

closed sport skill is the basketball free throw. Regardless of where the game isplayed or the circumstances under which a free throw shot is attempted, the per-former always stands the same distance from the goal and shoots the ball to atarget of fixed height and diameter.

Studies examining the effectiveness of cognitive strategies on the perfor-mance of the free throw shot have typically involved the teaching of relaxationand/or imagery techniques to subjects, followed by an incorporation ofthe leamedtechnique widiin the performer's preshot routine. Several investigators haveexplored the effectiveness of a mental approach developed by Suinn (1972a, 1972b)that combines visual imagery and relaxation. The technique, termed visuomotorbehavior rehearsal (VMBR), presumably allows the athlete to achieve high levelsof performance under stressftil situations by first relaxing the muscles and thenimagining successful execution of the movements.

Kolonay (1977) found significant improvements in free throw perfonnancefor a group of male college basketball players who received VMBR training priorto each of 15 team practice sessions but not for groups who learned relaxationalone, or imagery done, or who covertly rehearsed nonsense information thatthey were told would clear their minds of negative thoughts. Hall and Erffmeyer(1983) reported more improvements in free throw shooting percentage for femalecollegiate basketball players when VMBR training included the viewing of a video-tape model of a successful free throw shooter prior to imagery ofthe "perfect"foul shot than when subjects imaged without first seeing the model.

More recently, Ziegler (1987) compared the effectiveness of various imageryconditions on the free throw shooting of female college players. During each ofnine training sessions, a passive imagery group imaged 20 repetitions of the freethrow shot while an active imagery group imaged the shot and then physicallyrepeated the free throw motion (without the ball). A third imagery conditionpassively imaged the free throw and then attempted an actual shot. The mostimprovement in free throw shooting percentage following the training periodoccurred for the latter two groups, both of which demonstrated significantly moreimprovement than did those in control conditions who actually shot free throwsduring the training session or who rested.

The results of these studies suggest that imagery and/or relaxation trainingmay be successfully used to enhance the free throw shooting of adult athletes.Whether similar cognitive interventions would facilitate the free throw shootingskills of younger performers has not been demonstrated. That more highly skilledyoung basketball players have been shown to spend more time playing than theirless-skilled counterparts, yet show no more improvement in performance overthe course of a season (French & Thomas, 1987), suggests that a strategic supple-ment to mere physical repetition may be beneficial. Ziegler's (1987) finding withadult athletes that imagery training, when introduced as an adjunct to physicalpractice, resulted in more improvements in free throw percentage than physicalpractice alone is certainly consistent with this notion.

Gould (1982) has challenged investigators in the field of sport psychologyto conduct research with younger athletes to determine the practical significanceof cognitive strategies for that population. However, recent work by Hellstedt(1987) suggests that young athletes may not be interested in mental training thatthey do not perceive as useful. Hellstedt studied the reactions of young elite skiers


(ages 12 to 18 years) to a sport psychology program at a ski academy. Consid-ered most usejul by these athletes were what they viewed as practical skills whichincluded imagery and relaxation. Activities rated least usefiil were those involv-ing the development of conceptual skills (the relationship between thoughts andimages, goal setting, etc.). Thus it appears that younger athletes are receptiveto leaming and applying cognitive strategies as part of their training regimen aslong as they feel the strategies will enhance their athletic performance.

The purpose of the present study was to explore the potential benefit ofvarious types of mental training on the free throw shooting perfomiance of youngbasketbdl players who were participants at a summer sports camp. The cognitivestrategies selected for instruction were relaxation and imagery.

Method

Subjects

Forty boys ranging in age from 10.2 to 12.4 years (Af=11.6 years) participatedin the study. They were registered in a 6-week coed sports camp, the purposeof which was to teach a variety of sports skills in a competitive environment.Each participant was skilled in basketball free throw shooting prior to the study,as detennined by an assessment by his group counselor and his own evaluationof basketball shooting skill.

Equipment

All equipment and dimensions of the task were within the YMCA guidelines forboys' competitive junior basketball. A Wilson junior-size rubber-covered basket-baU with a circumference of 27.5 in. (69.85 cm) and weighing 17.5 oz (496.12 g)was tossed to a target from a distance of 12 ft (3.35 m). The target consistedof an adjustable Hi-Lo Goal (Model No. BB068M-4, Wolverine Sports, AnnArbor, MI) set at a height of 8 ft (2.44 m). A stopwatch (Wolverine Sports, ModelNo. TL028P-4) was used to regulate the length of between-trial intervals, duringwhich time a cognitive task was practiced.

Procedure

Subjects were randomly selected from a list of 68 boys (13 camper groups) inthe 10- to 12-year-old age group who were evaluated by their counselor as goodor excellent in basketball shooting skill. Prior to the first trial participants wererandomly assigned to one of four groups: (a) a group that leamed and practicedmental imagery during the treatment phase of the study, (b) a group that leamedand attempted an arousal adjustment strategy, (c) a group that combined imagerywith arousal adjustment techniques, and (d) a no-strategy (control) group.

Each participant watched a model demonstrate the correct technique forbasketball free throw shooting accompanied by verbal reminders about impor-tant features of the skill to enhance performance. The boys were then asked tocomplete a series of free throws as accurately as possible. They attempted20 tosses with an intertrial interval of 45 seconds. Between tosses they read selectedportions of a book entitled Basketball for Young Champions (Antonacci & Barr,1960) that was commensurate with fourth-grade reading ability. They were told


that questions would be asked from the material at the end of the 20 trials.Ostensibly, this prevented mental rehearsal of the task. After completion of base-line trials each participant was asked a question from a list of possible questionsabout the game of basketball (e.g., ' 'Describe the correct technique for the bouncepass," "Name two types of basketball shots"). Boys in the three treatment groupswere then taught a cognitive strategy by an instmctor for a period of 15 minuteswhile those in the control group reviewed additional written information. Theexperimental treatments included mental imagery (I), arousal adjustment (A), andthe combined use of imagery and arousal adjustment (A-I-1). The latter groupwas first introduced to the relaxation response followed by the imagery technique.

Imagery training followed the guidelines proposed by Orlick (1986). Whilestanding at the free throw line the performer was asked to (a) observe the basketfor a few seconds, (b) close his eyes, (c) feel confident in making the shot,(d) mentally picture "through the mind's eye" standing at the free throw line(i.e., mentally reproduce what he saw at the free throw line—the basket—ratherthan what he would see if watching another person shoot), (e) concentrate ontaking the shot while blocking out other sights and sounds, (f) mentally rehearsemaking several perfect shots while using the proper form, and (g) feel very con-fident and happy after each successful shot.

Arousal adjustment training involved the leaming of a relaxation responsetechnique (Benson, 1985) that consisted of practice in reducing arousal levels.Emphasis on arousal reduction was given in light of the fact that free throw shoot-ing is typically accompanied by higher arousal associated with nervousness and/orthe vigorous physical activity required by the game of basketball. Moreover, par-ticipants in this study appeared to be relatively nervous about succeeding in thetask. Therefore it was reasoned that reducing arousal, not elevating it, wouldbe a more practical cognitive technique to perfonn prior to basketball free throwshooting.

The boys leamed the four steps of the relaxation response: (a) keep themind free of visual and auditory distractions (Benson, 1985, actually suggestsa quiet environment, which of course is not practical in competitive basketball);(b) use a mental device such as a sound, word, or phrase (e.g., "soft hands,""no tension") repeated silently to prevent "mind wandering" and stop distract-ing thoughts; (c) maintain a passive "let it happen" attitude (Benson suggeststhat participants not worry about how well they are performing the technique);and (d) assume a comfortable position to eliminate muscular tension—in this caseby holding the ball in front of the body with arms fully extended and head tiltedforward to relax neck, shoulders, and upper limbs.

A second 15-min instructional period was held the following day to allowadditional rehearsal of the techniques leamed on Day 1. To examine the effectof selected cognitive strategies on free throw shooting performance, the respec-tive groups practiced the cognitive techniques they had leamed and then attempted10 free tiirow shots separated by a period of 45 seconds.

Between trials all subjects read from the same basketball book describedearlier. Participants in the three experimental groups read for 30 seconds andthen practiced their assigned cognitive strategy for 15 seconds before attemptingthe shot. Control subjects read for the entire 45 seconds. To assure that they paidattention to the reading material, all participants were told they would be asked


a questioti on the history of basketball at the end of the session. To enhance ex-temal validity and simulate actual basketball free throw shooting conditions, allparticipants were allowed to engage in what was for thetn normal preshot prepa-ration habits such as bouncing or aitning the basketball.

Immediately after the last trial on Day 2, subjects were asked one questionabout the history of basketball. Experimental subjects were then asked to respondto two questions: "To what extent did you actually use the strategy you leamed—always, often but not always, occasionally, rarely, or never?" "If you did notuse the technique you were taught, what did you tiiink about?" Control subjectswere asked what they thought about while attempting their shots. All participantsin the cognitive strategy groups indicated that they "always" used the treatmentthey were taught. Thus it appeared that the novelty and uniqueness of the learnedmental approach facilitated its adherence during the experiment. Three controlsubjects aiso admitted that they "occasionally" took a deep breath before theshot in order to relax.

ResultsIn spite of the fact that the boys were randomly assigned to groups and that thebasketball ability of all was judged by trained counselors to be between good andexcellent, a significant group difference in free throw percentage was obtainedon pretraining trials (Table 1). Therefore, in order to assess the effects of thevarious cognitive strategies implemented by subjects prior to each shot, an analysisof covariance (ANCOVA) was performed on the posttraining free throw percent-age scores using pretraining free throw percentage as the covariate. The adjustedmean free throw percentages for each group on the posttest are shown in Figure 1.The best performance was evidenced by the imagery-plus-arousal-adjustment(A-I-1) group. Results of the ANCOVA revealed a significant groups effect,F(3,35)=3.79,/7<.O1, and subsequent significant,/K.05, pairwise contrasts werefound between the scores of the combined group (A-I-1) and those of both thearousal adjustment and the control groups.

Table 1

Free Throw Percentages for Each Group on the Pretest and Posttest

Pretest PosttestGroup M SD M SD

ControlArousalImageryCombined

38683663

16111914

39574979

25192910


K

tOUi(/)

2

80 n

60-

40-

20

"^ C A

6R0UPSFigure 1 — Adjusted mean free throw percentages for each group on the posttest.

DiscussionThe purpose of the present study was to determine the extent to which variouscognitive strategies currently being practiced by many adult athletes could beleamed and effectively used by younger athletes. The results offer empirical sup-port for the efficacy of a preshot strategy involving a combination of relaxationand imagery on the free throw shooting performance of young basketball players.It should also be noted that the design employed in the present study involveda long wait between shots, reducing the possibility that a shooting rhythm couldbe sustained. Thus it is likely that the test situation represented a challenge tothe performers' ability to mobilize concentration for each shot. That the boyswere able to acquire and effectively use the combined strategy is particularlyimpressive in light of the fact that time constraints imposed by the summer campsituation prevented the type of extended practice of cognitive techniques advo-cated by proponents of mental training (Smith, 1987; Suinn, 1983; Vealey, 1986).However, further research is needed to determine the optimal conditions (e.g.,length of practice time, spacing of sessions) under which younger performersmay leam and effectively use cognitive strategies to enhance sport performanceand whether positive effects can be produced on repeated occasions.

The present results are consistent with those of Kolonay (1977), who foundthat a combination of relaxation and imagery resulted in better free throw perfor-mance for male college basketball players than did either preshot technique byitself. While the visuomotor behavior rehearsal method (Suinn, 1972a, 1972b)was not strictly taught to subjects in the combined group, the results are consis-tent with those of a number of experiments demonstrating the potential of VMBR


in enhancing the closed skill perfonnance of older athletes (Hall & Erffmeyer,1983; Noel, 1980; Weinberg et al., 1981).

Why the arousal adjustment group perfonned the poorest during test trialsis somewhat difficult to explain. Perhaps arousal was reduced to lower than op-timal (i.e., underaroused) levels. If so, additional practice in arousal adjustmenttechniques may be required for younger subjects. It is also possible that too muchattention to the act of releasing muscle tension may have diverted these boys'attention from the cues necessary for optimal performance. As Nideffer (1985)has suggested, it is important for the athlete to redirect attention to a task-relevantcue following tension reduction in order to maximize response productivity. Sucha process may have occurred in the preshot preparation of the combined groupwhich included arousal adjustment followed by a focus on performance-relevantcues (e.g., the rim and "seeing" the ball going through the basket).

Of particular interest was the anecdotal observation that boys in the cogni-tive strategy groups appeared extremely receptive and enthusiastic about gaininga mental edge that they felt might enhance their skill perfomiance. Such a responseis consistent with the results of studies indicating that young athletes are particu-larly motivated by opportunities/techniques that promote skiU development (Gillet al., 1983; Klint & Weiss, 1987).

In summary, the present study appears to offer support for the notion thatyoung athletes are able to leam and use cognitive techniques to enhance theirperformance. It remains to be determined whether there is a minimum age atwhich mental strategies may be effectively leamed and utilized. Cross-sectionalstudies employing a variety of age groups should help resolve this issue. Furtherinvestigation is also needed to determine whether leamed cognitive strategies aregeneralizable by young athletes to actual game/competition settings.

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Blais, M.R., & Vallerand, R.J. (1986). Multimodal effects of electromyographic biofeed-back: Looking at children's ability to control precompetitive anxiety. Joumal ofSport Psychology, 8, 283-303.

Burton, D. (1983). Evaluation of goal-setting training on selected cognitions and perfor-mance of collegiate swimmers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University ofIllinois.

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Acknowledgment

The technical assistance of Edward Howley, Ann Reed, and Susan Ridenour isgratefully acknowledged.

Manuscript submitted: June 21, 1988Revision received: December 19, 1988

20736273 applied research

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