Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide

2020–2021

Production Guide CoordinatorR. M. Crassweller

HorticultureR. M. Crassweller, section coordinatorT. A. Baugher, T. G. Ford, R. P. Marini, J. R. Schupp,

D. Weber

EntomologyG. Krawczyk, section coordinatorD. J. Biddinger

Pollination and Bee ManagementD. J. Biddinger, M. López-UribeJ. Hopwood, Xerces Society

Plant Pathology and NematologyK. A. Peter, section coordinatorB. L. Lehman

Wildlife ResourcesM. C. Brittingham

Pesticide SafetyJ. Johnson, E. Crow, E. Weaver, Penn State Pesticide Education

Program

Harvest and Postharvest HandlingR. M. Crassweller, J. R. Schupp

Cider Production and Food SafetyL. F. LaBorde

Orchard BudgetsJ. K. Harper, L. F. Kime

Farm Labor RegulationsK. Kephart, R. H. Pifer

MarketingK. M. Kelley

Precision AgricultureL. He, P. Heinemann

Disease, Insect FiguresC. Gregory, C. Jung

Cover PhotoR. M. Crassweller

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© The Pennsylvania State University 2020

Code AGRS-045 Rev8M01/20printers.com

METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Centimeters Inches Feet

1.00 0.394 0.0328 2.54 1.000 0.083 30.48 12.000 1.000

Acres Hectares

1.000 0.405 2.471 1.000

Liters Pints Quarts Gallons

1.000 2.113 1.057 0.264 0.473 1.000 0.500 0.125 0.946 2.000 1.000 0.250 3.785 8.000 4.000 1.000

COMMON METRIC EQUIVALENTS

Meters Yards Inches

1.000 1.093 39.37 0.914 1.000 36.000

Kilometers Miles

1.000 0.621 1.609 1.000

Milliliter Teaspoon Tablespoon Fluid ounce Cup

1.000 0.200 0.064 0.032 0.004 15.000 3.000 1.000 0.500 0.063 240.000 48.000 16.000 8.000 1.000 30.000 6.000 2.000 1.000 0.125

Grams Ounces Pounds

1.00 0.035 0.002 28.35 1.000 0.063 453.59 16.000 1.000 1000.00 35.274 2.205

Kilograms Ounces Pounds 1.000 35.274 2.205 0.028 1.000 0.063 0.454 16.000 1.000

Metric U.S.

Millimeter 0.039 inchesCentimeter 0.39 inchesMeter (100 cm) 39.4 inches = 3.28 feetKilometer (1,000 m) 0.62 milesSquare centimeter 0.155 square inchesSquare meter 1.2 square yardsHectare (10,000 sq m) 2.471 acresSquare kilometer (100 ha) 247 acresGram 0.035 ouncesKilogram (1,000 g) 2.2 poundsTon (metric) (1,000 kg) 1.1 tons (U.S.)Milliliter 0.032 fluid ounceLiter (1,000 ml) 1.056 quarts = 2.1 pintsCubic meter (1,000 l) 264.17 gallons (U.S.)

Dry measure16 ounces = 1 poundone ton = 2,000 pounds1 metric ton = 1.102 ton

Square measureone acre = 43,560 square feet = 4,840 yardsone square foot = 144 square inchesone square yard = 9 square feet

Weights of liquids1 gallon water = 8.34 pounds1 cubic foot water = 62.4 pounds231 cubic inches = 1 gallon

Linear measureone foot = 12 inchesone yard = 3 feet = 36 inchesone rod = 16.5 feet = 5.5 yardsone mile = 5,280 feet = 8 furlongsone rod x 1 mile = 2 acres

Cubic measure1 cubic foot = 1,728 cubic inches1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet231 cubic inches = 1 gallon

Parts per million (ppm)ppm = % x 10,0001% = 10,000 ppm1 ppm = 1 milligram per liter = 1 milligram per kilogram1 ppm = one part per million by weight = 1 pound in 100,000 gals. of water100 ppm = 1 pound in 1,000 gals. of water = 1.6 ounces in 100 gals. of water

Liquid measure1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces = ½ pint1 pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces1 quart = 2 pints = 4 cups = 32 fluid ounces1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 16 cups = 128 fluid ounces

Miscellaneous factsdiameter = circumference x 0.318area of a circle = diameter2 x 0.785volume of a cylinder = 3.14 x radius2 x heightvolume of a sphere = diameter3 x 0.524volume of a cone = area of base x height ÷ 31 ppm is approximately: 1 inch in 16 miles or 1 minute in 2 years or 1 ounce in 31 tons or 1 cent in $10,000

U.S. Metric

Inch 2.54 centimetersFoot (12 in.) 30.5 centimetersMile (5,280 ft.) 1.6 kilometersSquare inch 6.5 square centimetersSquare foot (144 sq. in.) 930 square centimetersSquare yard (9 sq. ft.) 0.84 square metersAcre (43,560 sq. ft.) 0.405 hectaresOunce 28.3 gramsPound (16 oz.) 453.5 grams = 0.454 kilogramsTablespoon (3 teaspoons) 14.79 millilitersFluid ounce (2 tablespoons) 29.6 millilitersPint (2 cups) 0.473 litersQuart (4 cups) 0.946 litersGallon (U.S.) (4 quarts) 3.8 liters

Conversion of Weights and Measures

Code AGRS-045

Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

I. Cultural Information ......................................................... 1

II. Diseases, Disorders, Pests, and Natural Enemies .......... 99

III. Chemical Management ................................................ 191

IV. Chemical Management Tables ..................................... 265

V. Integrated Pest Management Spray Programs ............. 289

VI. Harvest and Postharvest Handling ............................... 331

VII. Cider Production .......................................................... 341

VIII. Maintaining the Safety of Pennsylvania Apples and Apple Products .......................................... 349

IX. Farm Management ....................................................... 363

X. Marketing .................................................................... 391

XI. Precision Agriculture ................................................... 425

Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... iii

Part I Cultural Information ...............................................................................................................................................1

Part II Diseases, Disorders, Pests, and Natural Enemies .............................................................................................99

Part III Chemical Management ....................................................................................................................................191

Part IV Chemical Management Tables ........................................................................................................................265

Part V Integrated Pest Management Spray Programs .................................................................................................289

Part VI Harvest and Postharvest Handling ..................................................................................................................331

Part VII Cider Production .............................................................................................................................................341

Part VIII Maintaining the Safety of Pennsylvania Apples and Apple Products .............................................................349

Part IX Farm Management ..........................................................................................................................................363

Part X Marketing .........................................................................................................................................................391

Part XI Precision Agriculture ........................................................................................................................................425

Appendix ....................................................................................................................................................................437

Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................................................440

86 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

not survive the severe heading, but little tree mortality has been observed with moderate size trees.

The first summerTrees should be pruned at least once and possibly two times during the summer before growth ceases. Summer pruning reduces the amount of dormant pruning required the first winter and will direct growth into the desirable scaffold branches. In late May and again in July, remove low shoots on the trunk to a height of 20 inches. Re-move all shoots forming angles less than 45 degrees with the trunk. Remove vertical shoots that are unacceptable as scaffold branches. Encourage a spreading growth habit by pinching upright-growing shoots back to an outward-growing bud or sylleptic (secondary) shoot. Pinching used in this way is actually a type of bench cut. Pinching should be done in late June and/or July while shoots are actively growing. Another approach to pruning first-year trees involves retaining the top few shoots with poor crotches and head them half in late June. Growth of the headed shoots is suppressed while encouraging growth of the lower shoots that have wide crotches. The small “bush” in the tree center is removed during the winter to leave the lower wide-crotched branches.

The first winter At the end of the first season, some trees will have many desirable limbs, but others will have limbs on only one side or may have vertical growth habits and upright leaders. The first winter is the most important time to select branches that will develop into a strong framework capable of carrying heavy crops in the future. If trees were pruned during their first summer, very little pruning will be needed during their first winter. The pruned trees should begin to resemble an open vase. Remove branches on the trunk within 20 inches from the ground and branches that form angles of less than 45 degrees with the trunk. Branches with nar-row crotches are weak and may split from the trunk because bark extends into the crotch. Narrow crotches are also susceptible to winter injury, Cytospora canker, and borers. Some trees produce only two limbs that resemble a Y. If the two limbs form a strong wide crotch (U-shaped) they can both be retained, otherwise remove one of the limbs and new limbs should develop along the trunk in subset years. Each peach tree is fairly unique, so there are at least two basic methods of developing an open-center tree that has a strong frame-work, and they seem to be equally effective. The most common method involves selecting three primary branches with wide crotch angles and that are spaced evenly around the trunk. Some trees will not have three acceptable limbs at the end of the first season, but excellent trees can be developed with only two main branches. Sometimes, four to six desirable limbs will grow at one point on the trunk. Remove all but three of these branches because there will eventually be three dominant limbs and the others will be squeezed out. The other method of developing an open-center form is to head the tree at 3 to 4 feet at planting; this is often preferable with the larger nursery trees. Select three to five limbs that are distributed evenly on the trunk and spaced 4 to 6 inches apart vertically. After the first year’s growth, peach trees with three main branches at 24 to 30 inches above ground look quite different from those that have four or five main limbs extending to 4 feet. However, as these trees grow for several years and are trained to the open center, they will

appear much more uniform. Northern peach growers often prefer trees with five to eight branches in case one of more branches are injured by low winter temperatures. Avoid horizontal limbs on young trees because they will bend downward with the weight of a crop and will eventually need to be removed to allow equipment to move under the tree. Watersprouts (upright shoots developing along the upper side of a branch) will also arise along the top of a horizontal limb. An angle of 40 to 50 degrees from the vertical is most desirable. Remove root suckers, downward-growing shoots, and strong vertical shoots that shade the tree center. Keep the tree balanced by shortening the strongest branches. Encourage early fruiting by retaining as much of the tree as possible, including the smaller side shoots growing from the selected main branches. Head the scaffold limbs above an outward-growing secondary shoot to encourage a spreading growth habit. Sometimes a tree will produce a strong shoot from the soil line and the rest of the tree is weak or dead. If the shoot originates below the bud union, it is the rootstock and the tree should be replaced. If it develops from above the bud union, it should be pruned to a strong shoot. Second-ary limbs with wide crotches developing at the appropriate height on these shoots can later be selected as scaffold limbs.

Second summerPruning trees during the second summer helps improve light penetration into the tree center and develop fruiting wood for the third season. Shoots developing on the trunk below the scaffold branches should be removed in June. Remove vigorous upright shoots developing near the tree center. By late June, when syl-leptic (secondary) shoots develop on growing shoots, the upright portion of the terminal shoot can be pinched just above an out-ward-growing sylleptic shoot. This will encourage the spreading growth of the tree and direct growth into the desired secondary shoot. Summer pruning should be completed by mid-July.

Second winterPeach trees that have grown well for two years may be 5 to 7 feet tall, 6 to 8 feet wide, and have trunks 3 to 6 inches in diameter. Such trees will also have numerous flower buds, and, if pruned moderately, may produce 20 to 40 pounds of fruit during the third summer. Excessive pruning will reduce yield the third summer. Trees should have two or more well-spaced scaffold branches with wide crotch angles. If this is not the case, try to select ap-propriate scaffold branches and remove all others. Remove all large watersprouts originating near the tree center. Scaffolds with less than 30 inches of new growth and have several side branches should be pruned to leave two or three well-spaced side branches. Remove shoots developing on the lower sides of scaffold limbs because fruit on these shoots will pull the scaffolds down, interfering with herbicide application. Retain most of the other one-year shoots throughout the tree. Sometimes two shoots of equal size will develop near the end of a scaffold branch and will form a V-crotch. One shoot should be removed to prevent weak crotches. The terminal ends of scaffold branches often grow upright. In the event that the tip of a scaffold is oriented vertically, it may be redirected outward by pruning to an outward-growing secondary shoot. This type of bench cut is preferably performed during the summer but can be performed during the winter.

Part I. Cultural Information 87

Third year Trees develop best when low branches and watersprouts are removed in June. Upright portions of terminal shoots should be pinched just above an outward-growing secondary shoot to encourage the spreading form. After the third season, peach trees are usually 6 to 9 feet tall, 7 to 9 feet wide, and have trunks 4 to 7 inches in diameter. During the fourth summer, peach trees may produce 50 to 80 pounds of fruit. Trees should be pruned the same as during the second winter to maintain a low spreading form. It is most important to remove watersprouts, low branches, and excess fruiting shoots.

Pruning young fruiting treesDuring the first three years, the primary objective of pruning peach trees is grow a tree with a strong structure capable of supporting heavy future crops. As the trees fill their allotted spaces during years four, five, and six, the orchardist must encourage a transition from vegetative growth to fruit production. After three growing seasons, a well-trained peach tree should have three to five scaffold branches with wide angles, evenly distributed around the tree. Young fruiting trees usually grow fairly vigorously and moderate corrective pruning is needed to keep their centers open and maintain the desired tree size. The weight of fruit on the limbs encourages a spreading growth habit and heavy pruning should not be necessary. Continue annual summer pruning to eliminate vertical watersprouts and to tip upright scaffold limbs to outward-growing secondary shoots. Remove large, vigorous upright shoots and watersprouts with sylleptic shoots. These shoots may be 4 to 7 feet long; they are not very fruitful, and they shade the tree center. Rather than shortening these vigorous shoots to retain side shoots with flower buds, completely remove them because several vigorous shoots will emerge and continue to create a vigor problem. Retain nonbranched shoots that have flower buds, even if they are oriented vertically. The weight of fruit will pull these shoots down and suppress their vigor. Do not remove all fruiting shoots in the center of the tree. The most productive open-center trees have fruiting wood throughout the tree canopy. It is fairly easy to maintain fruiting wood inside the tree; but, once it is lost, it is difficult to re-establish. Remove some excess of branches to permit light to reach the tree center. However, maintain a supply of shoots that have strong flower buds. Depending on the cultivar and tree spacing, a properly trained peach tree will produce 50 to 80 pounds of fruit during the fourth and fifth seasons.

Pruning middle-aged treesPeach trees have a shell of fruit-bearing wood about 4 feet in depth. This shell may be 4 to 8 feet above ground on low trees or 8 to 12 feet on taller upright trees. Total yield is usually greater for the taller trees, but the increased cost of pruning, thinning, harvesting, and spraying tall trees usually offsets the higher yields. Trees that are 7 to 9 feet tall have been very profitable in the East. Careful, annual selective pruning is required to maintain low, spreading trees that have much of their growth on a low, horizontal plane. Every season, some of the smaller twigs die, especially in shaded parts of the tree. Some of the older branches also become weak and die from other causes such as canker and borers. Remove the larger dead and badly cankered branches. It is not economical to remove all small, dead twigs, but some should be removed because they may rub and puncture fruit, and the bases of such shoots are entry sites for canker.

By the sixth year, the canopy should be fully developed for maximum yields. The objectives of pruning peach trees during years 6 through 10 are to maintain tree heights of 7 to 9 feet above ground and to maintain productive fruiting wood throughout the tree. The low spreading tree form can be maintained with proper pruning and fertilization. Remove all vigorous watersprouts that grow vertically; do not cut them to side shoots. Retain 12- to 18-inch fruiting shoots regardless of their orientation. Remember that flowers and fruit are borne on wood produced the previous year. If left unchecked, fruiting wood tends to grow farther out on the ends of branches each year. Prune each year to keep the tree within bounds and to prevent the branches from breaking. Stimulate growth of one-year fruiting wood in the tree center by thinning-out and heading-back inside branches. As trees come into bearing, weight of fruit bends some branches toward the ground, and these limbs may not return to an orientation above the horizontal after harvest. Some limbs, especially on the lower portions of the tree, should be removed by thinning to a shoot that is oriented above the horizontal. Some years, peach trees produce more fruiting wood than other years. Because pruning is used to manage crop load, more shoots should be removed when ample fruit buds exist, especially for varieties with small fruit. Thin-out fruiting shoots to a spacing of about 4 to 6 inches apart along the limbs to stimulate better growth of remaining shoots, to prevent excess fruiting and fruit thinning, and improve fruit size. Also remove the 3- to 6-inch-long fruiting shoots that are mixed with the more desirable 12- to 18-inch shoots. The shorter shoots produce small fruit. A thorough pruning job requires time and labor (10 to 15 minutes per tree), but it also saves time and labor during thinning and harvest.

Pruning older treesPeach trees in the Mid-Atlantic region often remain profitable until they are 15 to 20 years old. As peach trees age, they become less vigorous. Good fruiting wood becomes scarcer and is often located at the ends of long, leggy limbs. A major objective of pruning older trees is to encourage the production of good fruiting shoots. Old trees can be invigorated by cutting back into wood that is three or more years old. Cut to good outward-growing side limbs. New shoots will develop from dormant buds under the bark near the pruning cuts. Pruning to invigorate old trees re-duces the following season’s crop because much bearing surface is removed, but it is the only way to renew a tree. Increasing the nitrogen fertilizer by 10 to 20 percent may also help encourage new growth. Heavy pruning encourages growth of new wood during the two seasons following treatment. Such severe pruning to renew old trees is profitable only in blocks where most of the trees are still present and in reasonably good vigor. Where more than 20 percent of the trees are missing or are weak, renewal pruning may not be profitable and it may be time to remove the old trees and replant the entire block.

Pruning Perpendicular V trees During the past 20 years a number of Mid-Atlantic peach growers have transitioned to the “Perpendicular V” or “Kearney Agri-cultural Center Perpendicular V” (KAC-V) orchard system for peaches and nectarines. Trees are planted at spacings of about 5 or 6 by 18 feet and trained to two scaffold branches oriented perpendicular to the row to form V-shaped trees. The primary

138 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

abdomen. They are brown on top but yellow-red below. Sawfly larvae resemble caterpillars but have prolegs on each abdominal segment. They also have a strong odor. Sawflies overwinter as larvae in the soil and have only one generation per year. Adults emerge during late pink and early bloom. Eggs are laid on the calyx end of developing fruit. The first instar larvae tunnel just under the epidermis of the fruit, resulting in the typical ribbon-like scar (primary injury). These apples usually remain on the tree when these small larvae are killed with a petal fall spray, and the presence of the scars at harvest can reduce fruit value. The second and older instar larvae bore deeply into the seed chamber of the fruit and can penetrate several additional fruit, usually causing fruit abortion. Later instar injuries on fruit are easy to detect with reddish-brown frass similar to that seen from codling moth damage. Another sawfly species called the dock sawfly, Ametastegia glabrata (Fallen), can be found in fruit at harvest when its normal host weed grows high enough to reach the lower scaffold of apple. The larvae of this sawfly are bright green in color with a striped head capsule, whereas the larvae of the European apple sawfly are white with an amber head capsule.

Monitoring and management Black Ladybird BeetleSticky, rectangular, non-ultraviolet-reflecting, white traps should be placed at a density of one per 3 to 5 acres along the orchard periphery at the pink stage of apples on the south sides of trees at 5 to 6 feet above the ground. Insecticide treatment thresholds are five wasps per trap by petal fall if no prebloom insecticide has been applied. An application of an effective insecticide as soon as pollination is complete is the best control tactic for orchards with a history of this sawfly. Neonicotinoid insecticides applied at petal fall for rosy apple aphid control have not provided effective control of this pest, and currently only phosmet at petal fall has proved effective. Optimal timing to prevent injury would be at bloom, which is not possible due to insecticide impacts on bees. Numerous predators and parasitoids of European apple sawfly are reported from Europe, but no native biocontrol agents are

reported to be effective in North America. A partially successful classical biological control program was initiated in Canada to introduce a solitary larval endoparasitoid Lathrolestes ensator Brauns (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) for the control of this pest. Other options for biological control of European apple saw-fly are the Heterohabditid and Steinernematid entomopathogenic nematodes, which are still being investigated in laboratory and semi-field conditions.

EUROPEAN RED MITE

European red mite, Panonychus ulmi, a major tree fruit pest at-tacking apples, stone fruits, and pears, is considered by many growers throughout Pennsylvania to be one of the most important apple pests. The mite was introduced into North America from Europe in the early 1900s and is now established in most fruit-growing areas.

Description and life cycleEight-legged females are 1∕64 inch long, bright red, and have four rows of white hairs on their backs. Males are smaller, lighter in color, and have pointed abdomens. Overwintering eggs are round, bright red, and have a small stalk, approximately the length of the diameter of the egg, arising from the top. Summer eggs are pale and translucent. Six-legged nymphs hatch from the eggs, molt to eight-legged protonymphs, then deutonymphs, and finally adults. Overwintering eggs are laid individually on roughened bark, in crevices and cracks, and around bud scales on twigs and branches. Eggs begin to hatch at prepink bud stages and continue throughout bloom. Young mites move to newly opened leaves where they feed, mature, and reproduce. The first generation requires approximately three weeks to develop; summer genera-tions are completed in 10 to 18 days. The rate at which mites develop is primarily temperature dependent. Hot, dry weather favors development, while cool, wet weather delays mite activi-ties. Each female is capable of laying 35 eggs during her average life span of 18 days. Eight to 10 generations can occur during a single season. Mites feeding on leaves cause injury to the tree by removing leaf tissue. The most serious injury occurs in early summer when

European Apple Sawfly

Adult Damage

European Red Mite Life Stages

Adult female Adult male

Overwintering egg

Immature stages

Stethorus punctum, Black Ladybird Beetle Life Stages

Egg

Larva Pupa Adult

Part III. Chemical Management 199

(continued)

Table 3-1. EPA numbers and Worker Protection Standard reentry and personal protective equipment guidelines.

Worker notification: Under most circumstances, worker employers must make sure that workers are notified about areas where pesticide applications are taking place or where restricted-entry intervals are in effect. For details on notification requirements both for these products and those not represented below, refer to the product label and the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170.

Product EPA reg. no. Common name REI (hours) Applicator PPE Early entry PPE

Insecticides and Acaricides

Acramite 50WS 400-503 **bifenazate 12 ach cfk

Actara 25WDG (non-RUP) 100-938 **thiamethoxam 12 acf cfk

Admire Pro 4.6SC (non-RUP) 264-827 **imidacloprid 12 acf cfk

§Agree 3.8WS 70051-47 Bt 4 abcl bck

*Agri-Flex SC 100-1350 **abamectin, **thiamethoxam 12 acf cdf

*Agri-Mek 8SC 100-1351 **abamectin 12 acf cdf

Altacor 35WDG (non-RUP) 279-9607 chlorantraniliprole 4 ac ac

*Ambush 25WP 5481-502 **permethrin 12 acfi cfhk

Apollo 4SC 66222-47 **clofentezine 12 acf cfk

*Asana XL 0.66EC 59639-209 **esfenvalerate 12 acfh cfhk

Assail 30SG 8033-36 **acetamiprid 12 acfj bck

Avaunt 30WDG 279-9587 **indoxacarb 12 acf efg

§Aza-Direct 1.2L 71908-1-10163 **azadirachtin bee toxicity not in label 4 acf cfk

§Azatin XL 0.27EC 70051-27-59807 **azadirachtin bee toxicity not in label 4 acfh cfhk

*Baythroid XL 1EC 264-840 **beta-cyfluthrin 12 acfhl cfhk

Beleaf 50SG 71512-10-279 flonicamid 12 abcl bc

*Brigade 10WSB 279-3108 **bifenthrin 12 abc bck

*Brigade 2EC 279-3313 **bifenthrin 12 acf cfk

§Carpovirusine 0.99SC 66330-55 granulosis virus 12 acfhlo chfk

Centaur 0.7WDG (non-RUP) 71711-21 buprofezin 12 abc bck

§Checkmate CM-F 14.4S 56336-37 pheromone 4 abc bcd

§Checkmate OFM-F 24.6S 56336-24 pheromone 0 abc —

§Checkmate Puffer CM-OFM 73479-11 pheromone 0 — —

§Cyd-X 0.06SC 70051-44 granulosis virus 4 abcl bck

*Danitol 2.4EC 59639-35 **fenpropathrin 24 acfh cfhk

Delegate 25WG 62719-541 **spinetoram toxic to bees 4 ac cfk

§Deliver 18WG 70051-69 Bt 4 abcl bck

§Des-X 4.07LC 67702-22-70051 insecticidal soap 12 dfghij dfghj

*Diazinon 50WP 66222-10 **diazinon 96 acf efgj

Dimethoate 4EC (non-RUP) 19713-231 **dimethoate 10 days acfhil efgj

Dimethoate 400 (non-RUP) 34704-207 **dimethoate 10 days acfilh efgj

§Dipel 10.3DF 73049-39 Bt 4 abc bck

*Endigo ZC 100-1276 **lambda-cyhalothrin, **thiamethoxam 24 dfgij dfgj

§Entrust 80WP 62719-282 **spinosad 4 ac bck

§Entrust 2SC 62719-621 **spinosad 4 ac cfk

Envidor 2SC 264-831 **spirodiclofen toxic to bees 12 abc abc

Esteem 35WP 59639-115 pyriproxyfen 12 ac bce

Exirel 0.83E (non-RUP) 279-9615 **cyantraniliprole 12 acf cfk

*Gladiator EC 279-3441 **zeta-cypermethrin, avermectin B1 12 acf cfk

Imidan 70W (non-RUP) 10163-169 **phosmet 3–7 days (E) acfi cfjk

Intrepid 2F (non-RUP) 62719-442 methoxyfenozide 4 acf cfk

§Isomate-CM/OFM TT 53575-30 pheromone 0 b —

§Isomate-PTB Dual 53575-34 pheromone 0 b —

§Isomate OFM TT 53575-29 pheromone 0 b —

§Isomate CM/OFM Mist 53575-44 pheromone 0 b —

§Isomate DWB 53575-40 pheromone 0 b —

§Javelin 7.5WDG 70051-66 Bt 4 abcl bck

§JMS Stylet-Oil 65564-1 paraffinic oil 4 acf cfk

322 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

Pesticide recommendations for tart cherries, prebloom.

FRAC Group Pesticide Recommended rate per acre

CHOOSE one of the following:

M3 Ziram 76DF 5–8 lb

M4 Captan 80WDGa 2.5 lb

M5 Bravo Weather Stik 3.1–4 pt

M5 Chlorothalonil 720 3.1–4 pt

1 Topsin M WSBb 1–1.5 lb

2 Rovral 4 Fb 1–2 pt

3 Indar 2Fb 6–12 fl oz

3 Quashb 4 oz

3 Rally 40WSPb 2.5–6 oz

3 Rhymeb 7 fl oz

3 + 7 Luna Experienceb 6–10 fl oz

7 Fontelisb 14–20 fl oz

7 Kenja 12.5 fl oz

7 + 11 Luna Sensationb 5–7.6 fl oz

7 + 11 Merivonb 4–6.7 fl oz

7 + 11 Pristineb 10.5–14.5 oz

9 Vangardb 5 oz

11 Cabrio EGb 9.5 oz

11 Flint Extrab 2.5–3.8 fl oz

Fungicide and Antibiotic Notesa. Equivalent products include Captan 50% W and WP, and Captan and

Captec 4L. Check the label for rates per 100 gallons per acre. REI restrictions vary from 24 hours to four days; check the label of the product you are using. Some captan products may be applied up to the day of harvest.

b. These products work best when used in combination with a protectant such as captan or chlorothalonil to reduce resistance pressure.

Tart Cherries—BloomUse the same materials listed at prebloom. Make two applica-tions: when first blossoms open, and again when 70 to 90 percent of blossoms are open.

Tart Cherries—Petal Fall

Diseases. Brown rot, cherry leaf spot. If a fungicide was not used during bloom, it is important to make the first application at petal fall.

Insects. Aphids, leafrollers, plum curculio. With the loss of azinphos-methyl, Calypso and Imidan are our best products for plum curculio.

American plum borer. American plum borer has been increasing in tart cherry orchards in Pennsylvania. Control of this pest can be achieved at petal fall by applying a dilute application of chlorpyrifos 4E at 3 quarts per 100 gallons or Lorsban 75WG at 2 to 3 pounds per 100 gallons for seasonal control. Direct spray to the entire trunk area up to the lower scaffold limbs and to all areas cracked and damaged by shaker clamps or other means. Do not apply chlorpyrifos 4E to sweet cherries, as it is highly phytotoxic to the foliage.

Black cherry aphid. If the aphid is present, add Actara or Provado.

Pesticide recommendations for tart cherries, petal fall.

FRAC or IRAC Group

Pesticide Recommended rate per acre

CHOOSE one of the following:

M3 Ziram 76DF 5–8 lb

M4 Captan 80WDGa 2.5 lb

M5 Bravo Weather Stik 3.1–4 pt

M5 Chlorothalonil 720 3.1–4 pt

U12 Syllit FLb 1.5–3 pt

1 Topsin M WSBb 1–1.5 lb

2 Rovral 4 Fb 1–2 pt

3 Indar 2Fb 6–12 oz

3 Quashb 4 oz

3 Rubigan ECb 6–12 oz

3 Rhymeb 7 fl oz

3 + 7 Luna Experienceb 6–10 fl oz

7 Fontelis 1.67SCb 14–20 fl oz

7 Kenja 12.5 fl oz

7 + 11 Luna Sensationb 5–7.6 fl oz

7 + 11 Merivonb 4–6.7 fl oz

7 + 11 Pristineb 10.5–14.5 oz

11 Cabrio EGb 9.5 oz

11 Flint Extra 2.5–3.8 fl oz

PLUS one or more of the following based on the insect pest complex requiring control:

4A Actara1 3–4.5 oz

4A Admire Pro 2.8 fl oz

21A Apta 17–27 fl oz

3A Asana XL 0.66EC 7–14 fl oz

4A Assail 30 SG 3–8 oz

22A Avaunt 30WDG 6 oz

3A Baythroid 2E 2–2.8 fl oz

29 Beleaf 50SG 2.8 oz

3A and 28 Besiege2 6–12 fl oz

4C Closer 2.75 fl oz

3A Danitol 2.4 EC 10.7–21.3 fl oz

5 Delegate 25WG2 4.5–6 oz

3A and 4A Endigo ZC 5.5 fl oz

28 Exirel2 10–20.5 fl oz

3A and 6 Gladiator 6–19 fl oz

4A Imidacloprid 1.6F 5–6 fl oz

1B Imidan 70WP 3 lb

3A and 4A Leverage 360 2.4–2.8 fl oz

1B Lorsban 75WG 1.33–2 lb

23 Movento3 6–9 fl oz

3A Mustang Max 1.3–4 fl oz

3A Permethrin 3.2EC 7 oz

3A Proaxis 2.5–5.1 fl oz

4A and 28 Voliam Flexi 40W1,2 4–7 oz

3A Warrior II 1.3–2.5 fl oz

392 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

The attraction of owning and operating a retail outlet may evolve from the need or want to interact directly with consumers or to acquire a greater amount of profit by “cutting out the middle-man.” Whatever the reason, retail presents an entirely different list of issues from selling product wholesale or to restaurants and institutions. This is not to say that growers who provide their products to a restaurant or wholesale operation are free from the responsibility of promoting their produce, but retailers must consider how and where they will advertise their businesses, the impact of cause marketing on the community’s perception of their business, and whether or not a loyalty program will provide them with a competitive advantage. Retailers also need to think about store layout, design, and merchandising, as well as labor needs, such as scheduling during times of high foot traffic or other events.

If you are contemplating a new retail business or even a change in how you currently conduct business, you will need to investigate:

• The potential demand for your product(s)

• Direct and indirect competitors and your point of differentia-tion

• How to best inform and remind consumers about your products and persuade them to purchase from your business

Certainly, this is not an exhaustive list of what business owners must determine, but these questions are paramount for building a strong marketing plan. Statistics indicate that business owners who take the time and effort to develop a plan before starting a new business or making major changes are more likely to be suc-cessful. Take the time now, before you implement any changes, to learn more about your customers’ needs and wants and what you can offer that will be superior to what your competitors offer. This chapter is designed to help you think about your business and consider whether you are fully utilizing your retail outlet, offering the right products to the right consumers, and using the right promotional strategy.

YOUR CUSTOMERSIf you operate an on-farm market, seasonal market, or permanent retail location, you are probably well aware that being “customer centric” and truly catering to those who purchase your goods and services has advantages. Rather than striving to “be all things to all people,” retailers should determine which groups of consum-ers they can serve successfully based on consumer demand for their products and their ability to provide these products and the experiences their customers desire.

Customers are an asset to your business that you cannot ignore. They are just as vital to a successful operation as the best-looking and most unique product offering, the most knowledgeable sales staff, and a convenient and desirable location. After all, profits, market share, revenue, and salaries are generated from your relationship with your customers and the ability to sell them the products they desire. Nurture your relationship with consumers who enter your store, and turn them into loyal customers who return for a fifth and fiftieth time. Learning about your customers’ needs and wants will enable you to make informed decisions on what products and services are in the greatest demand.

Consumers who visit retailer outlets or search their websites

are looking for products that will provide solutions to their problems. As a retailer, knowing what to stock and sell can be a daunting task. One option is to select products based on your preferences. This may work if your needs and wants, as the retailer, are similar to those of your customers. However, if you do not know what the customer wants or you ignore requests, your clientele may lose interest over time and choose to shop elsewhere. Instead, learn about “who” your customers are and then learn about their interests. This information can provide the basis for an attractive and appealing product mix. To do this, you will need to segment consumers, or divide them into groups, based on common characteristics.

Though consumers use unique sets of criteria to make judg-ments about products they purchase, the practice of classifying consumers by characteristics based on their demographics, interests, and other factors into manageable groups, or market segments, is a common marketing practice. Offering products that appeal to each and every consumer who visits the store or website would be difficult for any retailer. Hence, successful retailers tend to focus on those consumers who are most likely going to find their products appealing and purchase them.

Conducting Consumer ResearchA first step to learning about your current and potential clientele is to do some marketing and consumer research. Being aware of consumer trends and realizing that it is possible to provide consumers with goods and services to meet their specific needs is not at all unreasonable for a retailer to understand. Changing and emerging consumer trends are often reported and analyzed in newspapers, business journals, and industry websites, as well as broadcasted on local new shows and cable television programs. Sources such as the Center for Media and Social Impact (www .cmsimpact.org) provide information about which methods of advertising are used by various demographic groups. Certain demographic segments of interest still read newspapers, while other demographic groups read the newspaper less often. If you’re interested in reaching younger generations, create an Instagram business page and develop an informative and interactive website.

Doing some investigation to determine what to offer each group of consumers is the vital next step. Observe other indus-tries and retailers, taking note of how they successfully cater to various consumers. This information is truly useful, but what provides even more value is collecting information directly from customers who currently purchase products from you or from consumers you currently don’t serve but could. To collect information from consumers, begin by developing a survey that asks questions such as:

• If we offered hardy kiwi, would you be interested in purchas-ing it? Why or why not?

• When you serve the fruit to family and friends, what other food items or beverages do you serve?

• How many adults and children live in your household? Of these household members, how many eat produce you pur-chase?

Post questions on your website and on your Facebook busi-ness page, and involve all consumers who enter your store and who are willing to participate in your research. Not only could you learn about what new products consumers want, but you

Part X. Marketing 413

or not the energy needed to promote and implement the event justified the time and money spent.

Pay attention to how attendees are reacting during the event and note whether what you are offering them meets, if not ex-ceeds, expectations. Be sure to keep track of certain indicators that determine if the event provided a return on investment and whether or not it should be offered again or changed. Specifi-cally, record the number of visitors, amount in sales, and other related information.

Gross SalesHow did gross sales compare to the same period during the previous year, regardless of whether or not you hosted a similar event? Did they increase, stay the same, or decrease? Gross sales that are either the same or decrease could indicate, excluding any other major changes to the business or factors such as poor weather conditions, that the focus of the event, structure of the activities, or other components need to be altered. An increase in gross sales is certainly a very positive measure; however, it is still necessary to review notes taken during the event and determine if any changes could be made to make the event even more successful.

Net SalesEspecially during the first few years, an event probably will require more inputs than other promotional activities, depend-ing on:

• How many activities are offered during the event and for which a fee is charged

• If other vendors are invited to be a part of the event and whether they are required to pay for booth space

• Number and expense of additional advertisements to purchase

• Whether merchandise will be discounted during the event

• Number of duties the staff may be asked to perform above those required on a day-to-day basis

The event could be a success in terms of attracting new and existing consumers, yet not be profitable. If the primary goal of

the event was to be a major income generator, but the cost of hosting the event exceeded revenue, then it may be necessary to revise aspects of the event before offering it again. If the primary goal of the event was mainly to alert consumers that the business exists and no significant sales were expected, sales generated during the first year could be viewed as an additional benefit to the business. In both situations, a return on investment should become an objective and aspects of the event be designed to fulfill this purpose.

Sales during the event are key, but consumers may not always make purchases, or make their entire purchase, during the event. Rather, they may return at a later date when there is less of a crowd, or they may need to give greater consideration to the goods and services offered and their need for them. If the conversion rate (number of purchasers compared to number of visitors) is low or less than an average business day’s conversion rate, then further investigation is warranted (Figure 10-10).

Foot TrafficBeing able to document the number of consumers or families that visit the business during the actual event and weeks that follow should be of interest to business owners and operators. Though an event’s ultimate measure of success—profitability—is of great interest, it is also important to understand:

• How responsive consumers are to the type of event offered

• How the event was promoted

• Goods and services visitors purchased during the event

Measuring foot traffic can be accomplished by:

• Distributing invitations that attendees bring to the event to be admitted or requiring attendees to RSVP

• Counting attendees as they arrive at the event by either assign-ing an employee to manually count customers or installing an electronic sensor that tabulates the number of customers who pass through a particular doorway

• Providing customers with the opportunity to sign up for a mailing list or to become loyalty program members

Figure 10-10. Sales and attendee numbers are just a couple of items you should monitor during the event. Assign an employee or two to observe your guests during the event. What vendors tend to attract visitors? Are visitors sampling food items and wine? If so, ar they merely sampling but not purchasing? Are there any areas on the grounds where ustomers tend to gather and other areas where customers do not seem to walk to or through?

426 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

kler. In humid-climate regions, drip irrigation is primarily used. Drip irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has the po-tential to save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of the plants, either above the soil surface or buried below the surface. Drip is the most efficient way to irrigate. It is usually about 90 percent efficient, compared to about 70 percent for sprinkler and often 50 percent for surface irrigation. Besides high water-use efficiency (90–95 percent), drip irrigation also reduces the risk of plant diseases that thrive in wet conditions. A typical drip irrigation system includes a water source (e.g., well water, river water), a pump, a pressure regulating system, valves, pipeline, emitters, and other accessories. Figure 11-1 illustrates a simplified drip irrigation schematic diagram. Drip irrigation is suitable to all soil types because of its extremely slow application rate and high degree of control over timing and amounts (Peters 2015). For details of drip system components, installation, and operation, refer to the Drip Irrigation Handbook at https://www .netafim.com/499749/globalassets/products/drippers-and -dripperlines/drip-irrigation-system-handbook.pdf.

Irrigation Application Rate CalculationAs described in Peters (2015), water movement capability var-ies in different soil types, e.g., sandy soil (1-to-1.5-foot radius); loam soil (1.5-to-2.5-foot radius); and clay soil (2.5-to-3.5-foot radius). These are important for setting lateral distance between the emitters. Meanwhile, a smaller root zone is more sensitive to water and nutrient stress because crop roots have no motiva-tion to and will not grow into dry soil. Therefore, a larger root zone can be encouraged by running the drip system for longer amounts of time. In order to calculate the application rate of the drip irrigation system, the emitter flow rate, the emitter spacing among the tubing, and the distance between drip lines must be known. The equation is as follows:

ApRt = 231.1 × [(EmitterFlow × Eff) / (RowSpc × EmitterSpc)]

Where ApRt is the application rate in inches per hour, Emit-terFlow is the emitter flow rate in gallons per hour, Eff is the irrigation efficiency (use 0.95 for drip irrigation), RowSpc is the spacing between rows in inches, and EmitterSpc is the spacing between emitters in inches.

DRIP IRRIGATION AND SENSOR-BASED PRECISION IRRIGATION

IntroductionIrrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals. Irrigation helps grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Precipita-tion in Pennsylvania averages about 37 inches each year. About 13 inches of this precipitation runs off land into streams, while 24 inches infiltrates into the soil, where it can be used by crops. While uneven precipitation can cause plant stress during criti-cal growth periods, which will affect both crop productivity and produce quality, most horticultural crops require supplemental irrigation to minimize plant stress. Proper timing of water ap-plications during appropriate periods can increase the yield and quality of most horticultural crops in Pennsylvania in most years. Critical periods for the irrigation of apples are during flower formation, early fruit set, and during final fruit swell (Penn State Extension 2017). For high-density apple orchards, water relations are even more important. Irrigation is essential for ensuring optimum growth of newly planted and young apple orchards and to obtain desired fruit size. For high-density orchards, the economic suc-cess really depends on obtaining significant yields in the third, fourth, and fifth years to repay the establishment costs. To obtain the expected high yields requires excellent tree growth during the first three years after planting. However, one of the biggest problems we see with new high-density orchards is inadequate tree growth during the first three years. It is estimated that when poor tree growth in the early years delays cropping of a new orchard, peak investment is delayed by 20 percent and the total profits are reduced by 66 percent over the 20-year life of the or-chard (Robinson et al. 2013). Much of the problem of poor tree growth can be traced to inadequate water supply during the first three years. Therefore, it is very important to have a precision irrigation system for high-density apple orchards.

Drip Irrigation Systems for Tree Fruit OrchardsTypically, there are three major irrigation systems in tree fruit orchards: drip irrigation, undertree sprinkler, and overhead sprin-

Figure 11-1. A simplified drip irrigation system schematic diagram.

446 Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide 2020–2021

Table 2-14. Orchard weeds identified as reservoirs of tomato ringspot virus .........................................168

Table 2-15. Plant-parasitic nematodes and their treatment guidelines ...................................169

Table 2-16. Efficacy of various insecticides against BMSB adults during direct contact laboratory bioassay............176

Table 2-17. Suggested timings and product options for the control of brown marmorated stink bug in fruit orchards ....176

Table 3-1. EPA numbers and Worker Protection Standard reentry and personal protective equipment guidelines. ..............199

Table 3-2. Total gallons per minute sprayed (both sides) for various row spacings and gallons-per-acre rates, when sprayer moves at 1.5, 2, and 2.5 mph ................................206

Table 3-3. Nozzle flow (gal/min) of various cone tips at various pressures .........................................206

Table 3-4. Converting dilute spray rate to concentrate rate of pesticide materials. .......................................208

Table 3-5. Calculating tree row volume. ....................................209

Table 3-6. Simplified tree row volume table. .............................210

Table 3-7. Comparison of insecticide modes of action based on Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) classification (issued July 2017).................214

Table 3-8. Comparison of fungicide modes of action based on Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) classification (issued February 2019) ...........................215

Table 3-9. Herbicide Resistance Committee (HRAC) classification of herbicides according to mode of action (issued 2015) ..................................................218

Table 3-10. Copper formulations for fruit crops. .......................227

Table 3-11. Adjuvants available for use on tree fruit .................252

Table 3-12. Target pH ranges and half-lives of selected orchard insecticides and miticides ................................263

Table 3-13. Target pH ranges and half-lives of selected orchard fungicides ....................................263

Table 3-14. Target pH ranges and half-lives of common herbicides .................................................263

Table 4-1. Tree fruit herbicide registration by crop ...................267

Table 4-2. Herbicides labeled for use in orchards ......................270

Table 4-3. Soil fumigants and nematicides ................................271

Table 4-4. Toxicity of pesticides to mite and aphid predators, at rates recommended in Part V .......................272

Table 4-5. Apples: insecticide and miticide timing ...................274

Table 4-6. Apples: insecticide and miticide efficacy .................275

Table 4-7. Apples: fungicide timing. ..........................................277

Table 4-8. Apples: fungicide and antibiotic efficacy .................278

Table 4-9. Pears: insecticide and miticide timing ......................279

Table 4-10. Pears insecticide and miticide efficacy. ..................279

Table 4-11. Stone fruit: insecticide and miticide timing ............280

Table 4-12. Stone fruit: insecticide and miticide efficacy .........281

Table 4-13. Stone fruit: fungicide and antibiotic timing ............282

Table 4-14. Stone fruit: fungicide and antibiotic efficacy .........283

Table 4-15. Reentry (REI) and preharvest (PHI) or spray-to-harvest intervals ..............................................284

Table 6-1. Atmospheric and temperature requirements for controlled-atmosphere storage. .......................337

Table 6-2. Concentrations of DPA needed to reduce scald. ......338

Table 7-1. General composition of cider ....................................342

Table 7-2. Relative initial quality and shelf life of cider............343

Table 7-3. Primary flavor characteristics of Pennsylvania apple cultivars ...................................................345

Table 7-4. Possible cider blends and their flavor characteristics .....................................................345

Table 7-5. Composition and nutritional data for apple juice .....347

Table 9-1. Land preparation budget, tree fruit, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre ...............................365

Table 9-2. Apple orchard planting budgets, medium- and high-density orchards, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre ...............................366

Table 9-3. Peach orchard planting budget, 155 trees per acre, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre .......367

Table 9-4. Fresh-market apple production budgets, 907 trees per acre, with and without mating disruption, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre .......368

Table 9-5. Processing apple production budget, 272 trees per acre, Pennsylvania, 2020 Summary of estimated costs per acre ...........................................................369

Table 9-6. Mature fresh-market peach orchard budget, 155 trees per acre, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre .........................................370

Table 9-7. Mature tart cherry orchard budget, 121 trees per acre, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre ...........................................................371

Table 9-8. Mature dwarf sweet cherry orchard budget, 580 trees per acre, Pennsylvania, 2020. Summary of estimated costs per acre .........................................372

Table 11-1. Critical temperatures for various fruits ...................434