201102 martin moodysson
TRANSCRIPT
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c
Paper no. 2011/02
Comparing knowledge bases: on the
organisation and geography of knowledgeflows in the regional innovation system ofScania, southern Sweden
Roman Martin ([email protected])
CIRCLE, Lund University, Sweden
Jerker Moodysson ([email protected])
CIRCLE, Lund University, Sweden
This is a pre-print version of a paper that has been accepted for publication in theEuropean Urban and Regional Studies (forthcoming 2013). The final publicationis available athttp://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776411427326)
Citations to and quotations from this work should reference the finalpublication. If you use this work, please check that the published form containsprecisely the material to which you intend to refer.
This version: February 2011
Centre for Innovation, Research and Competence in the Learning Economy (CIRCLE)
Lund University
P.O. Box 117, Slvegatan 16, S-221 00 Lund, SWEDENhttp://www.circle.lu.se/publications
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776411427326http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776411427326http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776411427326http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776411427326mailto:[email protected]:[email protected] -
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WP 2011/02Comparing knowledge bases: on the organisation and geography of knowledge flowsin the regional innovation system of Scania, southern SwedenRoman Martin and Jerker Moodysson
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with knowledge flows and collaboration between firms in the regionalinnovation system of southern Sweden. It focuses on industries which draw on differenttypes of knowledge bases. The aim is to analyse how the functional and spatial organisationof knowledge interdependencies among firms and other actors vary between different typesof industries which are part of the same regional innovation system. We argue thatknowledge sourcing and exchange in geographical proximity is especially important forindustries that rely on a synthetic or symbolic knowledge base, since the interpretation of theknowledge they deal with tend to differ between places. This is less the case for industriesdrawing on an analytical knowledge base, which rely more on scientific knowledge that is
codified, abstract and universal, and therefore less sensitive to geographical distance. Thus,geographic clustering of firms in analytical industries builds on other rationale than the needof proximity for knowledge sourcing and exchange. To analyse these assumptionsempirically, we draw on data from three case studies of firm clusters in the region ofsouthern Sweden: (1) the life science cluster represents an analytical (science) basedindustry, (2) the food cluster includes mainly synthetic (engineering) based industries, and(3) the moving media cluster is considered as symbolic (artistic) based. Knowledge sourcingand knowledge exchange in each of the cases are explored and compared using socialnetwork analysis in association with a dataset gathered through interviews with firmrepresentatives.
Keywords: knowledge bases, life science, food cluster, moving media, Sweden
Disclaimer: All the opinions expressed in this paper are the responsibility of the individual
author or authors and do not necessarily represent the views of other CIRCLE researchers.
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Title:
Comparingknowledgebases:ontheorganisationandgeographyofknowledge
flowsintheregionalinnovationsystemofScania,southernSweden
Authors:
RomanMartinandJerkerMoodysson
CIRCLE,LundUniversity
Abstract:
Thispaperdealswithknowledgeflowsandcollaborationbetweenfirms intheregional innovationsystemof
southernSweden. It focuseson industrieswhichdrawondifferent typesofknowledgebases.Theaim is to
analysehowthefunctionalandspatialorganisationofknowledge interdependenciesamongfirmsandother
actorsvarybetweendifferenttypesof industrieswhicharepartofthesameregional innovationsystem.We
argue thatknowledgesourcingandexchange ingeographical proximity isespecially important for industries
thatrelyonasyntheticorsymbolicknowledgebase,sincetheinterpretationoftheknowledgetheydealwith
tend todiffer betweenplaces.This is less thecase for industriesdrawingonananalyticalknowledgebase,
whichrelymoreonscientificknowledgethatiscodified,abstractanduniversal,andthereforelesssensitiveto
geographical distance. Thus, geographic clustering of firms in analytical industries builds on other rationale
thantheneedofproximityforknowledgesourcingandexchange.Toanalysetheseassumptionsempirically,
wedrawondatafromthreecasestudiesoffirmclustersintheregionofsouthernSweden:(1)thelifescience
cluster
represents
an
analytical
(science)
based
industry,
(2)
the
food
cluster
includes
mainly
synthetic
(engineering) based industries, and (3) the moving media cluster is considered as symbolic (artistic) based.
Knowledgesourcing and knowledge exchange ineach of thecasesare exploredand compared using social
networkanalysisinassociationwithadatasetgatheredthroughinterviewswithfirmrepresentatives.
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INTRODUCTION:GEOGRAPHYOFKNOWLEDGEFLOWSThe geography of innovation and knowledge creation is a vital research field in contemporary economic
geography. In the last decades, a large body of literature has emerged studying geographical patterns of
innovation,buildingonanlongresearchtraditionthatrangesfromMarshall's(1920)earlyworkoninnovation
in
industrial
districts
to
the
more
recent
work
on
innovative
milieus
(Camagni
1991),
learning
regions
(Asheim
1996)andregionalinnovationsystems(Cooke,Uranga,andEtxebarria1998;AsheimandGertler2005).Inthis
streamof literature, innovation is largelyunderstoodasoutcomeof interactive,nonlinearprocesses (Pavitt
2005;KlineandRosenberg1986),emanatingfrom interactionamongvariousactorsrepresenting industryas
wellastheuniversityandgovernmentsphere(EtzkowitzandLeydesdorff1997).Theseinteractionsdonottake
place randomly distributed over space, but tend to occur within predominantly, however not exclusively,
localisednetworksofactors(MalmbergandMaskell2006).Althoughthereisconsensusintheliteraturethat
proximity matters for knowledge exchange (Gertler and Levitte 2005), there is no agreement under which
conditions the local or regional sphere matters most for exchange of knowledge between firms and other
organisations.
There
are
however
strong
arguments
on
the
claim
that
specific
knowledge
characteristics
contributestronglytodeterminetheroleofspaceindifferentindustries(Boschma2005).Whereassometypes
ofknowledgetraveleasilyandcanbetransferredoverlargegeographical distance,othersarespatiallysticky
andrequireactors toshare thesamesocioculturalnormsandunderstandings.Thedegreeatwhichoneor
another type of knowledge is prevailing may influence the role of proximity for innovation activities in
differentindustries.Furthermore,itisacknowledgedthatknowledgeexchangeandinnovationnotonlyoccur
in industries that traditionally have been referred to as science based and (high) technology oriented, but
frommoreor less allsegmentsof the economy, whereas increasedattention is paid to economic activities
transcendingestablishedsectorialboundaries(BoschmaandIammarino2009).Thereisneverthelessstillagap
inthe
literature
as
regards
how
these
cross
sectorial
interactive
processes
are
organised,
which
actors
are
involved, where they are located in relation to each other and, not least, how and why these patterns of
interactionvarybetweendifferenttypesofactivitiesbasedondifferenttypesofknowledge.
Thepresentpapercontributestotheexisting literaturebyprovidingempiricalfindingsonthequestionhow
industryspecificknowledgecharacteristicscontributetoshapingthegeographyofinnovation.Theaimofthe
paper istoexaminehowgeographicalandorganisationalpatternsofknowledgesourcingandexchangevary
between industrieswithdifferent knowledgebase,yet locatedwithinthesameregional innovationsystem.
Weaddressquestionsontheroleofregionalversusglobalknowledgenetworksindifferentindustriesaswell
astheroleofknowledgesourceswith lowerversushigherdegreeofformalisation.Wedrawourfindingson
interviewswith firmrepresentatives in threedistinct industries located in theregional innovationsystemof
southern Sweden1: (1) life science represents an analytical (science) based industry, (2) the food sector
includes mainly synthetic (engineering) based industries, and (3) moving media is considered as a symbolic
1Interviewshave beenconductedbetween2007 and2010 in the frameworkof theEuropeancollaborative
researchprojectConstructingRegionalAdvantage(CRA).
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(artistic)based industry.Thecasesaresystematicallyexploredandcomparedbasedondescriptivestatistics
andsocialnetworkanalysis.
THEORY:DIFFERENTIATED KNOWLEDGEBASES
The point of departure in our attempt to understand the geography of knowledge and its industry specific
characteristicsisadiscussionontypesofknowledgeandformsknowledgecreation.Atleastthreeknowledge
taxonomiescanbefoundintheliterature,whichbuilduponeachotherandhavecontributedsubstantiallyto
thediscussion.
Probably themostwellknowndistinction is theonebetween codifiedand tacitknowledge.Whereas the
firstcanbewrittendownandeasily transferredovertimeanddistance,the latter isembedded intopeople
andorganisationsandconsideredasspatiallysticky.ThisclassificationoriginatesfromPolanyis(1967)work,
has
been
promoted
by
Nelson
and
Winter
(1982)
and
receives
much
attention
within
the
innovation
systems
literature (Cooke, Heidenreich, and Braczyk 2004). The basic notion is that tacit knowledge is by definition
difficult towritedownandstronglycontextspecific,therefore it isdifficulttoshareoverdistanceandmost
effectivelytransmittedthroughdirectsfacetofaceinteraction.Consequently,innovatingactorswhodrawon
tacit knowledge will tend to locate close to eachother in order to access and benefit from these localised
knowledge flows.Knowledgesources ingeographicalproximitywillbe less important if innovationactivities
dependmoreoncodifiedtypesofknowledge,sincethesearerelativelyeasytotransferoverdistance(Gertler
2008). Despite being rather intelligible, this tacitcodified dichotomy is often criticized for a narrow
understanding of knowledge, learning and innovation. The underlying assumption that transfer and
coordinationof
tacit
knowledge
takes
place
almost
exclusively
on
alocal
scale
can
certainly
be
criticized:
There
is no empirical evidence for this claim; in contrast, many studies oriented towards tracing flows of tacit
knowledge identify a relatively low degree of local knowledge exchange compared to global flows of
knowledge (Hagedoorn 2002; McKelvey, Alm, and Riccaboni 2003; Gertler and Levitte 2005). In some
industriessuchasthosebasedonbiotechnology,themostimportantexchangerelationsseemtotakeplacein
globallyconfiguredepistemiccommunitiesratherthaninlocallyconfigured,trustbasednetworks(Moodysson
2008). Besides, it is not reasonable to expect that exchange in the local milieu is limited to tacit forms of
knowledge;infactalargepartofthelocalknowledgeexchangedistoahighdegreecodified.Furthermore,itis
obviousthatmostformsofeconomicallyrelevantknowledgearemixed inthisrespect,hencethetwotypes
shouldbe
seen
as
complements
rather
than
substitutes
to
each
other
(Johnson,
Lorenz,
and
Lundvall
2002).
This complementary was in fact also stressed in the original writings by Polanyi (1967), but tend to be
forgottenorignoredinthefurtherelaborationsandapplicationsofhisideas(Nightingale1998).
Inordertomovebeyondabinarydiscussiononthetacitnessofsomeandthecodifyabilityofothertypesof
knowledge, Lundvall and Johnson (1994) promote an alternative distinction between knowwhat, know
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why,knowhowandknowwho2.Thefirst,knowwhat,iscloselyrelatedtowhatonewouldassociatewith
the term information; it refers to knowledge about mere facts. It can be acquired by reading books or
attendinglecturesanddoesnotnecessarilyinvolve interactive learningorcooperationbetweenactors.Since
technologicalprogresshasmadeaccesstoinformationeasierandknowwhatalmostubiquitous,othertypes
of knowledge have become increasingly relevant.The second type, knowwhy, refers to knowledge about
principlesand laws innatureandsociety,which isrelatedtoscientificknowledgeandparticularly important
forinnovationactivitiesinsciencebasedindustriessuchaschemicalsordrugdevelopment.Thethird,know
how,referstoskillsandthecapabilityofdoingsomething,notonlyintermsofpracticalorphysicalwork,but
ofallsortsofactivities intheeconomicsphere.Thiskindofknowledge istypicallygeneratedandpreserved
withintheboundariesofafirm,howeverthegrowingcomplexityofeconomicactivitiesincreasestheneedfor
firms to cooperate and to engage into the exchange of knowhow. Thus, one important rationale for the
formationofnetworksbetweenfirms istheirneedtoshareandcombineelementsofknowhow.Theforth
type of knowledge, knowwho, is closely linked to the previous by referring to knowledge about possible
partnersforcooperationandknowledgeexchange.Inordertoacquirecompetencesthatarenotyetpresent
within the firm, innovatingcompaniesneed tobuildupandcultivaterelationshipswithother firms thatare
willingtoshareknowledgeandrelatedskills.Thusitbecomesobviousthatknowwhoiscloselyrelatedtothe
formationof knowledge networksbetween actors. However in thediscussion so far, only littlecan be said
aboutthegeographicalconfigurationofthesenetworks.
Morerecently,andreferringtoLaestadius(2000),AsheimandGertler(2005)have introducedanalternative
conceptualizationofknowledgethattakesexplicitlyintoaccountthecontentoftheactualinteractionstaking
placeinnetworksofinnovators.Toexplainthegeographyofinnovationindifferentindustries,adistinctionis
madebetweenthreedifferenttypesofknowledgebases:(1)analytical,(2)syntheticand(3)symbolic.These
knowledgebases
differ
in
various
respects
such
as
the
dominance
of
tacit
and
codified
knowledge
content,
the
degree of formalisation and the context specificity of the knowledge. This distinction is intended as ideal
typical.. In practice, most activities comprise more than one knowledge base, and the degree to which a
certain knowledge base prevails varies between industries, firms and different types of activities and
occupationswithinthose(AsheimandHansen2009).Themaincharacteristicsofthethreeknowledgebases
aredescribedinthefollowing.
Ananalyticalknowledgebaseisdominantineconomicactivitieswherescientificknowledgeisimportant,and
whereknowledgecreationismainlybasedonformalmodels,codifiedscienceandrationalprocesses(Asheim
and
Gertler
2005).
Examples
mentioned
in
the
literature
are
genetics,
biotechnology,
and
information
technology, whereas the present study focuses on the life science industry. For those industries, basic and
appliedresearchisrelevantandnewproductsandprocessesaredevelopedinarelativelysystematicmanner.
Companiesusuallyruntheirownresearchanddevelopment(R&D)departments,butrelyalsoonknowledge
2KnowwhyissimilartoEpistemeandknowhowtoTechne,adistinctionthatrefersbacktoAristotelesand
is naturally made in other languages, for instance in Frenchbetween connaissanceand savoirfaire or inGermanbetweenWissenandKnnen.
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generated at universities and other research organisations as an input to their innovation activities. Thus
linkages and networks between industry and public research organisations are highly important and occur
morefrequentlythan inother industries.Analytical industriesdealwithscientificknowledgestemmingfrom
universitiesandotherresearchorganisations;consequentlytheyrelymainlyoncodifiedformsofknowledge.
However, the role of tacit knowledge should not be ignored since the process of knowledge creation and
innovationalwaysinvolvesbothkindsofknowledge(Nonaka,Toyama,andKonno2000;Johnson,Lorenz,and
Lundvall2002).
Asyntheticknowledgebaseprevailsinindustriesthatcreateinnovationthroughuseandnewcombinationof
existing knowledge, with the intention to solve concrete practical problems (Asheim and Gertler 2005).
Examplesmentionedintheliteratureareplantengineering,specializedindustrialmachineryandshipbuilding,
whilethepresentstudyfocusesoninnovativefoodproduction.Intheseindustries,formalR&Dactivitiesareof
minorimportance;innovationisdrivenbyappliedresearchormoreoftenbyincrementalproductandprocess
development. Linkagesbetweenuniversityand industry are relevant butoccurmore in the fieldof applied
R&Dand
less
in
basic
research.
New
knowledge
is
generated
partly
through
deduction
and
abstraction,
but
primarily through induction, encompassing the process of testing, experimentation and practical work.
Knowledgethatisrequiredfortheseactivitiesispartiallycodified,howeverthedominatingformofknowledge
istacit,duetothefactthatnewknowledgeoftenresultsfromexperiencegainedthroughlearningbydoing,
usingand interacting.Comparedtoothers,synthetic industriesrequiremoreknowhow,craftandpractical
skills for designing new products and processes. Those skills are often provided by professional and
polytechnicsschoolsorbyonthejobtraining(AsheimandCoenen2006).
Thesymbolicknowledgebaseisathirdcategorythathasbeenintroducedrecentlytoaccountforthegrowing
importance
of
cultural
production.
It
is
strongly
present
within
a
set
of
cultural
industries
such
as
film,
television, publishing, music, fashion, and design, in which innovation is dedicated to the generation of
aesthetic value and images and less to a physical production process (Asheim, Coenen, and Vang 2007).
Symbolic knowledge can be embedded in material goods such as clothing or furniture, but its impact on
consumers and its economic value arises from its intangible character, its aesthetic quality. Symbolic
knowledge also includes forms of knowledge applied and created in service industries such as advertising.
Sincetheseindustriesoftenorganizetheiractivitiesinshorttermprojects,knowledgeaboutpossiblepartners
forcooperationandknowledgeexchange (knowwho) isofconsiderable importance.Symbolicknowledge is
highly contextspecific, as the interpretation of symbols, images, designs, stories and cultural artefacts is
strongly
tied
to
a
deep
understanding
of
the
habits
and
norms
and
everyday
culture
of
specific
social
groupings (Asheim,Coenen,andVang2007)p.664).AsGertler (2008)pointsout,thesymbolicknowledge
embedded within industries such as advertising has been shown to be very highly shaped by its social and
cultural context witness the infamous accounts of how an advertisement that is highly effective in one
culturalsetting often meets with a verydifferent reception when it is implemented in another market (p.
215f.).Therefore,themeaningandthevalueassociatedwithsymbolicknowledgevariesconsiderablybetween
places.
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Theoryledexpectations
Followingthetheoreticaldiscussion,itisreasonabletoexpectthatindustrieswithdifferentknowledgebases
varyalsoasregardsthegeographyandorganisationofknowledgesourcingandknowledgeexchange.Weaim
atexploringtheseindustryspecificdifferencesbyfocussingontheroleoftheregionalversustheglobalsphere
forknowledgeexchange,andtheroleofmoreformalisedversuslessformalisedknowledgesources.
Based on the preliminary theoretical considerations, we would expect symbolic industries to rely
predominantly on knowledge sources situated in geographical proximity, since the interpretation of the
knowledgetheydealwithtendstovarybetweenplaces.Formalisedknowledgesourcesrelatedtoacademia
areexpectedtobe lessimportant,sinceproductandprocessdevelopmentisdrivenbycreativityratherthan
application of scientific laws. Since creativity and artistic skills are key to these firms competitiveness, and
sincesuchcapacitiesarehard to transfer fromone individual toanother,staffrecruitment (in thefollowing
referredtoasmobility)isassumedtobeanimportantstrategyforknowledgesourcingamongthesefirms.At
thesametime,theseartisticskillsarestronglycontextdependent,notonlywithregardtogeographybutalso
withregard
to
type
of
activity,
which
would
imply
that
firms
in
the
same
type
of
industry
would
be
the
primary
sourceforstaffrecruitment.Sincemanyofthesecompaniesbuildtheir imageandbrandnamearoundtheir
coreproducts, their innovationsareusuallynotkeptsecret,butdistributed inaswidechannelsaspossible.
This would imply monitoring of other firms through channels such as fairs, exhibitions and magazines an
importantstrategyforknowledgesourcingamongfirmsinthisindustry.
Syntheticindustriesdealtoahigherextentwithcodifiedknowledgewhichislesscontextspecific,althoughthe
dominatingform isstilltacit.Therefore,cooperationandknowledgeexchange isexpectedtooccurprimarily
betweenspatiallycollocatedpartners,butalsoactorsonthenationalandglobal leveltoplayaconsiderable
role.
Staff
recruitment
between
firms
in
the
same
industry
is
expected
to
be
a
crucial
strategy
for
knowledge
sourcing,whilemonitoringof other firms innovative activities through indirectchannelsareexpected tobe
lessimportant,asaconsequenceoftheappliedandspecializednatureoftheknowledgeonwhichthesefirms
buildtheircompetitiveness.Totheextentthatthesefirmsusesuch indirectchannels,theseareexpectedto
belessformalizedandlargelyindustryspecific.
Analytically based industries rely on scientific knowledge that is codified, abstract and universal, and are
thereforelesssensitivetogeographical distance.Inlinewiththis,wewouldexpectanalyticalindustriestorely
on formalised knowledge sources and to operate within globally configured epistemic communities rather
than locally configured, trust based networks (Moodysson 2008; Gertler 2008). Since a large share of the
crucialknowledge for innovation in thesetypesof industries isembodied inkey individuals,staffmobility is
assumedanimportantstrategyforknowledgesourcingamongfirms.Universitiesareassumedtobethemain
sourceofhumancapital,butalsootherfirmswithsimilarprofile,whereasthespecializednatureofmostof
these firms makes more generic knowledge available in other types of sectors less important. The strong
regulationsandrelianceon intellectualpropertyrightsmayserveasabarrierforcollaboration,whichwould
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increasetheincentives,butalsothedifficulties,forknowledgesourcingthroughmonitoringcompetitorsusing
indirectsourcesofknowledgesuchasscientificjournals,surveysandquestionnaires.
TheseexpectationsarevisualizedinFigure1andwillbeempiricallyaddressedintheremainderofthisarticle.
FIGURE1:EXPECTEDPATTERNSOFKNOWLEDGESOURCING.SOURCE:OWNDRAFT
RESEARCHDESIGN:LIFE SCIENCE,FOODANDMOVINGMEDIAINSCANIA
While
previous
studies
applying
the
knowledge
base
approach,
with
very
few
exceptions,
have
done
so
withoutempiricsorthrough indepthcasestudiesof innovationprocessescarriedoutbysinglefirmsand/or
projectgroups (AsheimandGertler2005;CoenenandAsheim2005;Moodysson2008;Moodysson,Coenen
andAsheim2008)orthroughveryindirectmeasuresofknowledgecollaboration(Coenenetal2006)thisstudy
draws on data from a collection of cases, with the ambition of further assessing some of the theoretically
derived assumptions (specified above). The current analysis should however not be seen as an attempt to
verifyorfalsifythetheory,ratherasanattempttobetterunderpinandspecifysomeofitscorearguments.For
this reason, the initial selection of cases is based on a qualitative assessment of the core activities of
companiescomposing regional clusters, while theassumptionson thegeography and organisation of these
coreactivities
put
forward
in
previous
studies
are
assessed
through
acombined
survey
and
interview
based
study on three industries that are located in the region of Scania, Sweden, namely life science (analytical
based),food(syntheticbased),andmovingmedia(symbolicbased).3Whilesomewouldarguethatwehereby
apply a circular argument basing the selection of cases on observations what we subsequently set out to
3Interviewshave beenconductedbetween2007 and2010 in the frameworkof theEuropeancollaborative
research project Constructing Regional Advantage (CRA). Eight project teams in different countries havemadeuseofthesamejointlydevelopedquestionnairetointerviewfirmrepresentatives.
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measure,wearguethatthis isnotthecase.Thecasesareselectedbasedonthetypeofinnovationactivities
onwhichthefirmsoughttobasetheircompetitiveadvantagegiventhemarketinwhichtheyoperate,while
thegeographyandorganizationofknowledgesourcingareempiricalquestionsnotreflectedintheselectionof
cases.
Theregion
of
Scania
is
located
in
the
southernmost
part
of
Sweden.
With
1.3
Mio
inhabitants
representing
13%ofthecountrystotalpopulation,itisoneofthemostpopulatedandurbanizedregionsinSweden.Most
oftheeconomicactivitiestakeplaceintheagglomerationaroundMalm,whichisthecountrysthirdlargest
cityandhasundergoneatransformationfromheavymanufacturingandshipbuildingtomoreserviceoriented
activities,andthecityofLund,whichhoststhelargestuniversityintheNordiccountriesandisamajorsource
forscientificknowledgeandhighlyskilledlabourwithapproximately40,000studentsand5,500employees.In
order to strengthen the position of Scania both nationally and internationally, the regional authorities,
represented by the regional council Region Skne, are for more than one decade actively implementing
policiesthataredesignedtowardsinnovationbasedregionaldevelopment.Theexisting initiativesarelargely
influencedby
theoretical
concepts
like
clusters
(Porter
2003),
learning
regions
(Asheim
1996)
and
regional
innovation systems (Cooke, Heidenreich, and Braczyk 2004; Asheim and Gertler 2005), andgeared towards
improvedcooperationandknowledgeexchangebetweenindustry,universityandgovernmentontheregional
level.Thesepoliciesfocusonthedevelopmentofselectedindustriesinwhichtheregionissupposedtohavea
competitiveadvantageandafuturegrowthpotential.Threeoftheseindustriesarepresentedanddealtwith
inthefollowing.
The life science industry in Scania encompasses more than 20 research based biotechnology companies
focusingonnewpharmaceuticalsandaboutthesamenumberofmedicaltechnologyorientedcompanies.The
majority
of
biotechnology
companies
were
established
after
1995
and
are
clustered
around
Lund
University
and in the two science parks Ideon (in Lund) and Medeon (in Malm). Strong research units such as Lund
University and Lund Institute of Technology as well as the university hospitals of Lund and Malm are
importantorganisations thatcontribute to thedevelopmentof this industry.Employingabout7,000people
andaccountingforaround15%ofthecountrysvalueaddedinthesector,theregionistodayoneofthethree
major locations for the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry in Sweden, besides the Stockholm
UppsalaLifeScienceClusterandStockholmScienceCity.Theregional industrycanalsobeseen inthe larger
context of the crossborder cluster Medicon Valley, which covers life science companies in the south of
SwedenandtheneighbouringpartofDenmark,includingCopenhagen.Firmsinbothcountriesareaddressed
byacluster
initiative
named
Medicon
Valley
Alliance,
which
was
set
up
with
the
aim
to
encourage
bi
national
cooperationbetweenSwedishandDanishlifesciencecompanies,tostimulateindustryuniversitylinkagesand
to improve theglobalvisibilityofthecluster (Moodysson2007).Witha listoffirmsprovidedbythiscluster
initiativeandthroughamanualselectionprocess,43innovating lifesciencecompanieswereidentifiedinthe
region, most of them independent small and medium sized. No large multinationals, pharmaceutical or
medical technology firms with their headquarters located elsewhere were included in the sample. Semi
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standardizedandindepthinterviewswereconductedwithrepresentativesof30ofthesefirms(responserate
70%)4.
Thefood industry inScaniaplaysan importantrolebothfortheregionaleconomyandforthenationalfood
production.Thispositionisrootedinhistoryandlinkstonaturalconditionsthatarefavourableforagriculture
andfood
processing,
e.g.
fertile
soils
and
arelatively
mild
climate.
Today,
approximately
45%
of
the
Swedish
turnover in the food sector is generated in the region.Nilssonatal. (2002) estimate that a totalof40,000
peopleareemployedintheindustry,ofwhich25,000areactiveinthecoreactivitiesaroundfoodproduction
and processing, and another 15,000 in supporting and related industries such as food oriented packaging,
agricultural research or manufacturing of food related machinery. There are several larger national or
internationalcompaniesactiveinfoodprocessing,suchasNestl,Sknemejerier,FindusandUnilever,aswell
as supporting and auxiliary company such as Tetra Pak, a food packaging company originating from Lund.
Whilethesecompanieshavebeenshapingtheclusterfora longtime,theydonotnecessarilyhavetheirkey
activitiesintheregionanymore.Asaresponsetoan increasingglobalcompetitionintheagriculturalsector,
whichwas
partly
accelerated
by
the
entry
of
Sweden
to
the
European
Union
in
1995,
many
firms
have
gone
through a sharp process of restructuring and rationalization. The food industry faces a high pressure to
innovate and develop towards higher value added niche products such as functional food, e.g. food with
health promoting or disease preventing functions. Over the last decades, a number of small knowledge
intensivefirmshaveevolvedwithinfoodandrelatedsectors,someofwhichhaveclosecontactstoresearch
and development facilities both inside and outside the region (Nilsson 2008). The analysis in this paper is
limitedto innovativefoodproductionandprocessingcompanies. Basedonan inclusive listofactorswhoma
regionalclusterinitiativehadidentifiedasbeingpartoftheregionalfoodindustry,amanualselectionprocess
was carried out in which inactive firms and firms that only have sales departments in the region were
excluded.After
this
selection
process,
the
innovative
core
of
the
food
industry
was
defined
as
being
composed
by 35 firms, of which 28 were interviewed (response rate 80%). As in the case of life science, most of the
companies are small and medium sized, based in the region with both head quarter, development and
productionunit.
ThemovingmediaindustryrepresentsanewandgrowingnicheintheregionaleconomyofScania.Thegrowth
oftheindustrytookoffinthebeginningofthe21thcentury;afteraperiodinwhichthetraditionalnavaland
heavyprocessingindustrylocatedinMalmwentdown.In2002,thelargecraneoftheshipyard,asymbolof
Malmas industrialcity,wassoldandtransportedtoSouthKoreafor futureuse inamotorvehiclefactory.
Theregional
authorities
had
the
explicit
ambition
to
create
anew
landmark
for
the
city,
and
the
abandoned
shipyard was transformed into a modern office and housing area. In the same period, the local university
collegeexperiencedrapidgrowthandextendeditsfacilitiesintothenewneighbourhood.Partlytodistinguish
themselves from the larger and more established Lund University with core competences in science,
engineering and management, the university college in Malm decided to focus its development and
4Adesktopbasednonrespondentanalysisrevealednosystematicdifferencebetweenrespondingandnon
respondingcompaniesintermsofsize,ageandtypeofactivities.
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education activities on applied science and creative activities related to arts, design and moving images
(Henning,MoodyssonandNilsson2010).Around thesame time, theregionalauthorities launchedacluster
initiativewiththeaimtobringtogetherandstrengthenthemediaindustryintheregion.Movingmediaspans
over a range of organisationally distinct, but functionally related, activities. Examples are film and TV
production, digital arts and design, development of computer games software and various graphical
applicationsforcomputers,mobilephonesandotherhandhelddevices(MartinandMoodysson2011).Since
the majorityof the firms workingwith movingmedia represent small and specialisedniches ofothermore
genericsectors(likeICT,advertising,softwaredevelopmentetc.)itwasnotpossibletouseofficialstatisticsto
identify the entire population of firms. This was instead done through a dialogue with a regional support
organisation and a manual selection process, in which inactive firms and firms that only have sales
departmentsaswellasindependentartistsandinterestorganisationswithoutrealcommercialactivitieswere
excluded.Afterthisselectionprocess,themovingmediaclusterwasdefinedasbeingcomposedby71firms,
mostofthemsmallwithlessthan10employees,butalsosomemediumsized.Interviewswithrepresentatives
of37ofthesecompanieswereconducted(responserate52%).
Keeping inmindtheabovementioneddifferencesandsimilarities intheevolutionandcompositionofthese
industries,theremainderofthepaperwillfocusondifferencesasregardstheunderlyingknowledgestructure
and will analyse more in detail the organisational and geographical patterns of knowledge sourcing. As
toucheduponabove,allthreeknowledgebasesandthemodesofknowledgecreationcharacterizingthemare
to some extent involved in a concrete innovation process, no matter in which industry it takes place.
Nevertheless,therearefundamentaldifferencesasregardsthedegree towhichvarioustypesofknowledge
are present, or, more accurate, as regards the type of knowledge that is crucial and constitutes the
competitive core of the industry. Innovation activities in the lifescience industry aremainlygeared toward
solving
analytical
challenges
that
are
most
effectively
addressed
by
scientific
knowledge
and
principles.
Syntheticchallengesrelatedtoproblemsolvingaswellassymbolicchallengesrelatedtodesignandaesthetics
arepresentaswell,butdonotconstitutethecorecompetenceinthisindustry.Firmsinthefood industryin
contrastare innovatingpredominantlythrough incrementalproblemsolvingprocessesandbyapplicationof
engineeringskills; theircorecompetence is thedissolvingofsyntheticchallenges.Movingmediacompanies
aremostlyconcernedwithsymboliccontents involvingartisticknowledgeanddesign,oftenwith theaimto
improvetheuserexperienceandperceptionofaproduct.Whereastheanalyticalandsyntheticchallenge in
principlecouldbesourcedout toadvancedsuppliersorsubcontractors, thesymbolicchallengeconstitutes
thecorecompetenceofthemovingmediaindustry(MartinandMoodysson2011).
EMPIRICALANALYSIS:ORGANISATIONALANDGEOGRAPHICALPATTERNSOF
KNOWLEDGESOURCINGBelow followsacomparativeanalysisoforganisationalandgeographicalpatternsofknowledge flows inthe
lifescience,foodandmovingmedia industry inScania.Knowledgesourcing iscapturedfromthreedifferent
angles,namelymonitoring,mobilityandcollaboration.Monitoringreferstotheacquisitionofnewknowledge
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11
withoutdirectinteractionwithotheractors,butthroughintermediarycarriersofknowledge.Mobilityrefersto
therecruitmentofskilledlabourfromotherorganisationsandisassociatedwithknowledgethatisembodied
into people. Collaboration refers to the intentional exchange of knowledge through direct interaction with
otheractorsinsideoroutsidetheregion.Inthefollowing,weexaminetheorganisationalpatternsofvarious
sourcesformonitoringandmobility,aswellasthegeographicalpatternsofcollaborationbetweenfirms.Firm
representativesinthethreeindustrieswereaskedtoindicatetheimportanceofeachsourceonascalefrom1
(verylow)to5(veryhigh);theresultsthusdisplayperceivedimportance.
Knowledgesourcingthroughmonitoring
As regards monitoring, there is a range of possible sources for new knowledge. The most obvious primary
sourcesareotheractors inthe innovationsystemsuchasuniversities,companiesorgovernmentalagencies.
Howeverinthissectionmainattentionispaidtotheacquisitionofknowledgewithoutdirectinteraction,but
through intermediaries carrying knowledge from these primary sources. Examples for intermediaries are
scientificjournalsreportingresultsfrombasicresearch,surveysandquestionnairescarriedoutandpublished
by
various
business
and
support
organisations,
specialised
magazines
focussing
on
specific
industries
or
technologies, as well as trade fairs and exhibitions targeting these industries. Following the preliminary
theoreticalconsideration,wewouldexpectthelifescienceindustrytoattributearelativelyhighimportanceto
journalsandsurveysrepresentingscientificknowledgeandprinciples. Incontrast,wewouldexpectthefood
industry and even more the moving media industry to rely primarily on knowledge sources with a lower
degreeofformalisation,herereflectedbybusinessmagazines,tradefairsandexhibitions.
TABLE1:RELATIVEIMPORTANCEOFVARIOUSSOURCESFORGATHERINGMARKETKNOWLEDGETHROUGHMONITORING
Mean Std.Deviation N
Scientificjournals
Life
Science 3.31 1.31 29
Food 1.86 1.08 28
MovingMedia 2.31 1.21 36
Surveys,questionnaires LifeScience 3.31 1.51 29
Food 2.86 1.30 28
MovingMedia 2.44 1.25 36
Specialisedmagazines LifeScience 2.83 1.34 29
Food 3.07 1.27 28
MovingMedia 3.19 1.39 36
Fairs,exhibitions LifeScience 2.72 1.39 29
Food
3.11 1.40 28MovingMedia 3.00 1.29 36
Source:ownsurvey.Note:importanceonascalefrom1(verylow)to5(veryhigh)
The results presented in Table 1 reveal clear industry specific differences as regards how different
intermediaries for knowledge sourcingare perceived. In the lifescience industry, thehighest importance is
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attributedtoscientificjournals(3.31)5andsurveys(3.31)representingmoreformalisedsourcesofknowledge,
whereas specialised magazines (2.83) and fairs and exhibitions (2.72) are considered less important. This
observationissignificantly6differentfromthefoodandthemovingmediaindustry,wherefairsandmagazines
representingknowledgesourceswithalowerdegreeofformalisationareperceivedasmoreimportant.Inthe
food industry,scientificjournalsarealmostunanimouslyconsideredasvery little important (1.86),whereas
main importance isattributestospecialisedmagazines(3.07)andfairsandexhibitions(3.11).Theresultsfor
movingmediarevealthatjournals(2.31)andsurveys(2.44)areconsideredlessrelevantthanfairs(3.00)and
specialised magazines (3.19). These results go fairly well in line with our theory lead expectations on the
organisationalpatternsofknowledgesourcing. Innovation in lifescience isbasedonformalmodels,codified
science and rational processes, thus knowledge and principles stemming from academia are of particular
importance. This is less the case for the food industry in which innovation is driven by the use and
recombinationofexistingknowledgeratherthanbyformalbasicresearch.Innovationinthemovingmediais
based on creativity and aesthetics, thus conceptual knowledge stemming from academia is of minor
importancecomparedtocontextspecificknowledgeandrumourdisseminatedinmagazinesorexchangedat
fairsandexhibitions.
Knowledgesourcingthroughmobility
Asecondmodetoaccessnewknowledgeinanevenmoredirectwayistherecruitmentofskilledlabourfrom
otherorganisations,herereferred toasmobility.Skilled labour isprobably themost importantresource for
knowledgedrivenactivities,andtherecruitmentofskilledlabourenablesfirmstointernalizeknowledgethat
ishighlytacitandembodiedintohumans7.Possiblesourcesfortherecruitmentofskilledemployeesareother
firms from the same or from a different industry, but also research and education organisations such as
universities and technical colleges. Firms in the three industries were asked from where they recruit their
skilled
labour
and
how
important
they
perceive
these
various
sources
for
recruitment.
Based
on
the
preliminarytheoreticalconsiderations,wewouldexpectfirms inthe lifescience industrytodrawverymuch
on graduates and experienced academics stemming from universities. Food companies in contrast are
expectedtorelymoreonpracticalskillstosolvefunctionalchallenges;thesecompetencesarebestprovided
bygraduatesfromtechnicalcollegesorbyworkforcewithjobexperience insimilar industries. Innovation in
themovingmediaindustryrequirescreativityandaculturalunderstanding.Thesecompetencesareexpected
todevelopbestbytrainingandexperiencegainedatworkinasimilarcreativecontext.
TheresultssummarizedinTable2displaytheperceivedimportanceofvarioussourcesfortherecruitmentof
skilledlabour.
In
line
with
our
expectations,
life
science
companies
recruit
primarily
from
universities
(3.93)
and from other firms in the same industry (3.87). Obviously, these companies deal with highly specialized
knowledge content that is most easily acquired and understood at universities involved in research and
5Numbersinbracketsdisplaymeanvalues.
6Significanceismeantasstatisticalsignificanceat5%level,testedwithScheffsmethod.
7Theexplanatorypoweroflabourmobilityisalsoemphasizedintheliteratureonskilledrelatedness,inwhich
industriesaredefinedasrelated toeachother iftheyshare thesameorsimilarskills,measured intermsoflabourflowsbetweencompanies(NeffkeandHenning2010;Boschma,Eriksson,andLindgren2009).
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education or in other firms active in the same technological field. Consequently, practical education in
technical colleges (1.90) and firms in other industries (1.77) play a minor role. For the food industry, the
primarysourceforrecruitmentofskilled labour istheprivatesector:otherfirms inthesame industry(3.96)
areconsideredmostimportant,followedbyfirmsinotherindustries(2.93)8.Thehighereducationsectorisof
little importance, both universities (2.11) and technical colleges (1.89) are considered as hardly relevant.
Whereasthefirstgoeswellinlinewiththetheory,thelatterissurprising,giventhatthefoodindustrydraws
on practical education and applied research which is mostly provided by technical colleges. A possible
explanation isthematicfocusofthe localuniversitycollege,whichhasset itsemphasisoncreativeactivities
anddoesnotnecessarilyprovidethespecifictypeoftrainingrequiredbythefoodsector.Inthemovingmedia
industry,skilled labour ismostlyacquired fromother firms in thesame industry(4.36),butalsouniversities
(2.94)aretosomeextentconsideredasrelevant.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatsomeuniversitiesalso
operate increativeandartisticfieldssuchasarts,musicandtheatre,andthatsomeactivates inthemoving
mediaindustryrequireagoodgeneraleducationprovidedinclassicalsubjectslikelanguagesandhumanities.
These observations go fairly well in line with our expectationson theorganisational patternsof knowledge
sourcing. Whereas analytical industries recruit primarily from academia and from other firms in the same
technologicalfield,syntheticandsymbolicindustriesrecruitprimarilyfromtheprivatesectoringeneral.
TABLE2:RELATIVEIMPORTANCEOFVARIOUSSOURCESFORRECRUITMENTOFHIGHLYSKILLEDLABOUR.
Mean Std.Deviation N
Universities LifeScience 3.93 1.55 30
Food 2.11 1.23 28
MovingMedia 2.94 1.45 35
Technicalcolleges LifeScience 1.90 1.40 30
Food 1.89 1.20 28
MovingMedia 2.26 1.15 35
Firmsinthesameindustry LifeScience 3.87 1.41 30
Food 3.96 1.04 28
MovingMedia 4.36 0.93 36
Firmsinotherindustries LifeScience 1.77 1.04 30
Food 2.93 1.30 28
MovingMedia 2.61 1.13 36
Source:ownsurvey.Note:importanceonascalefrom1(verylow)to5(veryhigh)
Knowledgesourcing
through
collaboration
A third fundamental mode for acquisition of new knowledge is collaboration, e.g. intentional knowledge
exchangethroughdirectinteractionwithotheractors.Thisinteractioncanencompassknowledgeaboutnew
8The observed industry specific differences in the importance of labour flows from other industries partly
contradicttheliteratureonskilledrelatedness,whichbuildsontheassumptionthatlabourflowsoccuralmostexclusivelywithinrelated industries.Ourobservationsshowthatthismightbetrueforsome industries(e.g.lifescience),whereasothers(e.g.food)recruitaswellfromindustriesthatareperceivedasverydifferent.
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developmentsortrendsonthemarketaswellasknowledgeoftechnological naturethatisrequiredasdirect
inputforaconcreteinnovationprocess.Basedonthetheoreticaldiscussionandtheinsightsontheknowledge
characteristicsof the three case industries,wewouldexpect life science companies todeal above allwith
knowledge that is universally valid and only little sensitive to geographical distance and therefore to
collaboratewithingloballyratherthanlocallyconfigurednetworks.Innovationinthefoodindustryisbasedon
practical skills andknowledge that ispartly codifiable,buthas a strong tacit component.Furthermore, the
foodindustryhasalongtraditionintheregionandaleadingpositionwithinthenationaleconomy(Henning,
Moodysson, and Nilsson 2010).Thus, we would expect collaboration to take place predominantly on the
regionalandthenationallevel.Themovingmediaindustrydealswithknowledgethatisvalidwithinaspecific,
culturallydefined context.Thus,wewouldexpect knowledgeexchange to takeplace innetworksbetween
actors that share a similar socioculturalbackgroundand arepredominantly located in spatialproximity. In
ordertotesttheseexpectations,thefirmswereaskedwithwhomtheycooperateandexchangevarioustypes
ofknowledge,andwheretheseexchangepartnersarelocated.Theresultsareanalysedusingsocialnetwork
analysisandpresentedinthefollowing9.
FIGURE2:KNOWLEDGESOURCINGTHROUGHCOLLABORATIONINTHELIFESCIENCEINDUSTRY.SOURCE:OWNDRAFT
9Networksarecomposedofnodesrepresentingactorsandlinksrepresentingknowledgeflows.Theshapeof
thenodeindicateswhethertheactorispartoftheinterviewedgroupandthelocationofthenodereflectsthe
spatialdimension(regional,national,international).
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Figure 2 displays the network of collaboration in the life science industry.A view on the structure of the
network reveals somebasic characteristicsof the life science industry in Scania.As regards thenumberof
actorsinvolvedintheindustry,wecount257nodesinthenetwork.Regardingtheexchangerelationsbetween
them,wecount293linksrepresentingflowsofknowledge.Thisshowsthatthenetworkbetweencompanies
intheregionallifesinceindustryisnotparticularlydense,andonlyfewactorsarementionedseveraltimesas
important partner for cooperation. The actors that aremost oftenmentioned are Lund University (17)10,
followedbytheUniversityHospitalofMalm(7)andKarolinska Institute(6),a largeandrenownedmedical
universityplaced inStockholm.As regard thespatial locationofactorsandexchangerelations, it isobvious
that contactpartnersaresituatedboth insideandoutside the region,whereasextraregionalcooperation is
dominating11.Ofall257actors,31.9%aresituatedintheregion,19.5%withinthecountryand48.6%outside
the country.Ofall293exchange relations,29.4%occurbetweenactors in the region,23.9%withactors in
other parts of the country and 46.8% are international. Thus it appears that, although some collaboration
takesplacewithintheregion,thelargestshareofknowledgeflowsoccurontheinternational level12.
FIGURE3:KNOWLEDGESOURCINGTHROUGHCOLLABORATIONINTHEFOODINDUSTRY.SOURCE:OWNDRAFT10
Numbersinbracketsindicatethenumberoflinksdirectedtowardsthenode(indegree)11
The interviews were conducted in the administrative region of Scania, however linkages with firms in
Copenhagen are considered as intraregional, in order to account for the close connection and intensive
commutingtakingplacebetweenthetworegions.12
We found no systematic difference as regards the perceived importance of regional, national and
internationalrelations,butahighlysignificantdifferenceasregardstheabsolutenumberofrelations.
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Figure3showstheknowledgenetwork in thefood industry.Compared tothe lifescience industry,onecan
observe a smaller amount of actors involved, but a denser structure of the network. Some actors are
frequently mentioned as relevant exchange partners, which are foremost the firms Tetra Pak (5),
Sknemejerier(5)andAlfaLaval(5)aswellastheSwedishInstituteforFoodandBiotechnology(5),anapplied
research instituteforfoodstuff locatedinGothenburg.Overall,wecount178nodesinthenetwork,ofwhich
44.4%are located in theregion,30.3%within thecountryand35.3% inotherpartsof theworld.Ofall204
exchange relations, 42.2% occur within the region, 33.3 % within the country and 24.5% cross national
borders.Thisshowsthat,comparedtothelifescienceindustry,asmallershareoftheexchangerelationsoccur
internationally, whereas national and to some extent also regional exchange relations are increasingly
relevant.
FIGURE4:KNOWLEDGESOURCINGTHROUGHCOLLABORATIONINTHEMOVINGMEDIAINDUSTRY.SOURCE:OWNDRAFTFigure4displayspatternsofknowledgesourcingthroughcollaboration inthemovingmedia industry.Actors
thatarementionedoftenas importantexchangepartnersare foremost theMunicipality ofMalm (9), the
UniversityCollegeofMalm(7),MediaMtesplatsMalm(8),whichistheregionalpolicyinitiativetargeting
themediaindustry,aswellasthelocalbranchoftheSwedishtelevisionbroadcasterSVT(5).Comparedtothe
previous twonetworks,weobservea largernumberofactorsandexchangerelations.Altogether,wecount
349nodesinthenetwork,ofwhichamajorityof51.9%islocatedwithintheregion,asmallershareof28.1%
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at other places in the country, and only 20.1% outside the country. Considering the exchange relations
betweentheactors,thedominanceoftheregional level isevenmoreobvious.Ofall405 links,54.8%occur
within the region, 24.4% within the country and 20.7% cross national boundaries. We thus observe that
although national and international knowledge exchange is present, intraregional knowledge exchange is
prevailing by far, which goes well in line with the theory led expectations on the context specificity of
knowledgedealtwithinsymbolicindustries.
CONCLUSIONSInthispaperwehavestudiedknowledgeflowsintheregionalinnovationsystemofScania,southernSweden.
Aimwastoexaminehow thegeographical andorganisationalpatternsofknowledgesourcingvarybetween
industries with different knowledge bases, whereas main focus was on the role of regional versus global
knowledgenetworksaswellastheroleofknowledgesourceswithadifferentdegreeofformalisation.Based
on the theoreticaldiscussion, analytical industries were expected to deal with highly formalised knowledge
sourcesandtooperateonaglobalscale.Followingthesamereasoning,syntheticindustrieswereexpectedto
relyonknowledgesourceswithalowerdegreeofformalisation,andglobalcooperationtoplayaminorrole.
Symbolicindustrieswereexpectedtooperatewithlessformalizedsourcesofknowledgeandtobeverymuch
locallyconfigured.Thesetheory ledexpectationshavebeenaddressedandtestedbycasestudyresearchon
three industries located in thesouthernmostprovinceofSweden.Our findingsreveal that industries indeed
differconsiderablywithregardtohowvarioussourcesforknowledgeareperceivedandacquired.Wefound
thatcompaniesinthelifescienceindustryrelyprimarilyonknowledgestemmingfromscientificresearchand
recruitmentfromthehighereducationsector,andthatknowledgeflowsoccurforemostingloballyconfigured
networks.Thefoodindustryretrievesnewknowledgefromlessformalisedsourcesandrecruitsprimarilyfrom
the
private
sector.
Knowledge
exchange
takes
place
in
dense,
nationally
or
regionally
configured
networks.
Companies in themovingmedia industryretrieveknowledge from less formalisedsourcessuchas fairsand
magazines and recruit primarily from other firms in the same industry. Knowledge exchange takes place in
highlylocalisednetworks.
Theseresultspointinthedirectionthatspaceandproximitymattersforinnovationandknowledgeexchange,
although this is notequally true forall industries. It seems that knowledgeexchange in spatial proximity is
particularly important for innovation in symbolic and to some extend in synthetic industries, whereas
analyticalindustriesoperateonawidergeographicalscale.Thegeneralobservationthatinnovationactivities
tendtoclusterincertainlocationsiscertainlyvalidandholdsforalmostalltechnologicalfields,howeverthe
extent and driving force for colocation seems to differ between industries. What drives colocation in
analytical industries is not necessarily the exchange of knowledge with other firms, but first and foremost
linkages with public or private research organisations providing education and a skilled labour force. In
addition to these localised sources of knowledge, firms maintain vital linkages to specialized knowledge
providerssituatedinotherpartsoftheworld.Itbecomesclearthat,despitetheimportanceofthelocalbuzz,
stronglinkagestoforeigncollaboratorsandothersourcesofknowledgeremaincrucialforenablinginnovation
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inanalyticalindustries(Bathelt,Malmberg,andMaskell2004;GertlerandLevitte2005;Moodysson2008).In
case of synthetic industries, innovation is driven by cooperation and interactive learning within formally
establishednetworksbetweencustomersandsuppliers,oftenonthenationallevel,whereaslocaluniversities
playaminorrole. Inordertobringnewproductsandprocesses tothemarket,companieshavetoapply to
norms and regulations that are, at least in the case of food, typically part of the national institutional
framework(Coenenetal.2006).Localknowledgeexchangeiscrucialforsymbolicindustries,sincetheybuild
onculturalknowledgethatiscontextspecificandmosteasilyunderstoodbyactorswhosharethesamesocio
cultural background. Due to shortterm and project based organisation of innovation activities, symbolic
industriesrequireeasyaccesstoapoolofpossiblecooperationpartners,which isbestprovided in the local
environment. Ithasbecomeclear in thisstudy that the fundamentalquestionon theroleofgeography for
innovationoughttobeaddressed throughmultipleperspectives;oneofwhichmightbeaknowledgebased
view.As ithasbeenstressed inthispaper,webelievethatasoundunderstandingofthespecificknowledge
characteristics of industries can provide additional insights to the discussion on geographical patterns of
innovationandaddtotheliteratureinthisfield.Suchinsightsare,inourview,alsocrucialforthepossibilityto
designand implementsoundregional innovationsupportpolicies thatareembedded inandattuned to the
specific needs and available resources of the region. While part of such policy measures can be generally
applicable,embracingallmajorsectorsrepresented intheregional innovationsystem,thepartsthatareset
out to be sector specific, for instance those usually referred to as cluster initiatives, must relate to the
specific modes of innovation in the sector. Knowledge base characteristics are important aspects of such
sectorspecificity.
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Nonaka,I.;R.Toyama;andN.Konno.2000.SECI,BaandLeadership:aUnifiedModelofDynamicKnowledgeCreation.LongRangePlanning33:534.
Pavitt,K.2005.Innovationprocesses.InTheOxfordHandbookofInnovation,ed.J.Fagerberg;D.Mowery;andR.Nelson,86114.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Polanyi,M.1967.TheTacitDimension.NewYork:Doubleday.Porter,M.2003.TheEconomicPerformanceofRegions.RegionalStudies37:545 546.
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CIRCLE ELECTRONIC WORKING PAPERS SERIES (EWP)
CIRCLE (Centre for Innovation, Research and Competence in the LearningEconomy) is a multidisciplinary research centre set off by several faculties at LundUniversity and Blekinge Institute of Technology. CIRCLE has a mandate to conductmultidisciplinary research and education on the following issues: Long-termperspectives on innovation, structural change and economic growth,Entrepreneurship and venture capital formation with a special focus on new ventures,The dynamics of R&D systems and technological systems, including their impact onentrepreneurship and growth, Regional innovation systems in different national andinternational contexts and International comparative analyses of national innovationsystems. Special emphasis is done on innovation policies and research policies. 10nationalities and 14 disciplines are represented among the CIRCLE staff.
The CIRCLE Electronic Working Paper Series are intended to be an instrument forearly dissemination of the research undertaken by CIRCLE researchers, associatesand visiting scholars and stimulate discussion and critical comment.
The working papers present research results that in whole or in part are suitable forsubmission to a refereed journal or to the editor of a book or have already beensubmitted and/or accepted for publication.
CIRCLE EWPs are available on-line at: http://www.circle.lu.se/publications
Available papers:
2011
WP 2011/01SMEs absorptive capacities and large firms know ledge spillovers: Microevidence from MexicoClaudia de Fuentes and Gabriela Dutrnit
WP 2011/02Comparing knowledge bases: on the organisation and geography ofknowledge flows in the regional innovation system of Scania, southern SwedenRoman Martin and Jerker Moodysson
2010
WP 2010/01Innovation policies for development: towards a systemic experimentationbased approachCristina Chaminade, Bengt-Ake Lundvall, J an Vang-Lauridsen and KJ J oseph
WP 2010/02From Basic Research to Innovation: Entrepreneurial Intermediaries forResearch Commercialization at Swedish Strong Research EnvironmentsFumi Kitagawa and Caroline Wigren
WP 2010/03 Different competences, different modes in the globalization ofinnovation?A comparative study of the Pune and Bei jing reg ionsMonica Plechero and Cristina Chaminade
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WP 2010/04 Technological Capability Bui lding in Informal Firms in theAgricu lturalSubsistence Sector In Tanzania: Assessing the Role of Gatsby ClubsAstrid Szogs and Kelefa Mwantima
WP 2010/05The Swedish Paradox Unexploited Opportunities!Charles Edquist
WP 2010/06A three-stage model of the Academy-Industry linking process: the perspectiveof both agentsClaudia De Fuentes and Gabriela Dutrnit
WP 2010/07Innovation in symbolic industries: the geography and organisation ofknowledge sourcingRoman Martin and Jerker Moodysson
WP 2010/08Towards a spatial perspective on sustainability transiti onsLars Coenen, Paul Benneworth and Bernhard Truffer
WP 2010/09The Swedish national innovation system and its relevance for the emergenceof global innovation networksCristina Chaminade, J on Mikel Zabala and Adele Treccani
WP 2010/10Who leads Research Productiv ity Change? Guidelines for R&D policy makersFernando J imnez-Sez, J on Mikel Zabala and J os L- Zofo
WP 2010/11Research councils facing new science and technologyFrank van der Most and Barend van der Meulen
WP 2010/12From new to the firm to new to the world. Effect of geographical proximity andtechnological capabilities on the degree of novelty in emerging economiesMonica Plechero and Cristina Chaminade
WP 2010/13Are knowledge-bases enough? A comparative study of the geography ofknowledge sources in China (Great Beijing) and India (Pune)Cristina Chaminade
WP 2010/14Regional Innovation Policy beyond Best Practice: Lessons f rom SwedenRoman Martin, J erker Moodysson and Elena Zukauskaite
WP 2010/15Innovation in cultural industries: The role of university linksElena Zukauskaite
WP 2010/16
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Use and non-use of research evaluation. A l iterature reviewFrank van der Most
WP 2010/17Upscaling emerging niche technologies in sustainable energy: an internationalcomparison of policy approachesLars Coenen, Roald Suurs and Emma van Sandick
2009
WP 2009/01Building systems of innovation in less developed countries: The role ofintermediate organizations.Szogs, Astrid; Cummings, Andrew and Chaminade, Cristina
WP 2009/02The Widening and Deepening of Innovation Policy: What Conditions Providefor Effective Governance?Borrs, Susana
WP 2009/03Managerial learning and development in small firms: implications based onobservations of managerial workGabrielsson, J onas and Tell, J oakim
WP 2009/04University professors and research commercialization: An empirical test of the knowledge corridor thesisGabrielsson, J onas, Politis, Diamanto and Tell, J oakim
WP 2009/05On the concept of global innovation networksChaminade, Cristina
WP 2009/06Technological Waves and Economic Growth - Sweden in an InternationalPerspective 1850-2005Schn, Lennart
WP 2009/07Public Procurement of Innovation Diffusion: Exploring the Role of Institutionsand Institutional CoordinationRolfstam, Max; Phillips, Wendy and Bakker, Elmer
WP 2009/08Local niche experimentation in energy transitions: a theoretical and empiricalexploration of proximity advantages and disadvantagesLars Coenen, Rob Raven, Geert Verbong
WP 2009/9Product Development Decisions: An empirical approach to Krishnan and UlrichJ on Mikel Zabala, Tina Hannemann
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WP 2009/10Dynamics of a Technological Innovator Network and its impact ontechnological performanceJ u Liu, Cristina Chaminade
WP 2009/11The Role of Local Universities in Improving Traditional SMEs InnovativePerformances: The Veneto Region CaseMonica Plechero
WP 2009/12Comparing systems approaches to innovation and technological change forsustainable and competitive economies: an explorative study into conceptualcommonaliti es, differences and complementaritiesCoenen, Lars and Daz Lpez, Fernando J .
WP 2009/13Public Procurement fo r Innovation (PPI) a Pilot StudyCharles Edquist
WP 2009/14Outputs of innovation systems: a European perspectiveCharles Edquist and Jon Mikel Zabala
2008
WP 2008/01R&D and financial systems: the determinants of R&D expenditures in theSwedish pharmaceutical indust ryMalmberg, Claes
WP 2008/02
The Development of a New Swedish Innovation Policy. A Historical Inst itutionalApproachPersson, Bo
WP 2008/03The Effects o f R&D on Regional Invention and InnovationOlof Ejermo and Urban Grsj
WP 2008/04Clusters in Time and Space: Understanding the Growth and Transformation ofLife Science in ScaniaMoodysson, J erker; Nilsson, Magnus; Svensson Henning, Martin
WP 2008/05Building absorptive capacity in less developed countriesThe case of TanzaniaSzogs, Astrid; Chaminade, Cristina and Azatyan, Ruzana
WP 2008/06Design of Innovation Policy through Diagnostic Analysis :Identifi cation of Systemic Problems (or Failures)Edquist, Charles
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WP 2008/07The Swedish Paradox arises in Fast-Growing SectorsEjermo, Olof; Kander, Astrid and Svensson Henning, Martin
WP 2008/08Policy Reforms, New University-Industry Links and Implications for RegionalDevelopment in JapanKitagawa, Fumi
WP 2008/09The Challenges of Globalisation: Strategic Choices for Innovation PolicyBorrs, Susana; Chaminade, Cristina and Edquist, Charles
WP 2008/10Comparing national systems of innovation in Asia and Europe: theory andcomparative frameworkEdquist, Charles and Hommen, Leif
WP 2008/11Putting Constructed Regional Advantage into Swedish Practice? The case ofthe VINNVXT initiative 'Food Innovation at Interfaces'Coenen, Lars; Moodysson, J erker
WP 2008/12Energy transitions in Europe: 1600-2000Kander, Astrid; Malanima, Paolo and Warde, Paul
WP 2008/13RIS and Developing Countries: Linking firm technological capabilities toregional systems of innovationPadilla, Ramon; Vang, J an and Chaminade, Cristina
WP 2008/14The paradox of high R&D input and low innovation output: SwedenBitarre, Pierre; Edquist, Charles; Hommen, Leif and Ricke, Annika
WP 2008/15Two Sides of the Same Coin? Local and Global Knowledge Flows in MediconValleyMoodysson, J erker; Coenen, Lars and Asheim, Bjrn
WP 2008/16Electrification and energy productivityEnflo, Kerstin; Kander, Astrid and Schn, Lennart
WP 2008/17Concluding Chapter: Globalisation and Innovation PolicyHommen, Leif and Edquist, Charles
WP 2008/18Regional innovation systems and the global location of innovation activities:Lessons from ChinaYun-Chung, Chen; Vang, J an and Chaminade, Cristina
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WP 2008/19The Role of mediator organisations in the making of innovation systems inleast developed countries. Evidence from TanzaniaSzogs, Astrid
WP 2008/20Globalisation of Knowledge Product ion and Regional Innovation Policy:Supporting Specialized Hubs in the Bangalore Software IndustryChaminade, Cristina and Vang, J an
WP 2008/21Upgrading in Asian clusters: Rethinking the importance of interactive-learningChaminade, Cristina and Vang, J an
2007
WP 2007/01Path-following or Leapfrogging in Catching-up: the Case of ChineseTelecommunication Equipment IndustryLiu, Xielin
WP 2007/02The effects of institutional change on innovation and productivity growth in theSwedish pharmaceutical industryMalmberg, Claes
WP 2007/03Global-local linkages, Spillovers and Cultural Clusters: Theoretical andEmpirical insights from an exploratory study of Torontos Film ClusterVang, J an; Chaminade, Cristina
WP 2007/04
Learning from the Bangalore Experience: The Role of Universities in anEmerging Regional Innovation SystemVang, J an; Chaminade, Cristina.; Coenen, Lars.
WP 2007/05Industrial dynamics and innovative pressure on energy -Sweden withEuropean and Global outlooksSchn, Lennart; Kander, Astrid.
WP 2007/06In defence of electricit y as a general purpose technologyKander, Astrid; Enflo, Kerstin; Schn, Lennart
WP 2007/07Swedish business research productivity improvements against internationaltrendsEjermo, Olof; Kander, Astrid
WP 2007/08Regional innovation measured by patent data does quality matter?Ejermo, Olof
WP 2007/09
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Innovation System Policies in Less Successful Developing countr ies: The caseof ThailandIntarakumnerd, Patarapong; Chaminade, Cristina
2006
WP 2006/01The Swedish ParadoxEjermo, Olof; Kander, Astrid
WP 2006/02Building RIS in Developing Count ries: Policy Lessons from Bangalore, IndiaVang, J an; Chaminade, Cristina
WP 2006/03Innovation Policy for Asian SMEs: Exploring cluster differencesChaminade, Cristina; Vang, J an.
WP 2006/04Rationales for public intervention from a system of innovation approach: thecase of VINNOVA.Chaminade, Cristina; Edquist, Charles
WP 2006/05Technology and Trade: an analysis of technology specialization and exportflowsAndersson, Martin; Ejermo, Olof
WP 2006/06A Knowledge-based Categorizat ion of Research-based Spin-off Creat ionGabrielsson, J onas; Landstrm, Hans; Brunsnes, E. Thomas
WP 2006/07Board control and corporate innovation: an empirical study of smalltechnology-based firmsGabrielsson, J onas; Politis, Diamanto
WP 2006/08On and Off the Beaten Path:Transferring Knowledge through Formal and Informal NetworksRick Aalbers; Otto Koppius; Wilfred Dolfsma
WP 2006/09Trends in R&D, innovation and product ivity in Sweden 1985-2002
Ejermo, Olof; Kander, Astrid
WP 2006/10Development Blocks and the Second Industrial Revolution, Sweden 1900-1974Enflo, Kerstin; Kander, Astrid; Schn, Lennart
WP 2006/11The uneven and selective nature of c luster knowledge networks: evidence fromthe wine industryGiuliani, Elisa
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WP 2006/12Informal investors and value added: The contribution of investorsexperientially acquired resources in the entrepreneurial processPolitis, Diamanto; Gabrielsson, J onas
WP 2006/13Informal investors and value added: What do we know and where do we go?Politis, Diamanto; Gabrielsson, J onas
WP 2006/14Inventive and innovative activity over time and geographical space: the case ofSwedenEjermo, Olof
2005
WP 2005/1Constructi ng Regional Advantage at the Northern EdgeCoenen, Lars; Asheim, Bjrn
WP 2005/02From Theory to Practice: The Use of the Systems of Innovation Approach forInnovation PolicyChaminade, Cristina; Edquist, Charles
WP 2005/03The Role of Regional Innovation Systems in a Globalising Economy:Comparing Knowledge Bases and Institutional Frameworks in Nordic ClustersAsheim, Bjrn; Coenen, Lars
WP 2005/04
How does Accessibility to Knowledge Sources Affect the Innovativeness ofCorporations? Evidence from SwedenAndersson, Martin; Ejermo, Olof
WP 2005/05Contextualizing Regional Innovation Systems in a Globalizing LearningEconomy: On Know ledge Bases and Institutional FrameworksAsheim, Bjrn; Coenen, Lars
WP 2005/06Innovation Policies for Asian SMEs: An Innovation Systems PerspectiveChaminade, Cristina; Vang, J an
WP 2005/07Re-norming the Science-Society RelationJ acob, Merle
WP 2005/08Corporate innovation and competitive environmentHuse, Morten; Neubaum, Donald O.; Gabrielsson, Jonas
WP 2005/09
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Knowledge and accountability: Outside directors' contribution in the corporatevalue chainHuse, Morten, Gabrielsson, Jonas; Minichilli, Alessandro
WP 2005/10Rethink ing the Spatial Organization of Creative IndustriesVang, J an
WP 2005/11Interregional Inventor Networks as Studied by Patent Co-inventorshipsEjermo, Olof; Karlsson, Charlie
WP 2005/12Knowledge Bases and Spatial Patterns of Collaboration: Comparing thePharma and Agro-Food B ioregions Scania and SaskatoonCoenen, Lars; Moodysson, J erker; Ryan, Camille; Asheim, Bjrn; Phillips, Peter
WP 2005/13
Regional Innovation System Policy: a Knowledge-based ApproachAsheim, Bjrn; Coenen, Lars; Moodysson, J erker; Vang, J an
WP 2005/14Face-to-Face, Buzz and Knowledge Bases: Socio-spatial implications forlearning and innovation policyAsheim, Bjrn; Coenen, Lars, Vang, J an
WP 2005/15The Creative Class and Regional Growth: Towards a Knowledge BasedApproachKals Hansen, Hgni; Vang, J an; Bjrn T. Asheim
WP 2005/16Emergence and Growth of Mjrdevi Science Park in Linkping, SwedenHommen, Leif; Doloreux, David; Larsson, Emma
WP 2005/17Trademark Statistics as Innovation Indicators? A Micro StudyMalmberg, Claes