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Native AmericasNative AmericasBefore ColumbusBefore Columbus

Lecture 2Lecture 2

203203 22

Time on the LandTime on the Land

Whether we take at face value the common NA Whether we take at face value the common NA position that they were placed in their traditional position that they were placed in their traditional lands at Creation or we look at the oldest dates lands at Creation or we look at the oldest dates for NA archaeology sites, they have been in the for NA archaeology sites, they have been in the New World for at least 15,000 years.New World for at least 15,000 years.

As humans do, they learned about nature, used it, As humans do, they learned about nature, used it, moved it, selected what they wanted from it, and moved it, selected what they wanted from it, and integrated it into their ways of life (See Berkes, integrated it into their ways of life (See Berkes, Folke, and Gadgil 1995).Folke, and Gadgil 1995).

We have developed a theory of how this occurs We have developed a theory of how this occurs which is illustrated in the following article and can which is illustrated in the following article and can be read in Stoffle, Toupal, and Zedeno 2003.be read in Stoffle, Toupal, and Zedeno 2003.

203203 33

5th Generatio

n (125 years)

50th Generatio

n (1250 years)

200th Generatio

n (5000 years)

16th Generation (400 years)

Folks

Nature

1st Generation (25 years)

Vision questMule deer tail

Holy waterRed oak bark

PeakMule deer

HeadwaterRed oakDeer

MountainStreamOakAnimals

Land formsWaterPlants Herbivore

RangeRunningTrees

ADAPTATION

Surv

ival

Spiri

tual

Surv

ival

Spiri

tual

Surv

ival

Spiri

tual

Surv

ival

Spiri

tual

Surv

ival

Spiri

tual

203203 44

Dyachronic Learning Dyachronic Learning DiagramDiagram

The previous diagram was developed to The previous diagram was developed to illustrate the basic idea that all humans learn.illustrate the basic idea that all humans learn.

No humans are smarter than others.No humans are smarter than others. But some humans spend more time in place.But some humans spend more time in place. When people move to unique ecosystems they When people move to unique ecosystems they

become again first generation new comers.become again first generation new comers. Naturally some humans choose adaptive Naturally some humans choose adaptive

strategies that eventually destroy their society strategies that eventually destroy their society and perhaps themselves.and perhaps themselves.

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Types of KnowledgeTypes of Knowledge

Local KnowledgeLocal Knowledge = recently learned by = recently learned by people who have just arrived in a people who have just arrived in a ecosystem. Highly ideosyncraticecosystem. Highly ideosyncratic

Traditional Ecological KnowledgeTraditional Ecological Knowledge = time- = time-tested observations that are shared by a tested observations that are shared by a group who have remained in an ecosystem group who have remained in an ecosystem

Indigenous KnowledgeIndigenous Knowledge = awesome = awesome observations explained and supported by observations explained and supported by supernatural constraintssupernatural constraints

203203 66

Local KnowledgeLocal Knowledge

What we can learn within a few What we can learn within a few generations in the same ecosystem.generations in the same ecosystem.

Accessible observationsAccessible observations – just out – just out there for the viewing.there for the viewing.

Simple cause and effect.Simple cause and effect. Begins as individual lessons, moves to Begins as individual lessons, moves to

the family level, and may eventually the family level, and may eventually (over generations) pass to the (over generations) pass to the community level.community level.

203203 77

Local Knowledge Local Knowledge ExamplesExamples

Dry washes run wet some times & some Dry washes run wet some times & some springs dry up in dry periods.springs dry up in dry periods.

Decade cycles of rain and droughtDecade cycles of rain and drought Obvious single uses of plants, few Obvious single uses of plants, few

combinations of plants and mineralscombinations of plants and minerals Migration and habitat shifts of animalsMigration and habitat shifts of animals

203203 88

Traditional KnowledgeTraditional Knowledge

Technically this occurs when the people Technically this occurs when the people under question become traditional. under question become traditional.

Shared knowledge = cultural knowledge.Shared knowledge = cultural knowledge. Time tested knowledge – it works to predict.Time tested knowledge – it works to predict. More than two cause and effect More than two cause and effect

relationships in a food web or trophic level.relationships in a food web or trophic level. Mixture of secular and sacred based Mixture of secular and sacred based

knowledge.knowledge. TEK is used to describe traditional TEK is used to describe traditional

ecological knowledgeecological knowledge

203203 99

Traditional KnowledgeTraditional KnowledgeExamplesExamples

Ojibwa wild rice harvestingOjibwa wild rice harvesting Paiute burning of Indian Rice grass (Waii)Paiute burning of Indian Rice grass (Waii) Burning for male and female sages by Burning for male and female sages by

the Dakota at Pipestone National the Dakota at Pipestone National MonumentMonument

Shoshone gathering of pine forest ants Shoshone gathering of pine forest ants and eggs.and eggs.

203203 1010

Indigenous KnowledgeIndigenous Knowledge

Awesome knowledgeAwesome knowledge along with high quality along with high quality observations = can predict ecology cause and effect.observations = can predict ecology cause and effect.

Deals with three or more non-intuitive connections Deals with three or more non-intuitive connections along multiple along multiple food websfood webs and different and different trophic levelstrophic levels..

Tied to Tied to sacredsacred in most cases. in most cases. Example: Example: Eating antsEating ants to stimulate visions among to stimulate visions among

American Indian people in southern California American Indian people in southern California (Groark 1996).(Groark 1996).

Example: Southern Paiutes indigenous knowledge is Example: Southern Paiutes indigenous knowledge is illustrated by medicine persons performing illustrated by medicine persons performing cataract cataract eye surgeryeye surgery with the removed and living tail of a with the removed and living tail of a whiptail lizard as part of a Puha ceremony. whiptail lizard as part of a Puha ceremony.

203203 1111

Positive DisturbancePositive Disturbance

A World Wildlife Fund web site A World Wildlife Fund web site (www.panda.org 2004) says most of the (www.panda.org 2004) says most of the remaining significant areas of remaining significant areas of high natural high natural valuevalue on earth are inhabited by indigenous on earth are inhabited by indigenous peoples and this testifies to the efficacy of peoples and this testifies to the efficacy of indigenous resource management systems.indigenous resource management systems.

Missing from this discussion is a convincing Missing from this discussion is a convincing explanation of explanation of how positivehow positive impacts can impacts can occur. Most authors simply assume that occur. Most authors simply assume that traditional people know when they are traditional people know when they are hurting nature and back off from such hurting nature and back off from such behaviors.behaviors.

203203 1212

Intermediate Intermediate DisturbanceDisturbance

Connell (1978) found that intermediate natural Connell (1978) found that intermediate natural disturbances in ecosystems can cause positive disturbances in ecosystems can cause positive impacts on biodiversity and biocomplexity.impacts on biodiversity and biocomplexity.

Intermediate in term of scale and frequency of Intermediate in term of scale and frequency of occurrence.occurrence.

So do traditional people use their knowledge of So do traditional people use their knowledge of ecosystems and consciously make intermediate ecosystems and consciously make intermediate human changes that have positive benefits? human changes that have positive benefits?

203203 1313

Some CharacteristicsSome Characteristics of Positive Disturbance of Positive Disturbance

Traditional people can have a positive Traditional people can have a positive influence on influence on the biocomplexitythe biocomplexity and and biodiversity biodiversity of their ecosystem. This is of their ecosystem. This is how we will define “being good” for how we will define “being good” for the environment.the environment.

Critics of this position say that Critics of this position say that traditional people often do hurt nature traditional people often do hurt nature (Martin and Wright 1967) and if they (Martin and Wright 1967) and if they don’t it is because they lack the don’t it is because they lack the technology and the population size. technology and the population size.

203203 1414

From Conservation to From Conservation to Sustainability and Sustainability and BiodiversityBiodiversity

What can people do that is What can people do that is goodgood for their ecosystems? for their ecosystems? The literature shows that traditional people can have The literature shows that traditional people can have positive impacts bypositive impacts by

clearing spaces in forests (Turner, Davison-Hunt, clearing spaces in forests (Turner, Davison-Hunt, O’Flaherty 2003),O’Flaherty 2003),

moving seeds to new habitats (Nabhan 1989),moving seeds to new habitats (Nabhan 1989), digging tubers (Wandsnider and Chung 2003: 221-222),digging tubers (Wandsnider and Chung 2003: 221-222), changing behavior of herding animals (Anderson 1958),changing behavior of herding animals (Anderson 1958), pruning wild nut trees (Fowler 2000: 112), andpruning wild nut trees (Fowler 2000: 112), and designing agricultural fields to stimulate animals and designing agricultural fields to stimulate animals and

plant populations as well as provide sustainable farming plant populations as well as provide sustainable farming (Atran et al. 2002).(Atran et al. 2002).

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Caribbean Coast of Costa Caribbean Coast of Costa RicaRica

Source Garcia-Serrano and Del Monte Source Garcia-Serrano and Del Monte 20042004 The Bribri and Cabecar Cultures of this area are a The Bribri and Cabecar Cultures of this area are a

good example of TEK and Conservation.good example of TEK and Conservation. They have a tropical home garden, rotating slash-They have a tropical home garden, rotating slash-

and-burn agriculture, and plantain cultivation.and-burn agriculture, and plantain cultivation. These two cultures have different sets of These two cultures have different sets of

traditional rules for use of plants in “far” space traditional rules for use of plants in “far” space where 24 species are harvested and “near“ space where 24 species are harvested and “near“ space where 60 species are harvested.where 60 species are harvested.

Generation after generation of these people have Generation after generation of these people have had an agreement with nature. Agriculture, and to had an agreement with nature. Agriculture, and to varying degrees wild plant harvesting and hunting varying degrees wild plant harvesting and hunting and fishing, continue being their main activities. and fishing, continue being their main activities. They have a balanced system of exploiting nature. They have a balanced system of exploiting nature.

203203 1616

Location of TEK StudyLocation of TEK Study

Costa Rica

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A Bribri Web SiteA Bribri Web Site The Bribri People The Bribri People For thousands of years the Bribri People have lived in harmony with nature. The Bribri are For thousands of years the Bribri People have lived in harmony with nature. The Bribri are

located in the mountains and low-lying Caribbean coastal areas of southern Costa Rica located in the mountains and low-lying Caribbean coastal areas of southern Costa Rica and northern Panama on the Talamanca reservation. Approximately 5200 Bribri people and northern Panama on the Talamanca reservation. Approximately 5200 Bribri people have maintained an indigenous culture that's different from the rest of the country. have maintained an indigenous culture that's different from the rest of the country. Indigenous means that the Bribri were the original inhabitants of Talamanca. Indigenous means that the Bribri were the original inhabitants of Talamanca.

Agriculture is the main activity of the Bribri. They have roughly 120 wild and domestic Agriculture is the main activity of the Bribri. They have roughly 120 wild and domestic crops used for food, building materials, medicine, and commercial trading. The Bribri are crops used for food, building materials, medicine, and commercial trading. The Bribri are extremely isolated, and consequently, they have developed an extensive bartering extremely isolated, and consequently, they have developed an extensive bartering system. Mostly the Bribri women participate in the trading of goods with neighbors. In system. Mostly the Bribri women participate in the trading of goods with neighbors. In addition to a bartering system, the Bribri isolation has caused them to have poor addition to a bartering system, the Bribri isolation has caused them to have poor education and healthcare. They also have the lowest income per capita in the country; education and healthcare. They also have the lowest income per capita in the country; however, this isolation has made the Bribri a relatively self-sufficient society where there however, this isolation has made the Bribri a relatively self-sufficient society where there are enough crops grown and livestock raised to sustain them. One small tribe of the Bribri, are enough crops grown and livestock raised to sustain them. One small tribe of the Bribri, the Kekoldi, only has about 200 people. They partake in the very unique practice of iguana the Kekoldi, only has about 200 people. They partake in the very unique practice of iguana farming. Iguanas are very important to the forest, so due to over-hunting, the Kekoldi tribe farming. Iguanas are very important to the forest, so due to over-hunting, the Kekoldi tribe has devised a very efficient way to replenish the iguana population. The farm has been has devised a very efficient way to replenish the iguana population. The farm has been operating for 11 years and has about 2,000 iguanas and 2,000,000 eggs. The iguanas stay operating for 11 years and has about 2,000 iguanas and 2,000,000 eggs. The iguanas stay on the farm until five years of age at which time they are then released into the wild. on the farm until five years of age at which time they are then released into the wild.

The Bribri have their own language. They have a rich culture that has been molded over The Bribri have their own language. They have a rich culture that has been molded over thousands of years and remained relatively untouched by western civilization. thousands of years and remained relatively untouched by western civilization.

References: References: Voices from a town meeting in indigenous Costa Rica http://www.gisp.ucsb.edu/lais/case12.htm Voices from a town meeting in indigenous Costa Rica http://www.gisp.ucsb.edu/lais/case12.htm

Vandegrift, Darcie. University of California, Santa Barbara. 1996. Vandegrift, Darcie. University of California, Santa Barbara. 1996. Community Development with the Bribri of Costa Rica Community Development with the Bribri of Costa Rica http://http://www.agroecology.org/cases/bribri.htmwww.agroecology.org/cases/bribri.htm

Agroecology Research Group 1999. Agroecology Research Group 1999. Written by: Lyle ArnasonWritten by: Lyle Arnason

203203 1818

Examples of Animals - Examples of Animals - DomesticDomestic

Dog – everywhereDog – everywhere Turkey – North AmericaTurkey – North America Guinea Pig – AndeanGuinea Pig – Andean Llama – AndeanLlama – Andean Alpaca – AndeanAlpaca – Andean Muscovy Duck –AndeanMuscovy Duck –Andean Tropical Birds – Tropical Birds –

everywhere for feathers. everywhere for feathers. Aztecs made cloaks Aztecs made cloaks from humming bird from humming bird feathersfeathers

Raptors – raising Raptors – raising eagles for feathers, eagles for feathers, North AmericaNorth America

Turtles – penned Turtles – penned and perhaps bred and perhaps bred along the Amazon along the Amazon River near large River near large settlements.settlements.

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Managed NatureManaged NatureMoving Towards CultigensMoving Towards Cultigens

Agroforestry in Agroforestry in Amazon – variety of Amazon – variety of tree species tree species involved including involved including palms, cashew, and palms, cashew, and brazil nut. brazil nut.

Pacae Pacae [Inga ][Inga ] – – large mesquite tree large mesquite tree with a foot long with a foot long seed pod – Pacific seed pod – Pacific coast of Andes.coast of Andes.

Willow Trees – cut Willow Trees – cut back to produce back to produce straight branches straight branches for basketry.for basketry.

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Examples of CultigensExamples of Cultigens

Peppers - everywherePeppers - everywhere Corn - everywhereCorn - everywhere Beans - everywhereBeans - everywhere Squash & Pumpkins - Squash & Pumpkins -

everywhereeverywhere Potatoes – several species, Potatoes – several species,

AndeanAndean Sweet Potatoes – several Sweet Potatoes – several

species – tropical coastalspecies – tropical coastal Manioc - AmazonianManioc - Amazonian Amaranth – Mexico & Amaranth – Mexico &

AndeanAndean Chenopodium – Mexico & Chenopodium – Mexico &

AndeanAndean

Pineapple – tropical & arid Pineapple – tropical & arid coastalcoastal

Lupin - AndeanLupin - Andean Tree cotton – 4 color Tree cotton – 4 color

varieties no dye needed – varieties no dye needed – both sides of Andesboth sides of Andes

Cacao (chocolate)- bean Cacao (chocolate)- bean was a standard of value, was a standard of value, grown in Central America grown in Central America by both Maya and Aztecs.by both Maya and Aztecs.

Coca – middle altitude Coca – middle altitude Amazon side of Andes. Amazon side of Andes. Controlled substance by Controlled substance by the state.the state.

203203 2121

TEK of Agriculture ExamplesTEK of Agriculture Examples

On island of Hispaniola Europeans noticed that NA On island of Hispaniola Europeans noticed that NA did not have rows [lacked the draft animals and did not have rows [lacked the draft animals and plow], but planted multiple crops in hills of earth plow], but planted multiple crops in hills of earth heaped up. Corn, pumpkins, and beans planted heaped up. Corn, pumpkins, and beans planted together symbiotically. Bean roots fertilized the corn together symbiotically. Bean roots fertilized the corn while the stock served the runners of beans and while the stock served the runners of beans and pumpkins. Irrigated the hills.pumpkins. Irrigated the hills.

Cotton had its own fields because of a longer Cotton had its own fields because of a longer growing season.growing season.

Agroforestry trees and bushes like coca, and cacao Agroforestry trees and bushes like coca, and cacao were planted along edges of fields. Most agroforestry were planted along edges of fields. Most agroforestry plants became more fertile the longer they were plants became more fertile the longer they were managed due in part to pruning, weeding, and managed due in part to pruning, weeding, and mulching. mulching.

203203 2222

Terra Preta in AmazonTerra Preta in Amazon

Making dirt. Enduring self renewal soil.Making dirt. Enduring self renewal soil. Dated 2,000 years ago from Amazon.Dated 2,000 years ago from Amazon. Made an organic mixture ( much like sour Made an organic mixture ( much like sour

dough starter for bread) which makes a dough starter for bread) which makes a fertile soil.fertile soil.

Moved it in large pots to new areas. Once Moved it in large pots to new areas. Once established it is largely self sustaining.established it is largely self sustaining.

Instead of destroying the soil with tropical Instead of destroying the soil with tropical farming, they improved it.farming, they improved it.

See Mann 2002

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One Study AreaOne Study Area

See: Mann 2002

203203 2424

Images of a Human SoilImages of a Human Soil

See Mann 2002

People have been farming here for thousands of years – farming hard – and we just have to learn how to do it as well as they did (Quote by Susanna Hecht in Mann 2002)

203203 2525

Inca Engineering Inca Engineering Built roads – stone roads up and down Built roads – stone roads up and down

the Andes 2400 miles long north and the Andes 2400 miles long north and south with right angle feeder roads east south with right angle feeder roads east and west. Longest and best built roads and west. Longest and best built roads until modern times.until modern times.

Planted trees along roads to shade Planted trees along roads to shade travelers.travelers.

Suspension bridges in Inca Empire with Suspension bridges in Inca Empire with tall stone masonry towers on both sides tall stone masonry towers on both sides with plant fiber cords as cables and with plant fiber cords as cables and wooden slats. Wide enough for two wooden slats. Wide enough for two horses to pass. They had suspension horses to pass. They had suspension bridges before Europeans.bridges before Europeans.

Extremely long (up to 30 miles in length) Extremely long (up to 30 miles in length) irrigation cannels.irrigation cannels.

Chasquis – curriers who ran along the Chasquis – curriers who ran along the Inca roads. Could bring fresh fish from Inca roads. Could bring fresh fish from the Pacific coast to Cuzco (Tawatinsuyu) the Pacific coast to Cuzco (Tawatinsuyu) [Peru] in less than 24 hours.[Peru] in less than 24 hours.

Quipus – communication device. Quipus – communication device.

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/inc

a/inca_culture_3.html

203203 2626

MiningMining

Mineral pigment was mined everywhere in New World for Mineral pigment was mined everywhere in New World for decoration and ceremony.decoration and ceremony.

Andean groups mined gold ore and smelted it and worked it Andean groups mined gold ore and smelted it and worked it into jewelry and ceremonial objects.into jewelry and ceremonial objects.

Made charcoal which was used in smelting – went to about Made charcoal which was used in smelting – went to about 1400 degree F, an effective smelting temperature. Smelting 1400 degree F, an effective smelting temperature. Smelting device of Inca was eventually adopted by the Spanish at device of Inca was eventually adopted by the Spanish at high elevations in Andes.high elevations in Andes.

Tin and copper mined in Andes, and could combine these Tin and copper mined in Andes, and could combine these minerals to make bronze metal.minerals to make bronze metal.

Turquoise and jade mined and most valued of all minerals.Turquoise and jade mined and most valued of all minerals. Emeralds mined in Columbia – green ones highest value.Emeralds mined in Columbia – green ones highest value. Copper mined in Great Lakes of North America.Copper mined in Great Lakes of North America.

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CitiesCities Tenochtitlan (now Mexico) – larger than Tenochtitlan (now Mexico) – larger than

any Spanish city of the time. London any Spanish city of the time. London may have been larger.may have been larger.

Chaco (now New Mexico) – a massive Chaco (now New Mexico) – a massive ceremonial center with roads and ceremonial center with roads and connected service towns.connected service towns.

Casas Grandes (now Chihuahua, Casas Grandes (now Chihuahua, Mexico) was a ceremonial center and a Mexico) was a ceremonial center and a city with an irrigation sewage system. city with an irrigation sewage system.

Cuzco (now Peru) massive high Cuzco (now Peru) massive high elevation city.elevation city.

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What NA Did Not HaveWhat NA Did Not Have

Maya had invented the wheel, but Maya had invented the wheel, but used it only on toys. Wheel was not used it only on toys. Wheel was not used in New World.used in New World.

Strong draft animals.Strong draft animals. European-Asian diseases.European-Asian diseases.

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Made and Managed Made and Managed LandscapesLandscapes

Whole Amazon Basin was a human landscape. Whole Amazon Basin was a human landscape. Moving species, selecting species, clearing with Moving species, selecting species, clearing with slash and mulch.slash and mulch.

Andes were intensively managed with systems Andes were intensively managed with systems of terraces and modifications of hydrological of terraces and modifications of hydrological systems. Domestic animals grazed grasslands.systems. Domestic animals grazed grasslands.

The peoples of the Antilles were largely The peoples of the Antilles were largely farmers who cut down trees for fields and farmers who cut down trees for fields and made salt ponds in the former coastal made salt ponds in the former coastal mangroves.mangroves.

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Caribbean Basin SocietiesCaribbean Basin Societies Arrival time unclear, Arrival time unclear,

but they were but they were around the edges for around the edges for 10K years and in the 10K years and in the Greater and Lesser Greater and Lesser Antilles for at least Antilles for at least 3,000 years.3,000 years.

Various arrival Various arrival routes currently routes currently being considered being considered , but some definitely , but some definitely came from northeast came from northeast coast of South coast of South America.America.

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Caribbean Indigenous PeoplesCaribbean Indigenous Peoples Common Names (linguistic and cultural referents)Common Names (linguistic and cultural referents)

CiboneyCiboney Arawak (subgroups =Tanoans, Lucayans, and Igneri)Arawak (subgroups =Tanoans, Lucayans, and Igneri) CaribsCaribs

Temporal Reference TermsTemporal Reference Terms PalaeoPalaeo MesoMeso NeoNeo

Peoples connected to all mainland basin societies.Peoples connected to all mainland basin societies. Cultivated manioc as well as corn, beans, and squash.Cultivated manioc as well as corn, beans, and squash. Agroforestry – a kind of tree & bush horticultureAgroforestry – a kind of tree & bush horticulture FishingFishing Canoe travelers – up to 80 people in a sea-going canoe with Canoe travelers – up to 80 people in a sea-going canoe with

canopies for cargo. Traded textiles – cotton and specialty canopies for cargo. Traded textiles – cotton and specialty feather cloaks; both used as a standard of value (like feather cloaks; both used as a standard of value (like money). Gold dust and goose quills were used as money to money). Gold dust and goose quills were used as money to settle debts in Mexico City markets.settle debts in Mexico City markets.

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The Ciboney PeopleThe Ciboney People

In westernIn western

Cuba, cays Cuba, cays

north and north and

south of south of

Cuba, Cuba,

GuaicayariGuaicayarima ma

Peninsula of Peninsula of

Haiti.Haiti.

Rouse 1948: 497-503

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The Ciboney PeopleThe Ciboney People Ciboney are not well known because the Spanish Ciboney are not well known because the Spanish

did not interact with them on a regular basis, so did not interact with them on a regular basis, so be careful about the following descriptions.be careful about the following descriptions.

Thought to be the oldest people of the Antilles. Thought to be the oldest people of the Antilles. Simple social organization and technology. Low Simple social organization and technology. Low population density. No agriculture. Simple population density. No agriculture. Simple religion.religion.

Assumed to have once occupied most of the Assumed to have once occupied most of the Antilles but later replaced by Arawaks and Antilles but later replaced by Arawaks and Caribs.Caribs.

Survived in Cuba until early 17Survived in Cuba until early 17thth Century when Century when Spanish settlers offered rewards for their Spanish settlers offered rewards for their extermination because they shot cattle with extermination because they shot cattle with bows and arrows.bows and arrows.

Rouse 1948: 497-503

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The Arawak PeopleThe Arawak People Farming & fishing peoples whose ancestors Farming & fishing peoples whose ancestors

probably arose more than 4,000 years ago along probably arose more than 4,000 years ago along Orinoco River in Venezuela.Orinoco River in Venezuela.

Found mostly in Greater Antilles in 1492.Found mostly in Greater Antilles in 1492. Dense populations & large citiesDense populations & large cities Complex social organization – ChiefdomsComplex social organization – Chiefdoms Distance Trading by Canoe – made from dugout Distance Trading by Canoe – made from dugout

cottonwood or cedar trees. Chief’s canoe could cottonwood or cedar trees. Chief’s canoe could hold 70-80 men and was painted. Propulsion by hold 70-80 men and was painted. Propulsion by long blade paddles. Traveled all around big long blade paddles. Traveled all around big islands but also between islands. Individuals islands but also between islands. Individuals would go on long voyages alone in small canoes.would go on long voyages alone in small canoes.

Oldest canoe found in region is from Florida and Oldest canoe found in region is from Florida and is dated many thousand of years old, and other is dated many thousand of years old, and other Florida finds are 10s of thousands of years old . Florida finds are 10s of thousands of years old .

Rouse1948:507-546

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Arawak – Interesting FactsArawak – Interesting Facts

Washing body was common. Used an aromatic fruit to form Washing body was common. Used an aromatic fruit to form a lather in the water.a lather in the water.

Cooked from a pot that was over the fire all the time – Cooked from a pot that was over the fire all the time – called a called a pepper potpepper pot – each day people would add food to it. – each day people would add food to it.

Painted and tattooed the body – both men and women did Painted and tattooed the body – both men and women did this. Used red, white, black, and yellow paints from this. Used red, white, black, and yellow paints from vegetables and resinous gum. Often painted vegetables and resinous gum. Often painted ZemisZemis – – symbols of spirits. Pierced ears and nasal septum and symbols of spirits. Pierced ears and nasal septum and added plugs.added plugs.

Gold was washed from streams and made into jewelry.Gold was washed from streams and made into jewelry. Chiefs could punish subjects by death for theft and Chiefs could punish subjects by death for theft and

adultery.adultery. MatrilinealMatrilineal – personal property and chieftainship was – personal property and chieftainship was

inherited through women.inherited through women.

Rouse1948:507-546

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Who Are The Carib People?Who Are The Carib People? In some respects this is one of the more In some respects this is one of the more

important questions of this section, because important questions of this section, because whatever the Carib people were at contact whatever the Carib people were at contact they became the image of all Native Americans they became the image of all Native Americans to Europeans.to Europeans.

Think of them as newcomers to the Caribbean. Think of them as newcomers to the Caribbean. They even remembered arriving.They even remembered arriving.

Think of them as basically like the Arawaks – Think of them as basically like the Arawaks – farmers with good boats and some quirky farmers with good boats and some quirky traits.traits.

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Carib BoatsCarib Boats They were boat experts, having four typesThey were boat experts, having four types

PiroguesPirogues Large canoesLarge canoes Small canoesSmall canoes RaftsRafts

The first two types were dugouts, but the sides were built The first two types were dugouts, but the sides were built up with planks, sewn together and pitched with bitumen.up with planks, sewn together and pitched with bitumen.

The average length of the piroque was 40 feet, some The average length of the piroque was 40 feet, some were large enough to carry 50 persons. Each one had a were large enough to carry 50 persons. Each one had a keel, a raised and pointed bow, a series of plank seats, keel, a raised and pointed bow, a series of plank seats, and a flat-pooped stern carved with an animal’s head to and a flat-pooped stern carved with an animal’s head to frighten the enemy and often decorated with a frighten the enemy and often decorated with a barbecued human armbarbecued human arm

In historic times, (and perhaps earlier) the pirogues had In historic times, (and perhaps earlier) the pirogues had three masts and the canoes two, each supporting a sail three masts and the canoes two, each supporting a sail made from cotton or from palm-leaf matting.made from cotton or from palm-leaf matting.

Rouse 1948: 553-554

203203 3838

Who Has The Who Has The Boat Technology Advantage?Boat Technology Advantage?

CaribArawak

Rouse 1948: Plates 91, 94

203203 3939

Cannibal WarriorsCannibal Warriors The Carib held assemblies to decide upon war and to The Carib held assemblies to decide upon war and to

fix a rendezvous; at these meetings the old women fix a rendezvous; at these meetings the old women harangued them on the cruelty of the enemy, the war harangued them on the cruelty of the enemy, the war chief exhorted them to revenge themselves, they chief exhorted them to revenge themselves, they became very drunk, and at the height of the festival became very drunk, and at the height of the festival they ate some enemy flesh, smoked and preserved they ate some enemy flesh, smoked and preserved from the last raid.from the last raid.

Each warrior was given a gourd full of pebbles, a string Each warrior was given a gourd full of pebbles, a string with knots [quipu?], or a stick with notches, to tell how with knots [quipu?], or a stick with notches, to tell how many days before he had to be at the rendezvous.many days before he had to be at the rendezvous.

The primary weapon was the 6 foot long bow and The primary weapon was the 6 foot long bow and arrows.arrows.

Caribs attacked at dawn to catch the enemy asleep. If Caribs attacked at dawn to catch the enemy asleep. If the enemy was defeated, they pillaged the village and the enemy was defeated, they pillaged the village and roasted and ate the enemy corpses. They bound roasted and ate the enemy corpses. They bound prisoners and carried them home. They then ate the prisoners and carried them home. They then ate the men and incorporated the women and children into men and incorporated the women and children into their own families.their own families.

Rouse 1948: 559-560

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The Essential CaribThe Essential Carib

Cannibal Warrior Society or Agricultural Folks who Cannibal Warrior Society or Agricultural Folks who could expand their territory and were a bit “in could expand their territory and were a bit “in you face” with defeated groups?you face” with defeated groups?

Most contemporary analysts agree that the Caribs Most contemporary analysts agree that the Caribs were culturally and socially similar to the were culturally and socially similar to the Arawaks, but were more aggressive against Arawaks, but were more aggressive against outsiders.outsiders.

Key issue here is: Did the Spanish select one Key issue here is: Did the Spanish select one cultural characteristic (i.e., eating defeated cultural characteristic (i.e., eating defeated opponents) in order to essentialize the Caribs and opponents) in order to essentialize the Caribs and to rationalize the conquest, conversion, and to rationalize the conquest, conversion, and enslavement of enslavement of all all New World peoples?New World peoples?

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The Foundation of The Foundation of EssentializationEssentialization

After Columbus made contact with the Carib After Columbus made contact with the Carib during his second voyage, in 1493, he purposely during his second voyage, in 1493, he purposely sailed farther south in order to investigate these sailed farther south in order to investigate these fierce savages of whom he had heard in fierce savages of whom he had heard in Hispaniola. {Note here that he first developed this Hispaniola. {Note here that he first developed this Carib assessment from their enemies the Arawak}Carib assessment from their enemies the Arawak}

He discovered a Carib village in Guadeloupe He discovered a Carib village in Guadeloupe where he received on board six captive Arawak where he received on board six captive Arawak women. There was no battle because the Carib women. There was no battle because the Carib men were gone.men were gone.

He then proceeded to St. Croix where Carib He then proceeded to St. Croix where Carib warriors attacked his expedition before it warriors attacked his expedition before it departed for the Arawak island of Puerto Rico.departed for the Arawak island of Puerto Rico.

Rouse 1948: 547-548

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Essential ResponseEssential Response

The Spanish made no attempt to settle the Lesser The Spanish made no attempt to settle the Lesser Antilles. There was no gold there, and the Antilles. There was no gold there, and the agricultural potentialities did not compensate the agricultural potentialities did not compensate the difficulty of subduing the Carib.difficulty of subduing the Carib.

[Note, that the small villages of the Carib were [Note, that the small villages of the Carib were scattered on the high islands in isolated valleys that scattered on the high islands in isolated valleys that were difficult to approach and easy to defend.]were difficult to approach and easy to defend.]

[Note, that the Spanish had little interest in [Note, that the Spanish had little interest in farming.]farming.]

The Spanish colonists did, however, make The Spanish colonists did, however, make numerous slave raids against the Carib islands numerous slave raids against the Carib islands taking advantage, after the prohibition of such raids taking advantage, after the prohibition of such raids elsewhere, of a provision permitting their attacks elsewhere, of a provision permitting their attacks on cannibals.on cannibals.

Rouse 1948: 548

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Expansion of an Expansion of an EssentializationEssentialization

Why did the Spanish (and later other Europeans) care to Why did the Spanish (and later other Europeans) care to characterize the Indians of the New World as characterize the Indians of the New World as cannibalscannibals??

Morgan (1997: 176) argues that Europeans involved in conquest Morgan (1997: 176) argues that Europeans involved in conquest and slavery needed rationalizations for their actions. They and slavery needed rationalizations for their actions. They accomplished this by developing stereotypes of American accomplished this by developing stereotypes of American Indians (and later Africans) that would Indians (and later Africans) that would distancedistance these peoples these peoples from the world of white civilization. Being a cannibal made the from the world of white civilization. Being a cannibal made the person a just candidate for slavery. Indian and African women person a just candidate for slavery. Indian and African women were characterized in negative terms that would were characterized in negative terms that would remove themremove them from the protection of European norms, and in turn position from the protection of European norms, and in turn position them as valid candidates for slavery, abuse, and even death. them as valid candidates for slavery, abuse, and even death. Morgan illustrates this point with reference to a 1592 book Morgan illustrates this point with reference to a 1592 book where an Indian woman was portrayed in a drawing as licking where an Indian woman was portrayed in a drawing as licking the juices of grilled human flesh from her fingers.the juices of grilled human flesh from her fingers.

Jennings (1975) called the this process the Jennings (1975) called the this process the “Cant Of Conquest;”“Cant Of Conquest;” a battle of words and ideas in which the conquest and a battle of words and ideas in which the conquest and enslavement of others is deemed just and even good for them enslavement of others is deemed just and even good for them because it brings them out of a savage condition into a civilized because it brings them out of a savage condition into a civilized state.state.

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Selected ReferencesSelected References

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Carmony, N. and D. Brown eds. (1979) The Carmony, N. and D. Brown eds. (1979) The Wilderness of the Southwest. Salt Lake: University Wilderness of the Southwest. Salt Lake: University of Utah Press.of Utah Press.

Castilla, Juan (1993) Humans: Capstone Strong Castilla, Juan (1993) Humans: Capstone Strong Actors in the Past and Present Coastal Ecological Actors in the Past and Present Coastal Ecological Play in Humans as Components of Ecosystems by Play in Humans as Components of Ecosystems by M. McDonnel and S. Pickett (eds).M. McDonnel and S. Pickett (eds).

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ReferencesReferences Connell, Joseph H. (1978) Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests and Connell, Joseph H. (1978) Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests and

Coral Reefs. Science 199(4335): 1302-1310.Coral Reefs. Science 199(4335): 1302-1310. Groark, Kevin (1996) “Ritual and Therapeutic Use of Groark, Kevin (1996) “Ritual and Therapeutic Use of

‘Hallucinogenic’ Harvester Ants (Pogonomyrmex) in Native South-‘Hallucinogenic’ Harvester Ants (Pogonomyrmex) in Native South-Central California.” Journal of Ethnobiology 16(1): 1-30.Central California.” Journal of Ethnobiology 16(1): 1-30.

Jackson, Jeremy (et al.) 2001(July 27) Historical Overfishing and Jackson, Jeremy (et al.) 2001(July 27) Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems. the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems. ScienceScience Vol 293, 629- Vol 293, 629-638.638.

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Mann, Charles (2002) The Real Dirt on Rainforest Fertility. Mann, Charles (2002) The Real Dirt on Rainforest Fertility. ScienceScience Magazine (August 9)Magazine (August 9) Vol. 297: 292-293. Vol. 297: 292-293.

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ReferencesReferences Morgan, Jennifer (1997) Some Could Suckle: Male Travelers, Morgan, Jennifer (1997) Some Could Suckle: Male Travelers,

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