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Consult this publication on line at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264240094-en.
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OECD Environmental Performance Reviews
Mainstreaming
biODiVERsiTY into sectoral policies
2011-2015
www.oecd.org/environment/country-reviews
oecd environmental performance reviews
Mainstreaming biodiversity
The OECD Environmental Performance Review (EPR) chapters on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use are intended to assess how well the reviewed country has done in achieving its biodiversity-related objectives, in terms of both environmental effectiveness and economic efficiency of policies and measures, and to provide recommendations for improving future policies and performance. These chapters also include a section on mainstreaming biodiversity into other sectors (such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, infrastructure, and tourism). Other sections of the biodiversity chapters also deal with mainstreaming (e.g. institutional co-operation, policy instruments), as do other chapters of EPRs, in particular the one on green growth.
General structure of OECD EPR chapters on biodiversity:
• State and trends in biodiversity/ecosystems
• Institutional and regulatory/legal framework
• Policy instruments for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use
• Mainstreaming biodiversity in other sectors/ policy areas
In response to the CBD notification [2015-131] to provide information and experiences relevant to mainstreaming biodiversity across sectors and into cross-sectoral plans and policies, this brochure provides excerpts of the mainstreaming sections of recent OECD EPR chapters on biodiversity, namely from:
• Brazil (2015)
• Spain (2015)
• Colombia (2014)
• South Africa (2013)
• Mexico (2013)
• Israel (2011)
For further information, please contact:
Ivana Capozza ([email protected]), team leader for EPRs
Katia Karousakis ([email protected]), team leader for biodiversity and CBD focal point.
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From:OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Brazil2015
Access the complete publication at:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264240094-en
Please cite this chapter as:
OECD (2015), “Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity”, in OECD Environmental PerformanceReviews: Brazil 2015, OECD Publishing, Paris.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264240094-11-en
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7. Mainstreaming biodiversity into sectoral policies
7.1. Agriculture
Brazil is a major agricultural producer and exporter and agriculture accounts for about
15% of employment (Chapter 1; also see Basic Statistics). Since the mid-2000s, the
government has placed a greater focus on encouraging the adoption of new technology and
sustainable agricultural practices and discouraging conversion of forests in agricultural
areas. As Section 4 notes, since 2008 access to subsidised rural credit in the Amazon biome
has been conditional on the legitimacy of land claims and compliance with environmental
regulations, and rural credit will be conditional on land registration in the Rural
Environmental Cadastre from October 2017 (Section 5.2).
Special programmes support small family farms, organic farming and sustainable
production such as the National Agroecology and Organic Production Plan 2012-15. For
example, the Family Production Socio-environmental Development Programme
(Proambiente) awards farmers and ranchers with up to one-third of the minimum wage
when they use more environmentally sound production practices, such as no pesticides or
sustainable agroforestry (OECD, 2013). In 2010, the government launched the Low-Carbon
Agriculture programme to provide subsidised credits for implementing good environmental
practices. While the focus of this programme is on reducing GHG emissions, it contributes to
mitigating the impact on biodiversity (Box 4.10).
Demand for organic products has grown in recent years. This fact and higher product
prices are making organic production a viable way for small-scale rural producers to
increase their income. The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply has
developed an online system for registering organic producers. In 2014, there were more
than 7 100 organic producers registered in the system (MMA, 2015). Yet organic farming
accounts for a very small share of agricultural output and less than 1% of agricultural land
area, and the area dedicated to organic practices has declined since 2010 (Figure 4.11).
Overall, the volume of the programmes to support sustainable agriculture is small
compared to the total support provided to farmers. Most of the support and loans to agriculture
are based on conventional agriculture practices (hybrid seeds, chemical fertilisers and
pesticides), with potentially negative impacts on soil and water. The vast majority of support is
tied to production, as it is based on commodity output and input use (Chapter 3). This is the
most distorting and potentially environmentally harmful form of agricultural support.
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By stimulating production and input use, and thereby agricultural intensification and
expansion, these support and credit programmes risk increasing pressures on the natural
resource base and encourage deforestation. These policies reduce incentives to use
production factors more efficiently and tend to encourage agricultural production over
Box 4.10. The Low-Carbon Agriculture programme
The Low-Carbon Agriculture (ABC) programme, launched in 2010 as part of the National Climate Change Policy (Chapter 2), consolidated a range of concessional credit lines that targeted good environmental practices and the reduction of GHG emissions with a view to facilitating investment. Unlike previous rural credit lines, the programme does not finance specific items (e.g. machinery, seeds, fertilisers), but may finance actions that jointly reduce environmental impacts. The programme took off slowly, due to various technical and capacity challenges, but disbursement picked up in 2012 as more financial intermediaries became involved, the interest rate was decreased, technical capacity strengthened and dissemination of information about the programme improved. The total contracted operations in 2013/14 amounted to BRL 3 billion, nearly double the amount of the 2011/12 growing season. By July 2014, total contracted operations had reached BRL 8.2 billion, 62% of the planned value (FEBRABAN, 2014).
Despite improvement, intermediary banks continue to show little interest in the programme: 91% of disbursements were executed by the public Banco do Brasil, while only 9% were transferred by private banks with funds from the BNDES. This is partly because an ABC credit with the BNDES entails high transaction costs (FEBRABAN, 2014). Information on the programme needs to be expanded and resources for training technical assistants and for financial officers increased. Prioritising areas for expansion (e.g. where GHG reduction potentials are greatest) would help increase the effectiveness of the programme while it is gradually scaled up. As the programme expands, efforts should be undertaken to monitor its effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions and pressures on biodiversity. Overall, the volume and scale of the ABC programme remain small when compared to conventional agricultural support.
Figure 4.11. Agricultural organic area is small and has declined
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933279755
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
8 000
9 000
10 000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
%Km2
Agricultural organic area, 2005-12
Surface % of total agricultural area (right axis)
Source: FAO (2015), FAOSTAT (database).
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other land uses, such as conservation, restoration and sustainable forestry. Agricultural
support could be more strongly oriented to encouraging environmental improvement and
efficient use of inputs, as well as to addressing infrastructure gaps. This could improve
productivity of agriculture and cattle farming and reduce the impetus for converting land
and clearing forests.
In addition, key agricultural inputs such as water, pesticides and fertilisers are
implicitly subsidised. Water abstraction is not charged for in many regions (Section 5).
Fertilisers and pesticides are exempt from some federal and state taxes, which has
increased their use and related impact on human health, ecosystems and water and soil
quality. Brazil is one of the world’s largest consumers of fertilisers (after China, India and
United States) and fertiliser use is particularly high for certain crops, such as soya, and in
the South and South-east regions where large-scale farming prevails (Chapter 1). Several
widely used pesticides are considered dangerous or highly dangerous for the environment
and detrimental to pollinators (MMA, 2015); and the use of non-authorised pesticides is
high (Jardim and Caldas, 2012).
The current regulation on pesticide approval should be revised to require periodic
renewal of approvals, rather than these being granted permanently (MMA, 2015). When
conducted, the review process often takes several years (Friedrich, 2013). In addition, tax
exemptions for fertilisers and pesticides should be reconsidered with a view to
encouraging more rational use of products that can harm human and animal health and
ecosystems. The experience of other countries shows that this can lead to economic and
environmental benefits. Indonesia, for example, gradually removed pesticide subsidies,
while assisting farmers with the use of integrated pest management approaches. Three
years later, this resulted in record levels of rice production and over USD 100 million in
savings (OECD, 2013).
The Rural Land Tax (ITR), although not very significant, also incentivises agricultural
production over conservation. The ITR is higher for “unproductive” land than for land
under agricultural production. RL and APP areas benefit from ITR exemption, which partly
compensates for the opportunity cost of not engaging in more intensive land use; however,
the value of the exemption is so low that the incentive is negligible (MMA, 2015).
7.2. Forestry
Timber and non-timber resources
Brazil is a large producer and consumer of tropical timber. In 2007, the forestry sector
accounted for 3.5% of GDP and 7.3% of exports, and employed about 7 million people
(SFB, 2015b). Less than 1% of total forest area was designated for production in 2011/12
(SFB, 2013).19 Legally extracted timber from native forests came from both sustainable
forest management (49%) and authorised deforestation (51%) in 2007-10. Extraction from
planted forests has almost doubled since 2000 and reached almost five times the volume of
extracted timber from native forests in 2013. Planted forests can help reduce demand for
timber products from native forests and generate employment and income. Most planted
forests are located in southern Brazil, while timber from native forests primarily originates
in the Amazon and, to a lesser extent, the Atlantic Forest (SFB, 2015b).
Non-timber forest products generated BRL 936 million in 2011, or 5.1% of total primary
forest production (MMA, 2015). The extraction of non-timber forest products is a diffuse
and informal economic activity, practiced mainly, though not exclusively, in remote
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regions by traditional and rural communities. Extractive activities often comprise an
important (if not the only) source of their income. Products exploited for economic
purposes include rubber, straws, reeds, leaves, fibres, seeds, resins and essential oils, but
production scale varies significantly and species and/or environmental sustainability is
not yet ensured for all products (MMA, 2015).
Production of such products has been encouraged through federal programmes such
as the PNPSB (Section 5.7) and the creation of sustainable use protected areas (Chapter 5).
In Manaus and Belém, productive chains are being developed to connect and co-ordinate
extractive activities in forest communities with urban economic sectors, small and
medium-size processing industries, local research and technological support institutions,
and other relevant sectors (MMA, 2015). However, the production extracted from the forest
in sustainable conditions amounts to less than 0.2% of the GDP of the Legal Amazon
municipalities, mainly due to insufficient demand and a missing link between production
and commercialisation (WWF, 2015).
Concessions for sustainable forest management
The government is committed to increasing the sustainable use of its forest resources,
recognising that sustainable economic alternatives for local populations are needed to
prevent deforestation and other environmentally harmful practises.
The 2006 Public Forests Management Law reinforced the right of local communities to
manage their forests20 and introduced concessions as an instrument to promote
sustainable forest management for timber production. It established the SFB to manage
concessions. The law allows federal, state and municipal governments to grant, through a
bidding process, the legal right for private companies to harvest timber and non-timber
forest products, provided that the forest is sustainably managed.21 The selection of
concessionaries is based on best price offers and on technical criteria such as lowest
environment impact and highest social benefits. Forest concessions must be preceded by
public hearings. Part of the concession area must be set aside and extractive activities need
to respect local populations (SFB, 2013).
While the area of public forests is extensive, only a very small part of it is being used
for sustainable forest management concessions. As of November 2012, Brazil had an area
of 3.1 million km2 registered as natural public forests in the National Public Forest Registry
(CNPF),22 representing 36% of the national territory (SFB, 2013). The first forest concessions
were granted in 2008, but by 2013 only 0.2% of the public forest area available for
concessions was under a federal or state concession regime.
Among the reasons for the slow take-off of concessions are insufficient expertise in
technology for sustainable forest management in companies; the insufficient technical
and economic capacity at government level to manage the concessions; lack of
infrastructure in the concession areas; and unsolved land tenure conflicts. Forestry
companies often complain about the high concession fees (for each cubic metre of wood
harvested) and the technical specifications in contract terms. Rural communities have
difficult access to concessions because they lack the ability to compete in a highly
bureaucratic process (WWF, 2015). Systematic monitoring of areas under concessions is
needed to ensure that forests are managed sustainably, according to the contract
specifications, and that they achieve the expected environmental and social outcomes.
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Timber certification
The forest management and chain of custody certification in Brazil is carried out by
several companies through two certification systems: the Brazilian Programme for Forest
Certification (Cerflor), bound to the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification
Schemes (PEFC), and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Total area of certified forests
has increased. By the end of 2012, more than 14 000 km2 of forest was certified by Cerflor
and another 72 000 km2 by FSC (SFB, 2013).
Forest restoration
As Section 5.2 points out, a large share of rural holdings do not comply with forest
conservation obligations set in the 2012 Forest Code and the tree cover will need to be restored
on these lands, especially in the Amazon, Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes. As of April 2015,
data registered in the CAR indicated the need to restore 80 000 km2 of forest land (SFB, 2015a).
The National Plan for Native Vegetation Recovery (Planaveg), developed by the MMA and
currently under public consultation, aims to promote large-scale forest restoration. The
proposal projects recovery of at least 125 000 km2 within 20 years,23 primarily in APPs (46%) and
RLs (37%), but also on degraded or low productivity areas where restoration is not required by
law. The proposed plan includes several groups of actions aimed at raising awareness, making
seedlings available and affordable, creating markets for products from restored forests and
introducing new finance mechanisms (such as extending the existing tax-free infrastructure
bonds to restoration investment), among other goals. It is expected to complement other
initiatives, such as the ABC programme (Box 4.10) and ongoing land regularisation efforts. The
MMA expects the plan to generate up to 191 000 direct jobs in rural areas.
Restoration costs are high, and can be prohibitive for small-scale land holders. Meeting
Brazil’s restoration targets is therefore challenging and will require significant resources,
financial and human. The preliminary budget for implementation is BRL 181 million for
the first five years,24 but funding sources are yet to be defined. In addition to providing cost
estimates, Brazil should prioritise the most important areas for restoration (e.g. using
priority maps such as key areas for water production and biodiversity protection).
7.3. Fishery and aquaculture
The Brazilian government has committed to support growth of the fishery sector as an
important tool for food security and regional socio-economic development. The capacity of
fishing vessels and tools has increased, which is reflected in increased fishery production
(Section 1.2). Most fisheries, however, are carried out by obsolete fleets very often directed at
fish stocks that are already heavily exploited, resulting in negative outcomes with respect to
both biodiversity and efficiency. Resource conflicts between artisanal and industrial fishing
and among fishing communities tend to exacerbate pressures on fish stocks (OECD-FAO, 2015).
Aquaculture production has grown nearly five-fold since 2000 and it is expected to
grow further, driven by increasing domestic demand and policy support to the sector
(OECD-FAO, 2015).25 Increasing aquaculture production may contribute to increase fish and
seafood supply while reducing pressure on natural fishery resources, but policies aimed at
expanding aquaculture needs to take into account potentially negative impacts on
biodiversity and ecosystems, particularly when alien fish species (or Brazilian species
outside of their original habitat) are being cultivated. Aquaculture activities are subject to
environmental licencing.
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Brazil has adopted a shared fishery management model based on permanent
management committees involving government and civil society institutions. This model
aims to address environmental sustainability and social inclusion concerns. No formal
environmental licensing of fishing activities is required, but several measures apply to
limit their environmental impact (e.g. on fishing periods and areas, and gear). However, an
audit conducted by the Federal Court of Accounts (TCU) found that this structure was not
fully implemented, with measures for the sustainable use of fishery resources still being
carried out by the government alone. Limitations in data on aquatic habitats and fishery
resources, insufficient mechanisms to monitor and control compliance, and difficult co-
operation between the MMA and the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture were found to
pose further challenges to sustainable fishery management (MMA, 2015).
Additional measures, including fish catch quotas, effective management plans for
overexploited species and the extension of marine protected areas, are needed, particularly
in coastal and marine areas where fish stocks are at their limits. The Sectoral Plan for Sea
Resources includes an initiative focusing on evaluation, monitoring and conservation of
marine biodiversity (REVIMAR). For 2012-15, this initiative was to include establishing
monitoring programmes for marine species, continuing the assessment and monitoring of
mangrove areas and protected areas containing coral reefs, increasing the number of
conservation plans for marine threatened species and expanding the total marine protected
areas to 4% of Brazil’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (Chapter 5).
7.4. Infrastructure development: the case of hydropower
Hydropower is, and will continue to be, a major energy source, but its expansion is
constrained by location: most potential is located in the Amazon, which raises difficulties
with environmental licensing and public acceptance (Box 2.8). Efforts are being made to
develop new techniques to reduce the environmental impact of large hydropower plants,
including platform hydropower, and, when suitable, new projects are designed as run-of-
river (IEA, 2013). Yet hydropower plants can have a number of adverse impacts on
biodiversity, disrupting river connectivity, changing habitats and interfering with the
natural cycles of aquatic species. The development of dams for large hydro may also
encourage road construction, migration and urbanisation, further increasing pressures on
native vegetation. About 95% of deforestation in the Amazon occurs within 5 km of roads
(or rivers) (Barber et al., 2014).
Like all infrastructure projects, hydropower plants are subject to environmental
licensing and impact assessment (Chapter 2). However, the licensing process and
allocation of water use permits has paid little attention to environmental flows, i.e. to how
much water is needed to sustain freshwater ecosystems and ecosystem services to prevent
negative (and often unexpected) impacts. Legislation in many countries requires
environmental water needs to be considered as part of the licensing process (OECD, 2015).
The streamlining of biodiversity into large-scale infrastructure projects benefits from
enhanced co-operation between the MMA and the Ministry of Mines and Energy. With a few
exceptions, however, impacts are addressed through ex post mitigation measures, rather
than being considered at the early planning stages. Better integration between the regulatory
and institutional frameworks for the environmental and energy sectors would allow a shift
from project-based planning to a more strategic integration of energy development and
conservation objectives. Brazil could consider using strategic environmental assessment
procedures for hydropower development (Chapter 2). This would make it possible, for
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example, to identify where energy capacity could be built with the least environmental
impact and take account of cumulative impact (e.g. from a series of dams on the same river).
This could help reduce the costs of mitigation the environmental and social impact of
hydropower development projects, as identified by the environmental licence, which
represent up to 12% of the total costs of these projects (World Bank, 2008).
OECD ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REVIEWS: BRAZIL 2015 © OECD 2015
Notes
1. Together the 17 megadiverse countries in the world contain around 70% of the world’s biodiversity.
2. A biome is a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a geographic region.
3. The Amazônia Legal super-region corresponds to an area larger than the Amazon biome, encompassing both the Amazonian forest (about 4.1 million km2) and transitional vegetation (1 million km2); the Amazon biome covers only the forest area. Amazônia Legal takes in nearly nine states: Amazonas, Pará, Acre, Roraima, Rondônia, Amapá and Tocantins, and part of Mato Grosso and Maranhão.
4. The tracking of deforestation in Brazil’s other five biomes began later than in the Amazon. Annual deforestation data started being produced in 2009.
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5. These include 732 mammal, 1 980 bird and 4 507 marine and freshwater fish species.
6. These include cassava, pineapple, peanuts, cocoa, cashew, cupuassu, passion fruit, Brazil nut, guaranaand jabuticaba.
7. The list of threatened flora species is based on the 2013 Red Book by the National Centre for Plant Conservation at the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden’s Institute of Research.
8. For example, the North American Pinus pine replaced steppe habitat in the south of Brazil with simplified forest habitats (MMA, 2015),
9. These include the National Environment Council (CONAMA) (Chapter 2), the National Council for the Legal Amazon (CONAMAZ), the Council for the Management of the Genetic Patrimony, the Commission for the Management of Public Forests and the Commission for Sea Resources.
10. The consultation process, called “Dialogues on biodiversity: building the Brazilian strategy for 2020”, involved participants from all sectors, including businesses, NGOs, academia, the federal and state governments, indigenous peoples and traditional communities, and the general public by means of an online public consultation process.
11. Some examples are the Vale Company, which invests through its Fundo Vale; Petrobras, which invests through Petrobras Ambiental; the cosmetic company Boticário, which invests through its Boticário Foundation; and the Natura cosmetic company (Box 3.8), which invests through Fundação Natura.
12. Life Certification was launched in 2009 under the aegis of the CBD. To obtain the certification, a company must implement a minimum set of biodiversity conservation and mitigation actions.
13. Some examples include pequi pulp, pine nuts, umbu and licuri, piassava palm babassu, buriti and carnauba palm, Brazil nut, andiroba and copaiba oils.
14. The National Supply Company (CONAB) implements the programme; it defines minimum prices and is responsible for operationalising the payment of benefits.
15. The operationalisation of subsidy payment is bureaucratic; the extractivists are required to possesspersonal documentation and a checking account.
16. In the case of babassu almond, the percentage of production subsidised by the PGPMBio was less than 2%. For rubber, a larger share of total production was subsidised, reaching almost 27% in 2012.
17. Obtaining a permit usually took about three years. Researchers have complained about the requirement of obtaining the consent of relevant communities for their research, arguing that they do not always know early on where a genetic resource is found (IEEP et al., 2012).
18. Payment into the Amazon Fund was based on reducing GHG emissions from historical average deforestation rates, using a formula that converted estimated CO2 emission reductions from deforestation abatement against an average rate and applied a value of USD 5 per tonne of avoided GHG emissions. The pace of decline in deforestation rates, however, was actually higher than the rate at which funding from international donors, primarily Norway, was provided, so the funding mechanism followed a predetermined commitment and disbursement schedule instead (Birdsall et al., 2014).
19. Includes national forests, states forests and forest plantations.
20. Community forests are forests designated for the use by traditional people and communities, indigenous people, family farmers and settlers registered in the national land reform programme. The Brazilian Constitution safeguards the right of indigenous peoples and quilombola groups to their ancestral territories. Community forests amounted to 62% of the national registered public forests in 2012, most of which are indigenous lands or protected areas (extractive reserves and sustainable development reserves).
21. To qualify for sustainable forest management, producers may only explore forest or form secondary forest with prior approval of a sustainable forest management plan detailing technical guidelines and procedures by the competent forest agency. The forest management system used in the Amazon is polycyclic, based on a 35-year cutting cycle and on technical and environmental criteria to promote the regeneration of the managed forest species. In practice, only four to six trees per hectare are felled. Forest management in Caatinga is based on a monocyclic system, with a rotation period estimated at between 12 to 15 years. Trees are cut near the base to allow sprouting regeneration by regrowth (SFB, 2013).
22. The CNPF was established to produce and compile detailed information about the use, conservationand restoration of all forest resources, including those not designated for production. It gathers biophysical, socio-environmental and landscape data covering Brazil’s entire territory.
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23. The total area to be restored under Planaveg was defined based on Soares-Filho et al. (2014), who suggested that up to 92 000 km2 (of the total compliance deficit of 210 000 km2) could be offset through CRAs. Planaveg suggests that another 15 000 km2 could be offset by buying “inholdings” in protected areas (Section 5.4). Planaveg’s target thus exceeds by 22 000 km2 the estimated restoration needed to achieve compliance with the new Forest Code.
24. The plan calls for the government to conduct a mid-term review after ten years of implementation as well as intermediate progress reviews after 5 years, with a view to refine strategies and actions based on the results achieved, lessons learned and advances in knowledge and experience, and to respond to potentially changing public and private demands.
25. The Harvest Plan for Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012-14 foresees investments of BRL 9.8 billion for expanding aquaculture and modernising and strengthening the fishing industry and fishery trade.
26. Other programmes are being implemented through the National Council for Scientific and TechnologicalDevelopment, including the National System of Research on Biodiversity (SISBIOTA), the Biodiversity Research Programme (PPBio) and the International Biodiversity Symposium System (SINBIO), with information on biological inventories compatible with SiBBr.
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Friedrich, K. (2013), “Desafios para a avaliação toxicológica de agrotóxicos no Brasil: desregulação endócrina e imunotoxicidade” [Challenges for the evaluation pesticide and agro-chemical use in Brazil: endocrine disruption and immunotoxicity], Vigilância Sanitária em Debate, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 2-15, http://dx.doi.org/10.3395/vd.v1i2.30.
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From:OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Spain2015
Access the complete publication at:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226883-en
Please cite this chapter as:
OECD (2015), “The conservation and sustainable use of the marine and terrestrial environment”, in OECDEnvironmental Performance Reviews: Spain 2015, OECD Publishing, Paris.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226883-8-en
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6. Integrating biodiversity into economic sectorsThe Spanish 2011 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment showed that management of
ecosystems and biodiversity based primarily on the designation of protected areas and
species conservation has not been sufficient to stop biodiversity degradation. The need for
biodiversity policies that go beyond the realm of protected areas has been accepted in
Spain and is now enshrined in all recent key biodiversity legislative documents. This has
been most prominent in the 42/2007 Biodiversity Law and the Strategic Plan on Natural
Heritage and Biodiversity 2011-17. Ensuring the integrity of ecosystems and productive
landscapes, especially those related to agriculture and tourism, and conserving corridor
areas between reserves, is imperative for maintaining Spain’s biodiversity.
6.1. Integrating biodiversity in agriculture
While agriculture generates more than 2.5% of Spanish GDP and creates jobs for more
than 3.5% of the workforce, agricultural landscapes represent around half of the total
surface of Spanish territory. Almost 75% of Natura 2000 areas in Spain are used to some
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degree for agricultural purposes. The sector exerts significant pressures on biodiversity.
Large areas of Spain are at risk of pollution by nitrates, which in turn affect aquatic
biodiversity. This is mainly due to chemical fertiliser use for crops and discharges from
intensive livestock farming into fresh waters. Nearly 12% of total national surface is
classified as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ), an area that has increased in recent years.
Irrigation accounts for the largest share of water demand (63%), including three-quarters of
groundwater used for agriculture. Although agricultural water withdrawals decreased in
the last decade, the level of water stress did not, and remains among the highest in the
OECD (OECD, 2013). Some regions, such as the Upper Guadiana basin, experienced
intensive (and often uncontrolled) groundwater extraction for agriculture, which
contributes to the degradation of ecosystems, including important wetlands.
Spain does not have a consolidated nation-wide sectoral plan for integrating
biodiversity considerations into agriculture. However, the Strategic Plan on Natural
Heritage and Biodiversity set the parameters for its development and included a series of
policy measures for integration of biodiversity objectives into the agriculture policy. The
main pillars of the integration include subsidy instruments associated with the CAP, rural
development programmes and promotion of organic farming.
Despite various initiatives, the overarching trend in the Spanish agricultural sector has
been the intensification of agriculture, bigger plots, the prevalence of monocultures, and
the erosion and eventual abandonment of traditional agricultural practices. Traditional
production landscapes, which included a mosaic of agricultural, forestry and ecosystems,
are being gradually replaced by separation of productive areas from protected areas. These
are relegated to isolated “islands” of protected areas that are not part of an integral
component of broader production landscapes. Yet long-term biodiversity conservation
requires the integration of sustainable agriculture and a network of protected areas within
broader production landscapes. This is the main challenge in the development and
implementation of the impending national sectoral plan for integrating biodiversity into
agriculture.
Agri-environment payments
Agri-environment payments under the Common Agriculture Policy have become
perhaps the most important policy mechanism for integrating biodiversity into agricultural
practices. Spain introduced compulsory environmental conditionality and cross-
compliance by Royal Decree 2352/2004. According to the decree, beneficiaries of direct CAP
aid, as well as certain rural development subsidies, must comply with environmental
requirements. These include appropriate tillage to avoid soil erosion; appropriate
management of stubble; investment in and maintenance of terraces; maintenance of
ecological features of habitats; contribution towards habitat connectivity; appropriate use
of water for irrigation; appropriate storage of livestock manure; and maintenance of
permanent pasture. More recently, Royal Decree 486/2009 simplified criteria for cross-
compliance with the aim to enhance compliance and facilitate enforcement. Another
initiative to establish minimum controls for cross-compliance enforcement has been the
development of a National Plan for Cross-compliance Control (implemented annually
since 2005). This plan was developed by the Spanish Agrarian Guarantee Fund (FEGA) of the
MAGRAMA16 (the national authority that co-ordinates agri-environment payments) and
the Autonomous Communities. More recently, the Royal Decree 202/2012 modified the
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provisions of direct payments to agricultural activities and livestock with the inclusion of a
compulsory norm on the protection strips along river banks.
Despite such regulations, the actual monitoring and enforcement of cross-compliance
remains challenging. There is very little robust evidence on the ecological impact of these
payments. Indicative, albeit inconclusive, evidence from declining bird indicators suggests
that payments are not delivering intended benefits to ecosystem services; however,
compulsory fulfilling of cross-compliance reduces the risk of negative environmental
impacts linked to less environmentally respectful agricultural practices.
Spain has further promoted the “greening” of its agricultural policies via the new
scheme for “payments for agricultural practices that are beneficial for the climate change
and the environment”. This mechanism, introduced by CAP reforms and operational from
2015, aims to improve CAP’s environmental performance through farming practices that
address climate change and environmental objectives. These include requirements to
diversify crops and to maintain permanent grassland and ecologically important areas. As
such, they emphasise the multifunctional role of farmers as guarantees of environmental
protection in rural areas. The new scheme goes beyond cross-compliance, which remains
mandatory in 2015-20.
Rural development
The 2007-13 National Strategic Plan for Rural Development (NSPRD) set priorities for
national policies and for using and allocating funds from the European Agricultural Fund
for Rural Development (EAFRD). Promoting sustainable agricultural activities and projects
in Natura 2000 and other areas of high natural value have been granted the highest priority.
The NSPRD provided guidelines to the Autonomous Communities to develop their own
rural development programmes (RDP), including measures to promote the integration of
environmental and biodiversity conservation activities into rural areas. Approximately 40%
of all RDP budgets from EAFRD sources (some EUR 3 billion) have been assigned to such
measures; the majority are allocated to agri-environmental measures; afforestation of
agricultural land and compensation for loss of profits after adopting biodiversity-friendly
agricultural practices or investments; desertification mitigation; and forest fire prevention.
In Navarra, for example, farmers in Natura 2000 sites were compensated for loss of profits
after adopting biodiversity-friendly practices. Such measures have been complemented
under the EAFRD by investments in modern irrigation and soil erosion prevention practices
to make the agricultural landscape more biodiversity-friendly.
The surface area covered by agri-environmental measures has been steadily
increasing from 2.8 million ha in 2004, to 3.7 million ha in 2006, and 5.17 million ha in 2012.
Afforestation programmes on agricultural lands were implemented on 167 273 ha between
2000-04, and increased by another 476 858 ha in 2007-13. The most important of these rural
development measures, discussed below, promoted the organic agriculture industry.
Organic farming (agriculture and livestock)
Due to its favourable climate conditions and a larger proportion of agricultural land
under extensive production systems compared to other OECD member countries, Spain
has considerable potential for developing organic agriculture and livestock. Organic
farming has considerable potential for export markets, and could lead to significant
employment opportunities and wealth creation for rural communities. At the same time, it
helps maintain and improve rural landscapes and conserve biodiversity.
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EU Regulations 834/2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products
regulate organic farming in Spain. Autonomous Communities designate competent
authorities to certify organic agricultural products that may perform the control
themselves, confer their competences to a control authority or delegate tasks to private
control bodies. Steps have been taken to simplify the labelling process, as well as labelling
signals observed by consumers. As a result, certification of organic products is at a much
more advanced stage compared to other certified final consumer products, such as from
marine or forest resources.
Between 2004-08, the area under organic farming rapidly increased from 733 000 ha to
1.3 million ha, and then to 1.8 million ha in 2011, occupying around 5% of total agricultural
surface. Only around 800 000 ha of this area are under agri-environmental payments,
which suggests that solely private initiatives are a key driver to this increase (Figure 4.6).
Spain continues to be, for the fourth consecutive year, the EU member with the highest
land area under organic agricultural production. In terms of organic crops produced, 25%
are cereals, 24% olive trees, 14.3% fallow and green fertiliser, 13.6% nuts and 11% vineyards,
while the remaining consists of vegetables, aromatic and medicinal plants, fruit trees
(mostly citric) and tubers (MAGRAMA, 2013b, 2012b). The increase in the number of
employment opportunities has also been notable. In 2011, there were 32 206 producers and
2 729 processors registered.
Spain witnessed the tripling of livestock farms between 2005-12, reaching 6 104 registered
ecological livestock producers (Figure 4.7). The highest proportion is in Andalusia (60%),
Catalonia (10%), Balearic Islands (7%) and Asturias (6%). There is thus considerable regional
disparity in the development of the organic livestock sector. The most popular breeding types
are bovine cattle (49%), ovine (28%) and goats (10%) (MAGRAMA, 2013b, 2012b). Although
aquaculture accounts for a small share of organic production (0.2%), there are good examples
of biodiversity objectives in this type of production (Box 4.7).
Figure 4.6. Trends in organic farming area
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933183062
0
200
400
600
800
1 000
1 200
1 400
1 600
1 800
2 000
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 201 2012
1 000 ha
Trends, 2000-12 Share by autonomous community, 2012
Andalusia (54%)Castilla-La Mancha (17%)Catalonia (4%)Extremadura (4%)Navarra (4%)Aragón (3%)Murcia (3%)C. Valenciana (3%)Castilla and León (2%)Balearic Islands (1%)Asturias (1%)Galicia (1%)Madrid (0.4%)Cantabria (0.4%)La Rioja (0.2%)Canary Islands (0.2%)Basque Country (0.1%)
Source: MAGRAMA (2014), Banco Público de Indicadores Ambientales.
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The development of the organic agricultural sector has been stimulated by the
Spanish Comprehensive Plan of Action to Promote Organic Farming (2007-10), which
established priority areas of development that have improved product knowledge,
consumption and marketing. The MAGRAMA is making organic certification more reliable
by developing the General Registry of Organic Agriculture Producers (REGOE). Numerous
professional associations have developed over the last decade promoting organic farming
and providing third-party certification.
6.2. Integrating biodiversity into tourism
Key trends
Tourism is one of the mainstays of the Spanish economy and an outstanding driver of
social development. It accounts for almost 10% of GDP and 11% of employment. For
decades, Spain’s tourism destinations grew rapidly based on a model of high volumes,
price competition and a standardised holiday experience focusing on “sun, sea and sand”
features. The impacts of this growth adversely affected the attractiveness of a number of
destinations. In some regions, human pressure increased one hundredfold and led to
overloading the capacity of the coastline, degradation of the environment and
deterioration of social systems and facilities.
The threat of tourism decline prompted Spanish authorities to look towards a more
sustainable approach. The 2007 Tourism Plan “Horizon 2020”, a comprehensive strategy to
improve the quality of the country’s tourism products, called for ensuring that Spain stays
competitive in the tourism marketplace by developing business models that are
environmentally, socially and culturally sustainable. The plan envisaged mitigating
environmental impacts of tourism by extending the tourist season and promoting lesser
known areas of the country. To help achieve its goals, the Working Group on Sustainable
Tourism was established in 2007 as part of the institutional framework for co-ordination of
tourism policies in Spain.17
Figure 4.7. Number of organic livestock farms
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933183070
Source: MAGRAMA (2014), Banco Público de Indicadores Ambientales.
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
NumberTrends, 2001-12 By autonomous community, 2012
Andalusia (60%)Catalonia (10%)Baleares (7%)Asturias (6%)Galicia (4%)Castilla-La Mancha (3%)Extremadura (3%)Basque Country (1%)Cantabria (2%)Navarra (1%)Castilla and León (1%)C. Valenciana (0.4%)Canary Islands (1%)La Rioja (0.2%)Madrid (0.3%)Aragón (1 %)Murcia (-)
Total: 6 104
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The creation of the working group expanded existing initiatives that incorporate
environmental features in Spain’s tourism development, and spurred new ones. These
included the “Nature Walks Programme” and “Natural Roads Programme” based on
traditional drovers’ routes, paths and abandoned railway lines, “Sustainable Diving
Strategy in Marine Reserves and Protected Areas”, and numerous training courses on
sustainable tourism offered to Autonomous Communities. Steps have also been taken to
Box 4.7. Biodiversity-friendly holistic agriculture in the Veta La Palma Estate, Spain
The Pesquerías Isla Mayor, S.A. (PIMSA) operation is located in the Veta La Palma Estateat Isla Mayor, municipality of Puebla del Rio near Sevilla, Spain. PIMSA is part of GrupoHisparroz, a leading rice production company. The estate, which stretches across 11 331 hain the Doñana Natural Park, is faced with increasing agricultural productivity withoutjeopardising the ecosystem resilience of the surrounding landscape. Veta La Palmaillustrates how holistic business practices can lead to productivity gains while taking intoaccount ecosystem services beyond “provisioning”, such as enhanced landscape andbiodiversity values.
PIMSA established a polyculture fish farming operation in the early 1990s, fullycomplying with the park’s management plan. The firm re-flooded wetlands lost to naturalsiltation, and used a pump system to engineer drainage to restore the original drainagechannels to bring in water from the estuary. The fish farm covers some 3 200 ha and usesextensive and semi-extensive methods to breed a large variety of fish in 45 interconnectedponds of 70 ha each, which are joined to the local river system through a web of irrigationand drainage channels. To maintain high levels of environmental sustainability, the firmkeeps fish at a relatively low density and harvests them less frequently compared tointensive aquaculture. The fish feed on microalgae and shrimp that reach the ponds fromthe estuary through the channel system and hence do not rely on external food sources.The harvest amounts to some 1 360 tonnes of fish per year (2010).
Birds are allowed to feed in the ponds (through nets and other technology), whichreduces total production by approximately 20% per year. Before the aquaculture operationwas established, only about 50 bird species were recorded in the area. With ecologicalinvestment undertaking by the PIMSA, over 250 different bird species (and 600 000 birds)visit or breed on the estates wetlands. Furthermore, the almost 3 200 ha of permanentlyflooded aquaculture marshland play an important role as a refuge for the natural fishfauna of the Guadalquivir River estuary, including several endangered species. Thebusiness provides income to about 100 farm workers from the nearby town of Isla Mayor(5 800 inhabitants) and to surrounding villages.
Apart from aquaculture, Veta La Palma also has an extensive horse and cattle operationfor organic beef and grows some dry-farmed crops. About 2 400 ha of the estate producelivestock feed using a rotation system without fertilisers or pesticides; this also benefitssteppe birds such as stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus) or pin-tailed sandgrouse (Pterocles
alchata). Another 400 ha are used to cultivate rice. The remaining 4 800 ha are set aside asa conservation area. The reclaimed wetland habitat and sustainable production methodson the estate have boosted the area’s biodiversity, while generating economic value.
As a result of its pioneering efforts at integrating aquaculture and marsh arearestoration, Veta la Palma has been recognised as an exemplary case for sustainable andholistic agricultural development that is biodiversity-friendly.
Source: www.vetalapalma.es/ and www.ecoagriculture.org/.
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align recreational hunting practices with the EU Habitats Directive and address the impact of
tourism operators on marine mammals (primarily the whale-watching industry).18 In 2009,
the MAGRAMA and the Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade developed a joint initiative
on the Tourist Product for Spanish Biosphere Reserves Club, promoted by the national
tourism agency (Turespaña) and the National Parks Autonomous Organisation (OAPN).
Under the Horizon 2020 Plan, EUR 1.9 billion was made available to the tourism sector
under two programmes: “Plan FuturE” and “Plan RenovE”. The first, established in 2009
with a budget of EUR 1 billion, was designed to improve the tourist offer with regard to
sustainability, accessibility, quality and infrastructure through low-interest loans for small
tourism-related businesses with repayment terms of 5-12 years. The Plan RenovE, a
partnership between the State Secretary for Tourism and the Official Credit Institute,
focused on improvements in energy efficiency and environmental conservation of tourism
establishments. In the first two years of operation, EUR 3.6 billion was invested in 3 380 projects,
with EUR 1.9 mobilised for every EUR 1 of the budget credit. The plans together created
77 000 jobs. The programmes’ success led to an additional EUR 300 million being made
available for 2011.
Several other programmes focused on improving coastal tourism. These included the
State Secretariat for Tourism’s Programme for the Integrated Revalidation of Mature
Tourism Destinations in four pilot destinations: the beaches of Palma in the Balearic
Islands, the Costa del Sol in Andalusia, San Bartolomé de Tirajana and Puerto de la Cruz in
the Canary Islands and the Spanish Tourism Board (CONESTUR) support under the 21st
Century Plan for Coastal Tourism. Finally, the Tourism Infrastructures Modernisation Fund
(FOMIT), worth EUR 200 million, is available to help municipalities modernise
infrastructure and tourism accommodation, particularly in coastal areas.
Horizon 2020 also provided a basis for public-private partnerships. It helped create
new tourist products in protected areas through a “Joining Spanish System” programme,
which provides assistance to tourist operators and companies to join the European Charter
on Sustainable Tourism (EUROPAC-Spain, 2012). Two such initiatives are the Spanish
Tourist Quality System (or “Q” system) and the European Charter on Sustainable Tourism
(CETS) certification that received considerable uptake from the industry. For example,
28 protected areas were accredited with the Q system (from only 4 in 2005) in 2012 and
36 were certified by the CETS from only 7 in 2005. Further, in 2012, 270 companies were
certified under the CETS, while only 95 firms were certified in 2009. Clearly, the trend of
additional protected areas and companies being granted such certification is increasing
rapidly. These developments suggest that high value, quality sustainable tourism will play
an important role in future protected-area management plans. Other notable private
sector-led initiatives include the development of Spanish sustainable tourism criteria that
meet the requirements of the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC); the
establishment of Ecotourism Club in Spain, which includes 32 protected areas and over
600 private tourist companies; and action plans by the hotel industry to promote corporate
social responsibility and green/sustainable tourism.
Currently, the Spanish strategy for tourism is set out in the National and Integral
Tourism Plan 2012-15 (Plan Nacional e Integral de Turismo, PNIT). The strategy reinforces
efforts to make Spanish tourism destinations more attractive by shifting from standard/
basic products in traditional tourism markets to specialised products that address new
markets and are tuned to preferences of different consumers. Innovation, technological
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change, environmental responsibility and investment in human resources are key axes of
the strategy, accompanied by supportive marketing campaigns. One area of growth is
adventure tourism based on the country’s natural features (Box 4.8).
Changes in tourism preferences are generating greater movement away from
traditional “sun and beach” destinations towards other locations, especially ones that
present environmental values. As a result, Spain’s national parks have witnessed an
increase in the number of visits during recent years. Therefore, integrating biodiversity
concerns into the tourism sector entails both promoting biodiversity-friendly tourism
practices in the mainstream tourism sector, and also developing and expanding the
nature-based tourism segment of the industry. The PNIT included the development of
ecotourism in selected protected areas as a priority area. This approach stimulated the
development of the Sectoral Plan for Biodiversity and Nature Tourism 2014-20, which signals
the importance of this sector as a vehicle for green growth. The plan, implemented by the
Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and
Environment, provides a framework for collaboration among all stakeholders (both public
and private) to promote nature-based tourism that integrates biodiversity considerations.
As its main priority, the plan is to develop ecotourism within the Natura 2000 Network,
while ensuring conservation of the sites. A new system for the accreditation of tourism
sustainability in the Natura 2000 Network will consolidate and co-ordinate existing
structures and mechanisms mentioned above, such as the European Charter on
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, the Spanish Biosphere Reserve System and the
Ecotourism Club of Spain.
Box 4.8. Growth of adventure tourism in Spain
Adventure tourism is one sector experiencing greater growth in recent years, withapproximately 1 300 companies engaged in Spain. This type of tourism attracts over7 million people annually thanks to a heterogeneous offer that has developed around thegreat variety of the country’s landscape, including mountains, coastal areas, islands, cavesand natural parks. Adventure tourism has resisted the economic crisis well, as Spain isable to offer low-cost active holiday opportunities to European markets, which make it ahigh potential sector of investment.
Land adventure attracts tourists during both summer and winter holidays. For example,the Pyrenean Trail is famous for hiking and includes cross-country routes to France, whileAndalusia offers a rich set of natural caves open to the public, as well as the third largestchasm in the world in the Sierra de Tolox in the province of Málaga. Sierra Nevada is oneof the most popular winter sports destinations in Europe, equipped with 105 km of runs forall levels. Spain is also one of the most attractive destinations for surfing, windsurfing andkitesurfing, with areas like the Basque Country and the Canary Islands promoted as well-equipped, low-cost destinations.
Adventure tourism was explicitly recognised as a priority area of investment in theHorizon 2020 Plan, as part of a specialisation strategy aimed to de-seasonalise tourism andbetter tune the sector’s offer on different market segments. The current National andIntegral Tourism Plan 2012-15 aims to further promote this product in the wider supportframework to strengthen destination management, such as support to young and creativetourism entrepreneurs, and to help provide access to financing.
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Notes
1. In terms of the total organic area (fully converted and under conversion) of individual EU memberstates as a share out of the total organic area in EU27, Spain accounted for the highest share as of2008.
2. The trends of indirect drivers of change based on six indicators are related to demographic,economic and technological dimensions at a national level. The pressure of direct drivers ofchange based on eight indicators is related to the ecological footprint, emissions of sulphur andcarbon dioxide, introduction of invasive alien species, overexploitation of fishery resources andgroundwater, and land-use changes associated with urbanisation of the territory.
3. There are important regional variations in these figures with Asturias Murcia, Extremadura andGalicia having converted land to urban lands at a rate ranging between 40-75% (MAGRAMA 2014,2013a).
4. Other more specialised laws cover specific types of protected areas (e.g. 5/2007 law specificallyfocuses on national parks, while 41/2010 focuses on marine protected areas).
5. These demarcations correspond to the marine environment over which Spain has sovereignty orjurisdiction.
6. Its exact legal status, its mandates and responsibilities are detailed in Royal Decree 1424/2008.
7. Its status has been upgraded by formally detailing its functions in Act 27/2006. The Councilincludes working groups on all facets of the environment, including terrestrial, coastal and marinebiodiversity.
8. Its composition and function are formally detailed in Royal Decrees 948/2009 and 649/2011.
9. www.business-biodiversity.eu.
10. www.mercadosdemedioambiente.com/plataforma/.
11. Four of these reports have already been published and are available at: www.magrama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/temas/inventarios-nacionales/inventario-espanol-patrimonio-natural-biodiv/informe_anual_IEPNB.aspx.
12. The values were obtained under the assumption that their future provision is secured indefinitely.Also, non-use values were not considered. As such, these figures can be considered as a minimumlower bound and are likely to be higher when the more comprehensive analysis is completed.
13. The legislative developments since 2004 also brought about Protected Peripheral Areas as anattempt to address habitat fragmentation.
14. In the calculation of territorial waters by the MAGRAMA, the provisions of the exclusive economiczone (EEZ) are applied, according to which the EEZ shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles fromthe baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Protected marine areasinclude proposed areas for 2014.
15. Of the 176 species, there are 112 flora, 21 birds, 17 invertebrates, 10 fish, 7 reptiles, 7 mammals and2 amphibians.
16. www.fega.es/PwfGcp/es/.
17. Under the Spanish Constitution, the autonomous regions are responsible for the promotion andregulation of tourism within their own territories. However, the national authorities, and inparticular the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism, design tourism policy and overallregulation of tourist activity and promote tourism abroad, in addition to their role in nationaleconomic planning in which tourism is a key component. The main institutions that bringcoherence to the actions of public authorities in tourism matters are: the Inter-Ministry Committeefor Tourism (Comisión Interministerial de Turismo), a co-ordination body whose membersrepresent those national ministries that have responsibility for tourism-related matters; theSectoral Tourism Conference (Conferencia Sectorial de Turismo), a co-ordination body that bringstogether public representatives from central government and the autonomous regions withtourism responsibilities; and the Spanish Tourism Board (Consejo Español de Turismo –CONESTUR), an advisory body that brings together all the territorial tourism administrations(state, regions and provinces-cities) and the private tourism sector (e.g. chambers of trade, theNational Employers’ Association [CEOE], professional associations, trade unions and a widespectrum of tourism professionals).
18. This law provided guidelines for access to sensitive marine areas and for granting of speciallicences to diving operators, as well as to whale-watching vessels.
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References
Biodiversity Foundation (2014), The Biodiversity Foundation website, www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/(accessed : 15 July 2014).
CBD (2013), Incentives for Biodiversity in Spain, Resource Mobilization Information, Digest No. 325September 2013, Convention for Biological Diversity, www.cbd.int/financial/doc/id325-spain-incentives-en.pdf.
CBD (2012), EU Submission to the CBD Notification 2012–023 on Methodological and Implementation Guidancefor the “Indicators for Monitoring the Implementation of the Convention’s Strategy for ResourcesMobilization”, Convention for Biological Diversity, www.cbd.int/financial/doc/eu-members-resource-mobilization-en.pdf.
Ecoagriculture Partners (2014), Ecoagriculture Partners website, www.ecoagriculture.org (accessed:15 July 2014).
EEA (2013), Balancing the Future of Europe’s Coasts – Knowledge Base for Integrated Management, EEA ReportNo 12/2013, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, www.eea.europa.eu/publications/balancing-the-future-of-europes.
EME (2012), Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio de España. Síntesis de resultados. www.ecomilenio.es/informe-sintesis-eme/2321.
EUROPARC-Spain (2012), Yearbook 2011 of the State of Protected Areas in Spain, Fernando GonzalezFoundation, Madrid, www.redeuroparc.org/img/publicaciones/Anuario2011.pdf.
EUROPARC-Spain (2010), Innovative Financial Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation, Work Programmefor protected areas 2009-2013, EUROPARC-Spain, Interuniversity Foundation for Natural Areas.
Ghai, R. et al. (2012), Metagenomes of Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons, Scientific Reports 2, www.nature.com/srep/2012/120703/srep00490/full/srep00490.html.
IUCN (2013), “Spain’s biodiversity at risk”, IUCN 2013 Fact Sheet, https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/spain_s_biodiversity_at_risk__fact_sheet_may_2013.pdf.
MAGRAMA (2014), Fifth National Biodiversity CBD Report, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment,Madrid, www.cbd.int/doc/world/es/es-nr-05-es.pdf.
MAGRAMA (2013a) Desfragmentación de hábitats. Orientaciones parareducir los efectos de las infraestructurasde transporte en funcionamiento. Documentos para la reducción de la fragmentación de hábitats causada porinfraestructuras de transporte, número 5. O.A. Parques Nacionales. Ministry of Agriculture, Food andEnvironment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2013b), Environmental Profile of Spain 2012 – Indicator-based Report, Ministry of Agriculture,Food and Environment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2013c), Report 2012 State of the Natural Heritage and Biodiversity in Spain, Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Environment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2013d), Priority Action Framework for Natura 2000 in Spain (2014-20), March 2013, Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Environment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2012a), Forest Fires in Spain – Decade 2001-10, Ministry of Agriculture, Food andEnvironment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2012b), Agricultura Ecológica en España. Estadísticas 2011,[Organic Agriculture in Spain.Statistics 2011] Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2012c), Environmental Profile of Spain 2011 – Indicator-based Report, Ministry of Agriculture,Food and Environment, Madrid.
MAGRAMA (2011), Environmental Profile of Spain 2010 – Indicator-based Report, Ministry of Agriculture,Food and Environment, Madrid.
MARM (2010), Valoración de los Activos Naturales de España,[Valuation of Spain’s Natural Assets], Ministryof Environment, Rural and Marine Environment, Madrid.
Moreno, V. et al. (2013), Valoración de los costes de conservación de la Red Natura 2000 en España, [Assessingthe Costs of Red Natura 2000 Conservation in Spain], Ministry of Agriculture, Food andEnvironment, Madrid.
OECD (2013), Environment at a Glance, OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/9789264185715-en.
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OSE (2012), Biodiversity in Spain: the Bases for Sustainability in the Face of Global Change, SpanishSustainability Observatory, Madrid.
SEC (2014), Catalogue of Good Business Practices in Biodiversity Management, Sustainability ExcellenceClub, Madrid, www.iberdrola.es/webibd/gc/prod/en/doc/CatalogoBiodiversidad.pdf.
Veta La Palma Natural Park (2014), Veta La Palma Natural Park website, www.vetalapalma.es/, (accessed15 July 2014).
Voth, A. (2007), “National parks and rural development in Spain”, in: Mose, I. (ed.) Protected Areas andRegional Development in Europe – Towards a New Model for the 21st century, Ashgate, Aldershot, pp. 141-160.
Wilson, L., et al. (2014), “The role of national ecosystem assessments in influencing policy making”,OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 60, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxvl3zsbhkk-en.
26
From:OECD Environmental Performance Reviews:Colombia 2014
Access the complete publication at:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208292-en
Biodiversity
Please cite this chapter as:
OECD (2014), “Biodiversity”, in OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Colombia 2014 OECD Publishing.http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208292-en
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4. Integrating biodiversity into economic and sectoral policies
4.1. Agriculture and biodiversity
Expansion of agricultural land is the major type of land use change in Colombia, and
an acute threat to biodiversity. Conversion of forest to pasture for livestock grazing is the
primary driver of deforestation. Figure 7.5 shows the steady increase in head of cattle over
the decade to 2011.
According to Colombia’s livestock strategy 2019 (FEDEGAN, 2006), livestock occupied
38.3 million ha of land.16 The strategy suggests, however, that only 19.3 million ha is
suitable for livestock, with the other 19 million ha considered more suitable for forest
(10 million ha) and crop cultivation (9 million ha). The strategy suggested that
10 million ha of pasture should be returned to a more natural state (e.g. through
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reforestation or conversion silvopasture), and that production of livestock on the rest of the
land be intensified. However, the strategy does not appear to have influenced the rate of
forest lost to pasture: in 2000-05, 626 000 ha were lost, and in 2005-10, the period just before
and after the adoption of the strategy, 664 000 ha were lost (Cabrera et al., 2011). By way of
comparison, in 2000-07, 130 688 ha of forest were planted for productive functions and
41 223 ha for conservation purpose (IAvH, IDEAM, IIAP, INVEMAR, and SINCHI, 2011).
The increase in pasture area between 2000 and 2010 coincided with an increase in
head of cattle (Figure 7.5), indicating continued extensive cattle rearing. The livestock
strategy set a goal of 48 million head of cattle on 28 million ha of pasture, in line with
reducing the 38.3 million ha of pasture land in 2005 by 10 million ha). Achieving
the strategy’s goal implies intensifying cattle rearing across the whole country, from
0.6-0.7 head/ha in 2010 (range from FAO STAT and national industry data) to 1.7 head/ha in
2019. However, intensification of livestock production would exacerbate other
environmental problems, such as run-off from increased manure production. Measures
would need to be put in place to avoid or minimise these effects.
Pilot programmes have been initiated to promote silvopasture, notably through the
Sustainable Colombian Cattle Ranching initiative. However, while welcome, this initiative
is unlikely to significantly alleviate pressures from ranching on biodiversity. Farm-level
implementation had occurred to a limited extent with pilot projects funded by the GEF, and
the initiative targets only 50 000 ha rather than the 10 million ha required to achieve the
objectives of the strategy. The UK International Climate Fund is providing GBP 15 million in
grants over 2012 to 2016 to convert around 28 000 hectares of open pasture to silvopastoral
systems.
At the heart of the problem is a set of incentives that promote the expansion of grazing
land: property tax exemptions that encourage agriculture do not consider underuse of
land, while agricultural credits and other incentives do not include environmental criteria
(MADS, 2012c). Decoupling growth in livestock from habitat loss and degradation requires
Figure 7.5. Head of cattle1990-2011
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932998196
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
millions
Source: FAO (2013), FAOSTAT (database).
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a co-ordinated effort to reduce direct and indirect incentives for extensive farming while
actively supporting intensification of cattle rearing and greater use of silvopasture
practices.
The second key impact on biodiversity from agriculture is loss of natural habitats to
crop cultivation. This is most significant on the Caribbean coast, where the climate is
suited to oil palm and other plantation crops. For example, the area of oil palm cultivation
increased by 1 08 000 ha between 2008 and 2012 to 4 52 000 ha (Fedepalma, 2013). Henson
et al. (2012) suggest that the majority of oil palm plantation takes place on previously
cultivated or grazed land. However, this can still put pressure on natural habitats and
biodiversity, as the displaced cultivation or grazing will increase demand for land
converted from natural habitats.
A third major threat to biodiversity from agriculture is the overuse of chemical inputs
that pollute waterways. The PNGIBSE highlights contamination of water bodies as one of
five major threats to biodiversity in Colombia (see Box 7.2). In 2001, the water quality index
regarding the function of preserving flora and fauna showed that 27% of 51 monitored
stations had a poor or inadequate rating. The index declined between 2001 and 2008, with
a clear seasonal pattern linked to rainfall (MADS 2012a), indicating surface run-off (likely
from agriculture) as a major source of pollution. Colombia uses a relatively high amount of
fertiliser: by amount applied per hectare of arable land it was ranked 10th out of
157 countries examined (World Bank, 2012). It is estimated that 70% of nitrogen application
and 75% of phosphorus application is wasted (CONPES, 2009). The high rates of fertiliser
and pesticide usage are encouraged by incentives that reduce their costs (MADS, 2012c).
4.2. Forestry and biodiversity
Forestry exploitation is based on selective extraction of up to 470 native tree species, a
clear example of Colombia’s biodiversity being an economic asset. Although clearance for
cattle grazing is the primary cause of forest biodiversity loss, forestry activities to extract
timber and fuel also exert pressure. In 2000-08, some 15 million m3 of timber was extracted
(MADS, 2012a). The evidence suggests that policy instruments such as forest fees have had
little influence on reducing logging or controlling the biodiversity impact of forestry.
Fuelwood production and consumption volumes were stable over the past decade. About
15% of the population in the cloud forests continue to depend on solid biofuels (firewood
and charcoal) for heating and cooking (MADS, 2012).
Colombia’s Forestry Incentive Certification (CIF), established in 1994 (Law No. 139,
1994), was originally designed to promote reforestation. It subsidises 50% of the up-front
planting costs for introduced species and 75% for native species. It also subsidises 50% of
the running costs in the second through fifth years. Primary forest is not supposed to have
been present on the site within five years of reforestation. Over 1995-2011, CIF supported
reforestation of 173 950 ha (CONPES 3724, 2012). However, it has not been effective for
commercial reforestation, nor has it been taken up for conservation of natural forests. As
with similar programmes in other countries, there are problems with monitoring, reporting
and verification.
The PND 2010-14 includes an objective to reach 1 million ha reforested, 60% of which
should be commercial plantation. The reforestation CIF is the key instrument to achieve
this goal. However, it only helped reforest 17 415 ha in 2010-11 (CONPES 3724, 2012). The
budget was increased roughly sixfold from 2011 to 2012, to COP 93 000 million, only
COP 7 000 million short of the target for 2012. Nevertheless, the programme still has a long
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way to achieve about 250 000 hectares of reforestation over 2010-14. Figure 7.6 displays
data from the intermittent CIF reports, including a cost-effectiveness measure of the
programme’s budget in relation to the number of hectares reforested with CIF support in a
given period. The cost-effectiveness appears fairly steady over the life of CIF to date, and
implies a required total budget of COP 714 billion to COP 933 billion (2012 values) to achieve
the commercial plantation portion of the reforestation goal in 2012-14. There is a second
CIF for conservation of natural forest, but as of 2010 it had not been implemented.
4.3. Extractive industries and biodiversity
The oil and mining sectors have rapidly expanded over the last decade. By 2011, they
represented 12% of total value added and more than half of exports (Chapter 1). As
discussed elsewhere, rapid expansion of the extraction of exhaustible natural resources
(oil, coal, gold) is a main cause of pollution of soil and water, degradation of sensitive
ecosystems (e.g. páramos) and severe impacts on human health (e.g. from the use of
mercury in gold mining).
There are important overlaps between mining areas and those areas that are important
for biodiversity. Most mineral titles, requested and granted, are in the Andes, the region with
the highest level of threatened and endemic species (CGR, 2011). There are also significant
mining interests in Amazonia, which led to a two-year moratorium on new mining in the
region being announced in 2012 while a management plan was developed. The moratorium
was an important initiative to stem growing pressures from mining on biodiversity
There is evidence of tens of thousands of mining titles of various designations being
sought in protected areas. Of particular concern is a significant increase in titles solicited
in páramos in 2005-09 (CGR, 2011), with over 400 titles granted in 2010 and, according to the
IAvH (the national biodiversity research institute), over 800 titles sought (Table 7.3). The
IAvH also recorded over 1 000 mining titles granted (and over 3 000 sought) in wetland
habitats, and 2 000 granted (nearly 9 000 sought) in forest reserves in 2010.
Figure 7.6. Cost-effectiveness of the CIF programme
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932998215
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
100
200
300
400
500
1995-2001 2002-06 2007-11 2012-14*
COP million/ha2012 prices1 000 ha
Cumulative reforestation Cost-effectiveness (right axis)
* Projections based on current policy objectives.Source: Conpes (2003, 2008 and 2012), Distributión de Recursos para el Certificado de Incentivo Forestal con Fines Comerciales (CIF de reforestación).
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Environmental policies relating to the mining sector have not been enforced
effectively, if at all. Depending on the data source, 16% or 32% of the land titled for mining
is in areas of environmental importance. The data recorded by the IAvH show a higher
number of titles affecting protected areas (with one exception) than the mining agency’s
data (Table 7.3). The IAvH and the mining agency also have different data regarding the
number of titles in different ecological categories. These differences help illustrate some of
the basic challenges to effective dialogue and co-operation between the two sectors
including a clear demarcation of areas of ecological importance and a complete mining
registry. In early 2011, the number of title requests had increased so fast that mining
authorities had to suspend17 the applications to manage the backlog of nearly
20 000 requests (Figure 7.7; CGR, 2013).
Nevertheless, these data should be interpreted with caution: not all areas with mining
titles are necessarily mined (the area varies depending on the mineral involved,) which
mean the data in Table 7.3 may overstate the scale of pressure from mining on biodiversity.
On the other hand, water and air pollution are generated by mining operations, which
suggests that pressures on biodiversity from mining may be greater than Table 7.3 shows.
For example, mining is a source of heavy metals, which have been detected in fish (CRG, 2013).
In addition, pressures from other human activities associated with greater access to areas,
which that may follow mining developments, can also contribute to biodiversity loss.
The government response to the significant increase in mining activity in recent years
has been largely reactive. A recent update to the mining code restated the prohibition of
mining in protected areas, including in the páramo (Law No. 1382, 2010). This was
considered necessary because of the continued issuance of mining titles in areas of
environmental importance. The environmental authorities were not able to prevent the
Ministry of Mines and Energy from granting titles in such areas (CGR, 2011). Moreover, there
was no provision in the mining strategy regarding respect of biodiversity or ecosystems
(UPME, 2006). In 2011, the 2010 law was declared unconstitutional because of a failure to
consult ethnic groups. To avoid adverse effects on the environment, the Constitutional
Court suspended the entry into force of its decision for two years (until May 2013) to
Table 7.3. Total mining titles granted in areas of ecological importance in 2010
Ecological areas SourceTitles granted
Number Area (ha)
National protected areas IAvH 35 36 475
Ingeominas 36 36 456
Regional protected areas IAvH 24 15 002
Ingeominas 7 2 541
Protected forest reserves IAvH 66 12 882
Ingeominas 89 18 258
Law 2 forest reserves IAvH 2 083 2 224 902
Ingeominas 984 1 136 256
Páramo IAvH 451 106 596
Ingeominas 410 106 356
Wetlands IAvH 1 122 311 994
Ingeominas 43 8 353
Total IAvH 3 781 2 707 851
Ingeominas 1 569 1 308 220
Note: Ingeominas: National Institute of Geology and Mining (renamed as Colombian Geological Service in 2011).Source: CGR (2011), Estado de los Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente 2010-2011.
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provide time to develop new legislation that conformed with constitutional requirements.
By mid-2013, as new legislation had not been adopted, the 2001 mining code was in force
without its 2010 amendments. In 2013, the Ministry of Mines and Energy and MADS signed
an agreement in which the mining ministry stated that it would respect protected areas
and pursue sustainable development within its sector. The mining ministry also
established an office to deal with social and environmental issues, and the two ministries
are conducting research on the impact of mining on natural resources.
4.4. Fisheries
Fishery resources are managed through various measures including catch quotas
established by the Ministry of Agriculture with scientific support from the National
Aquaculture and Fisheries Authority (AUNAP) and the executive committee on Fisheries
including MADS and research institutes. However, fisheries management needs a more
coherent and co-ordinated approach within the Colombian government (see also
Chapter 4). For example, lack of data on commercial fish species is a key gap in information
for both biodiversity and socio-economic policy. Governance and management of
information could be improved by greater involvement by MADS in fish management,
which currently is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. At the same time, other
sectors should be involved in the development of MPAs and the specification of
management objectives.
The national legislation on protected areas requires zones of sustainable use to be
defined so as to permit artisanal fishing but exclude more damaging industrial fishing. Due
to the mobile nature of marine species, however, the necessary buffer zones around MPAs,
across which sustainable fisheries management is measured, are large. An approach
similar to terrestrial forest zones, requiring consideration of locals’ needs across a large
Figure 7.7. Mining titles
Source: CGR (2013), Minería en Colombia Funbdamentos para superar el modelo extractivista.
Mining titles 2012 Mining titles and applications 2012
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geographical range, appears to be a gap in marine designations with the exception of the
Seaflower MPA. Co-operative management initiatives where local fishery communities are
involved in the development and implementation of sustainable fishery policy are
implemented in the North of Chocó Department. Such initiatives could be replicated in
other coastal areas of the country.
4.5. Nature-based tourism
Nature-based tourism is a growing economic sector in Colombia. The 2010-14 PND
aims to increase visitor numbers to national parks from 679 000 to 1 million. Various
instruments have been applied to support nature-based tourism. Ecotourism investment
receives a 20-year income tax exemption if certified by MADS (Decree 2755, 2003). A
voluntary environmental certification system for tourism providers has been established
(see Section 3.1). The Ministry of Trade, Industry and Tourism is also engaged with nature-
based tourism, and a nature-based tourism strategy is under development.
Increased nature-based tourism represents both opportunities and threats to
biodiversity. In 2011-12, there were 1.5 million visitors to all types of protected areas. There
appears to be scope for Colombia to increase revenue from tourism in protected areas. This
would help finance the management and infrastructure needed to ensure that increased
tourism did not adversely affect the biodiversity and ecosystems in and around protected
areas. The National Parks Authority has implemented Community Ecotourism
Programmes in some national protected areas. By the end of 2012, six partnerships had
been established. Their aim is to improve the livelihoods of communities in the parks’
zones of influence while reducing pressures on natural resources by fostering
environmentally sustainable economic activities. These programmes support the goal of
promoting fair access and benefit sharing of biological resources (see Box 7.3), and
contribute to growth in the wider tourism sector, which is forecast a 3.6% annually over
2012-22 (WTTC, 2012).
Notes
1. Secondary vegetation comprises plant communities that have regrown after a significantdisturbance to primary vegetation (e.g. where grass and scrub land develops after burning orfelling of primary forest). Pressures (such as grazing by domestic livestock) that prevent primaryvegetation returning maintain secondary vegetation.
2. Ecological-social mosaics are areas containing a mix of agricultural and other transformed landand natural habitats.
3. www.evri.ca/Global/HomeAnonymous.aspx (accessed, 22/2/2013).
4. The Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies, the José Benito Vives deAndréi Institute of Marine and Coastal Research, the Amazonian Institute of Scientific Research,the Pacific Institute of Scientific Research and the Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Researchon Biological Resources.
5. www.tremarctoscolombia.org.
6. Aichi Target 11: “By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent ofcoastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystemservices, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representativeand well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservationmeasures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes”.
7. Between 1.2% and 1.4%, depending on the figure used for Colombia’s maritime territory (severalmaritime boundary disputes persist). This figure excludes some areas of the Subsystem of Marine
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Protected Areas which have less strict management requirements than those of the National ParksAuthority.
8. Julia Miranda, Director of National Parks of Colombia, personal communication.
9. Financial sustainability is defined as a protected areas system having secured sufficient and stableresources over the long term to meet its total management cost. This is a necessary, but notsufficient, condition for management of such a system (Bovarnick et al., 2010).
10. www.cbd.int/lifeweb/project.shtml?did=4683 accessed 22/2/2013.
11. Elizabeth Taylor, Director Marine, Coastal and Aquatic Affairs, MADS, personal communication,18/6/2013.
12. www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/publications/docs/Economic_Instruments_and_Marine_Litter.pdf;www.pemsea.org/publications/manual-economic-instruments-coastal-and-marine-resource-management;www.inecc.gob.mx/descargas/dgipea/ffrteopetm.pdf accessed 15/06/13.
13. Elizabeth Taylor, Director Marine, Coastal and Aquatic Affairs, MADS, personal communication,18/6/2013.
14. www.cites.org/common/cop/16/inf/E-CoP16i-14.pdf accessed 15/06/13.
15. For more information, see www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/latinamerica/latin-american-water-funds-partnership.xml.
16. No date is noted for this data, but other data presented are for 2005, so it is presumed that thisfigure is for around that time.
17. Applications were suspended until July 2013.
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38
From:OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: SouthAfrica 2013
Access the complete publication at:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202887-en
Biodiversity and economics of ecosystemservices
Please cite this chapter as:
OECD (2013), “Biodiversity and economics of ecosystem services”, inOECD Environmental Performance Reviews: South Africa 2013, OECDPublishing.http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202887-9-en
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5. Integrating biodiversity into other sectors
5.1. Nature-based tourism
Nature-based tourism is one of the most significant and dynamic industries in
South Africa. The 2011/12 Annual Tourism Report states that total foreign direct spending18
in South Africa was ZAR 56 billion, or ZAR 28 billion more than gold exports. Game ranching,
including hunting, is estimated to generate ZAR 7.7 billion a year and provides 100 000 jobs.
Substantially more labour-intensive than livestock farming, game ranching has grown at an
average rate of 20% a year over the last 15 years, making it the fastest growing tourism sector
in the world. A study in the Eastern Cape found that, for private game reserves, the switch
from farming to ecotourism resulted in 4.5 times as many full-time employees and a five-
fold increase in the average annual salary for full-time employees, as well as large increases
in revenues (Blignaut et al., 2008; Maia et al., 2011).
Tourism contributes significantly to provincial and local economies, and there is
growing awareness of this economic potential. Game farming is often undertaken on a
private, commercial basis. However, unique opportunities also exist in community-based
game farming and safari operations. To that end, communities are creating ecotourism
associations and community-based tourism structures to collectively plan, manage and
market specific tourism routes. Still, some indications show these community
programmes are not yielding the anticipated results. Very few of the benefits, including
financial, employment and business opportunities, are filtering through to the community
at large (DEAT, 2005). Many community-based tourism efforts are poorly capitalised, widely
dispersed, poorly marketed and not sufficiently unique to attract interest. Generally, there
is a huge need to upgrade the skills of community-based tourism operators so they can
compete effectively with better-known brands, such as the Namibia community-based
tourism projects. There is a further need for supportive activities such as finance, training,
extension and joint marketing to be drawn into a stronger relationship with community-
based operations.
5.2. The engagement of the financial sector
Some mainstreaming of biodiversity in the financial sector in South Africa is observed
with the financing of sustainable tourism operations, both by private banks and the
Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA). Yet there is scope for using the leverage of
the financial sector to promote pro-biodiversity practices in key areas such as mining,
commercial fishing and forestry. This can be done through more stringent environmental
impact assessment procedure and better enforcement. In addition, the financial sector can
play a larger role in aiding micro-finance schemes to develop small-scale markets for
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biodiversity conservation. Further, there is considerable scope for the financial industry to
be engaged with developing biodiversity offsetting schemes.
The relatively new “Sustainable Finance Forum” provides a promising development in
this direction. The Forum consists of members from the financial and industrial sectors
with a shared belief in sustainable development. It has developed a “Code of Conduct” for
its financing activities in line with the “Equator Principles”. Further, the New Banking
Initiative (NBI) has been established as an umbrella process for green finance in
South Africa. Lastly, the financial sector, primarily through the DBSA, has become heavily
involved in shaping and financing biodiversity conservation/sustainable use and
employment-generating programmes such as the Dry Lands Fund and the Green Fund. For
example, the Dry Lands Fund finances primarily pro-poor rural development projects in
arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. Biodiversity conservation and natural resource
management is of strategic importance to this initiative as they promote healthy and
resilient livelihoods and landscapes.
Notes
1. South Africa’s territorial waters include three bands: 12 nautical miles (nm) of the territorial sea,24 nm of the contiguous zone and 200 nm of the exclusive economic zone.
2. Ecosystem threat status shows the degree to which ecosystems are still intact or are alternativelylosing vital aspects of their structure, function and composition, on which their ability to provideecosystem services ultimately depends. Ecosystem protection level shows whether ecosystemsare adequately protected based on the proportion of each ecosystem type that occurs within aprotected area recognised in the Protected Areas Act.
3. The NBA categorises ecosystem types as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable or leastthreatened, based on the proportion of each ecosystem type that remains in good ecologicalcondition relative to a series of thresholds.
4. The Grassland biome is of particular concern as it is the economic heartland of South Africa.Densely populated, it is under immense development pressure, most notably from coal mining,agricultural activities and timber plantations. Major rivers such as the Orange, Tugela, Caledon andKei have their headwaters in this biome.
5. To be fully protected, an estuary should be surrounded by a land-based protected area and a no-take marine or estuarine protected area. Its freshwater flow requirements should be met usinglegal mechanisms in the National Water Act.
6. The assessment covered South Africa’s Exclusive Economic Zone, which extends 200 nauticalmiles offshore.
7. These include, for example, wild ginger (Siphonochilus aethiopicus), used to treat asthma, colds,coughs and flu; and pepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris), an expectorant for treating chestinfections, as well as a range of yeast, fungal and bacterial infections.
8. With total annual production of 600 000 tonnes of fish valued at approximately ZAR 6 billion, thecommercial fisheries sector employs about 27 000 people; an estimated 28 000 households areengaged in subsistence fishing.
9. These figures are almost certainly underestimated, as thorough surveys have not yet taken placein most environments.
10. Production landscapes refer to landscapes that support both agricultural production and biodiversityconservation. They keep ecosystems intact (and not fragmented) and aim to improve the livelihoodsof rural communities, mostly through sustainable agriculture, while conserving biodiversity.
11. Biodiversity priority areas include the following categories, which are not mutually exclusive:protected areas; critically endangered and endangered ecosystems; critical biodiversity areas andecological support areas; freshwater ecosystem priority areas (including rivers and wetlands); highwater yield areas; flagship free-flowing rivers; priority estuaries; focus areas for land-basedprotected area expansion; and focus areas for offshore protection.
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12. The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) is mandated through NEMBA to functionas the lead national research, consultative and advisory organisation on South Africa’sbiodiversity.
13. South African National Parks (SANParks), established through the Protected Areas Act (No 57 of2003), is the lead statutory conservation authority.
14. This includes nearly 100 protected areas, as well as the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park WorldHeritage Site and the Isimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage Site.
15. Due to changes in budgetary headings, comparable and meaningful expenditure trends can beonly shown for the period since 2008/09.
16. Some of the large or long-established environmental NGOs in South Africa include the BotanicalSociety of South Africa, the World-Wide Fund for Nature (South Africa), the Endangered WildlifeTrust, the Wilderness Foundation, the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, theWildlands Conservation Trust, Conservation International-South Africa, BirdLife South Africa,EcoAfrica and Fauna and Flora International. Some of these are local branches of international NGOsthat provide valuable links to international networks, programmes, technical expertise and funding.
17. Only biodiversity-significant land that is threatened should be considered for inclusion.
18. Direct expenditures by foreigners, including costs of transport to South Africa’s airlines.
References
Blignaut, J. et al. (2008), “Making markets work for people and the environment: employment creationfrom payment for ecosystem services, combating environmental degradation and poverty on asingle budget while delivering real services to real people”, Second Economy Strategy: AddressingInequality and Economic Marginalisation, An initiative of the Presidency, hosted by Trade andIndustrial Policy Strategies (TIPS).
Cadman, M. et al. (2010), Biodiversity for Development: South Africa’s Landscape Approach to ConservingBiodiversity and Promoting Ecosystem Resilience, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Cowan, G.I., N. Mpongoma and P. Britton (eds.) (2010), Management Effectiveness of South Africa’s ProtectedAreas, Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
DEA (2013, forthcoming), South Africa Environmental Outlook 2012, Department of EnvironmentalAffairs, Pretoria.
DEA and DP (2011), Information Document on Biodiversity Offsets, EIA Guidelines and Information Series,October, Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, CapeTown, www.iaia.co.za/File_Uploads/File/DEADP_EIA_Info_Doc_on_Biodiversity_Offsets_Oct2011.pdf.
DEAT (2010), South Africa’s Second National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria.
DEAT (2008), National Biodiversity Framework, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism,Pretoria.
DEAT (2006), South Africa Environmental Outlook 2006, Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism, Pretoria.
DEAT (2005), South Africa Country Study, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria.
Driver, A. et al. (2012), National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: An Assessment of South Africa’s Biodiversityand Ecosystem, Synthesis Report, South African National Biodiversity Institute and Department ofEnvironmental Affairs, Pretoria.
Driver, A. et al. (2004), South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Summary Report,South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Esterhuizen, D. (2011), South Africa Biotech Annual Report, Global Agriculture Information Network(GAIN), United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, http://gain.fas.usda.gov/.
GoSA (2011), National Climate Change Response White Paper, Government of South Africa, Pretoria.
Maia, J. et al. (2011), Green Jobs: An Estimate of the Direct Employment Potential of a Greening South AfricanEconomy, Industrial Development Corporation, Development Bank of Southern Africa, Trade andIndustrial Policy Strategies, Sandown.
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Maze, F. et al. (2004), Mining and Biodiversity in South Africa: A Discussion Paper, Forest Trends Association,Washington, DC, www.forest-trends.org/documents/files/doc_602.pdf.
National Treasury (2013), Estimates of National Expenditure, National Treasury, Republic of South Africa.
National Treasury (2011), The 2011 Local Government Budgets and Expenditure Review, IntergovernmentalFiscal Reviews, National Treasury, Republic of South Africa.
National Treasury (2006), A Framework for Considering Market-Based Instruments to Support EnvironmentalFiscal Reform in South Africa, Tax Policy Chief Directorate, National Treasury, Republic ofSouth Africa.
Raimondo, D. et al. (2009), “Red List of South African Plants”, Strelitzia25, South African NationalBiodiversity Institute.
South African Delivery Agreement Document (Outcome 10), www.info.gov.za/view/Download FileAction?id=134090.
South African National Biodiversity Institute (2012), Ecosystem Protection Level NBA 2011, available fromBiodiversity GIS website, (http://bgis.sanbi.org/nsba/terrestrialStatus.asp), downloaded on 10 July 2013.
Tunley, K. (2009), State of Management of South Africa’s Marine Protected Areas, WWF South Africa ReportSeries – 2009/Marine/001, WWF-South Africa, Newlands, Cape Town.
Turpie, J.K., C. Marais and J. Blignautt (2008), “Evolution of a payments for ecosystem servicesmechanism addressing both poverty and ecosystem service delivery in South Africa”, EcologicalEconomics 65:788-798.
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Biodiversity and forests
Please cite this chapter as:
OECD (2013), “Biodiversity and forests”, in OECD EnvironmentalPerformance Reviews: Mexico 2013, OECD Publishing.http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264180109-9-en
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5. Mainstreaming biodiversity and forestry in other sectors and policy areasMany of the drivers of biodiversity and forest loss are, directly or indirectly, related to
policies in other sectors, such as agriculture, with conversion to crop and livestock
production; urban planning and infrastructure such as roads; and tourism (Challenger and
Dirzo, 2008; FAO, 2010; SEMARNAT, 2011). Thus mainstreaming and aligning biodiversity
and forest objectives in these sectors is a crucial element of effective conservation and
sustainable use. Mexico’s National Development Plans since early 2000s have recognised
the importance of this approach. Particularly since 2007, the government has included
mainstreaming of environmental concerns as a necessary strategy for achieving
sustainable development. The 2007-12 National Development Plan, for example, includes
environmental sustainability as one of five key axes. The environment axis consists of
14 objectives and associated strategies, including slowing deterioration of forests and
jungles, conserving ecosystems and biodiversity, and integrating conservation of natural
capital with economic and social development. This section looks at key sectors for
mainstreaming.
5.1. Biodiversity and agriculture
While the negative impact of agricultural subsidies on land-use change and,
consequently, on biodiversity is widely recognised in various sectors in Mexico, effective
mainstreaming and aligning of objectives has not yet taken place (CONABIO-UNDP, 2009).
Policies addressing agri-environmental concerns are nascent. This is especially concerning
as Mexico is projected to continue with strong growth in agricultural production in the
coming decade, with the risk of further expansion of production onto environmentally
fragile land (OECD, 2010b). Agriculture has also exerted pressure on aquatic environments
(rivers, lakes, wetlands and coastal zones), from increasing levels of livestock effluents and
diffuse pollution through the use of chemicals in arable farming. Other issues include the
genetic erosion of maize varieties, which show a loss of 80% of local varieties compared to
the 1930s, and more recently possible contamination of domesticated landraces and wild
relatives from transgenic maize (OECD, 2008). While agri-environmental payments are
possible under PROCAMPO for soil and water conservation, for instance, farmers’ uptake of
these payments has been limited. A number of programmes support forestry but only one
is aimed specifically at the reforestation of farmland.
There is evidence, moreover, that subsidy programmes such as PROCAMPO (direct
assistance to agriculture)18 may promote clearing and burning, thereby accelerating land
use change, a key driver of biodiversity loss (Gaytán and González, 1997; Cortez, 2000;
Reyes-Hernández et al., 2003). “In the region of Calakmul, for example, Klepeis and
Vance (2003) associate these subsidies with a higher rate of deforestation because they
promote the cultivation of chili and pasture, and increase the clearance of mature forest to
obtain soils suitable for crops. Abizaid and Coomes (2004) and Isaac-Márquez et al. (2005)
obtained similar results regarding the effect of PROCAMPO on the expansion of deforestation
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in the southern region of the Yucatán Peninsula and in the Tenosique region of Tabasco”
(CONABIO-UNDP, 2009).
Munoz-Pina (2004) reported that, in the early 2000s, subsidies that potentially had the
most negative impact on the environment had a budget almost double that of more
environmentally benign subsidies (Guevara-Sanginé, 2009). Programmes to pay grain
producers above-market prices (Programa Ingreso Objetivo), to give per-animal subsidies to
cattle ranchers (Programa de Estimulos a la Ganaderia) and to underwrite purchases of
farm equipment (Programa Activos Productivos) may have led to increased intensification
and expansion of agriculture, with negative impacts on biodiversity (Guevara-
Sanginé, 2009). Other harmful subsidies include VAT exemption for agrochemicals and
electricity subsidies (OECD, 2008). Under the latter, pricing of electricity to pump water has
been used to explain why so few farmers adopt water-saving technology despite significant
pressure on water resources. In 2011, the government spent around USD 649 million in
subsidies to irrigation agriculture (OECD, 2012). In July 2011, the government launched a
pilot programme to partly decouple the amount of the subsidy from electricity use. The
programme involves 13 aquifers and more than 8 000 potential beneficiaries. Farmers
participating pay a higher electricity price, although still partially subsidised and below the
average cost of electricity generation. In exchange, they receive a cash transfer equivalent
to the forgone electricity subsidy, calculated on the basis on their last three years’ average
consumption. Thus, farmers’ income is maintained while pressure on water resources is
reduced (see Box 3.3).
5.2. Biodiversity and tourism
Tourism is the third most important economic activity in Mexico, generating more
than 8% of GDP. In 2000, SECTUR, in co-operation with SEMARNAT, CONABIO and several
other institutions from the public, private, social and academic sectors, published a
National Policy and Strategy for Sustainable Tourism, with useful guidelines and action
plans. More recently, the 2009 General Law on Tourism included clauses relating to
sustainability. Within the Sustainable Tourism Programme in Mexico, SECTUR diagnosed
major destinations so as to identify priorities for promoting sustainable tourism, and is
currently working to promote eco-certification of tourism-related businesses, in
conjunction with the Rainforest Alliance and EarthCheck programmes,19 so as to comply
with the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria. Between 1997 and July 2011, for example, a
total of 4 828 Clean Industry certificates and Environmental Quality certificates (including
tourism quality) were issued. Ecotourism is an important sector with green growth
potential and should be further promoted. In addition to access fees for federal protected
areas and reserves, other instruments to capture the international public good benefits
provided by protected areas should be explored (see also Alpizar, 2006). For instance, in
Belize, an environmental tax is levied on visitors upon departure.
5.3. Biodiversity and climate change
Biodiversity and climate change are intricately linked, with opportunities for
mainstreaming biodiversity in both climate change mitigation and adaptation. With regard
to the latter, Mexico has recently developed a strategy for climate change adaptation in
protected areas. In general, a key area where synergies can be captured is in forests, which
provide carbon sequestration services as well as biodiversity benefits such as habitat
provisioning. Recognising this, Mexico is developing a national strategy on REDD+
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emphasising the need to capitalise on the opportunities REDD+ provides in terms of
co-benefits for biodiversity conservation, sustainable forest management and sustainable
rural development (see Chapter 4). Prioritising REDD+ finance to areas that have both high
carbon benefits and high biodiversity benefits is one way to harness these synergies and
Mexico is exploring how such benefits can be captured through approaches such as PES.
The key elements of Mexico’s REDD+ strategy are: 1) building and/or strengthening
institutional capacities; 2) improving targeting and effectiveness of existing programmes
and expanding the PES model; 3) promoting sustainable forest management; 4) improving
monitoring capabilities for LULUCF based on the National Forest Inventory, including
monitoring, reporting and verification in local communities; and 5) integrating new
financing mechanisms (carbon finance) with a positive impact on biodiversity
conservation and livelihoods of forest landholders and inhabitants (CONAFOR, 2010). To
effectively enhance biodiversity co-benefits in its REDD+ strategy, Mexico will need to
identify areas with both high-carbon and high-biodiversity benefits, as well as areas with
high risk of deforestation and low opportunity cost. Pilot projects provide an opportunity
for early testing and can build on experience from other projects, such as those which have
met the standards of the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance. These pilots could
help in mobilising additional finance via premiums for the biodiversity benefits in
voluntary carbon markets.
Notes
1. Also operating as a decentralised agency of SEMARNAT is the Mexican Institute of WaterTechnology (IMTA) (see Chapter 2).
2. CONAPESCA, the National Commission of Aquaculture and Fishing, is the decentralised agencyunder SAGARPA responsible for promoting sustainable exploitation and conservation of marineresources.
3. SEMARNAT, SAGARPA and the ministries of Social Development (SEDESOL), Health (SALUD), PublicEducation (SEP), Energy (SENER), Tourism (SECTUR), Foreign Affairs (SRE), Economy (SE), andFinance and Public Credit (SHCP).
4. SEMARNAT, SHCP, SAGARPA, SECTUR and the National Defence Ministry (SEDENA), plusCONAGUA.
5. Data based on INEGI’s land use and vegetation maps (INEGI, 1994, 2002, 2007), in accordance withthe criteria and methodology set out by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
6. PINE is an attempt to demonstrate the impact on Mexico’s GDP of the costs of ecological andenvironmental degradation.
7. NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010; NOM-022-SEMARNAT-2003; NOM-131-SEMARNAT-2010 respectively.
8. Note that the data on federal PA in Figures 5.4 and 5.5 differs. Data used by SEMARNAT in Figure 5.4is calculated based on the year of the decree and the estimated areas provided by CONANP.
9. The corridors are Southern Sierra Madre (Sierra Madre del Sur, southern Chiapas), Maya-Zoquerainforests (Selva Maya-Zoque, northern Chiapas), Calakmul-Sian Ka’an (Campeche), Sian Ka’an-Calakmul (Quintana Roo) and Yucatan north coast (Costa norte de Yucatan, Yucatan and QuintanaRoo).
10. The additional corridors are Coastal wetlands to Huimanguillo mountains (Humedales costeros-Sierra de Huimanguilla, Tabasco), Centla swamps to Usumacinta Canyon (Pantanos de Centla-Cañon de Usumacinta, Tabasco) and Tabasco mountains (Sierra de Tabasco).
11. General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection, Title First, Article 3, fraction XXIII.
12. That is, listed in the revised standard on threatened species, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, or inAppendix I or II of CITES.
13. DOF 13-II-1992.
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14. Art. 28 of LGEEPA.
15. The umbrella programme, ProÁrbol, includes the following in addition to the PES programmes:PROCOREF, for reforestation and restoration; PRODEPLAN, which includes promotion ofcommercial forest plantations, forest fire prevention and soil conservation; PROCYMAF, to improveforest ecosystem productivity; and PRODEFOR, the forest development programme.
16. Other elements of the vaquita PACE include commitment of additional resources by CONAPESCAand PROFEPA towards enforcement of regulations to eliminate fishing without a permit; aprogramme instituted by INAPESCA to test new fishing methods (suripera nets) that do not riskharming vaquitas; and bans on all gill net and trawl fishing in the Vaquita refuge, withenforcement by PROFEPA beginning at the start of the shrimp season in September 2008(Barlow et al., 2009).
17. The remaining finance was contributed by academia, international organisations, NGOs, amongstother sources of finance.
18. Under PROCAMPO, eligible farmers receive payments based on the area planted in 1991-93 on thecondition that the land is used for legal agricultural or livestock production, or within anenvironment programme.
19. See: www.earthcheck.org/ and www.rainforest-alliance.org.
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Barlow, J., L. Bracho, C. Muñoz-Piña and S. Mesnick (2009), “Conservation of the Vaquita (Phocoena sinus) inthe Northern Gulf of California”, Mexico, www.ine.gob.mx/descargas/dgipea/ine-biodiv-pc-01-2009.pdf.
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INEGI (2007), “Conjunto de datos de la carta de uso del suelo y vegetación, escala 1: 250,000: Serie IV (inpreparation)”, Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geográfia e Informatica, Aguascalientes,Mexico, DF.
Isaac-Márquez, R., B. de Jong, A. Estmond, S. Ochoa-Gaona and S. Hernández (2005), “Estrategiasproductivas campesinas: un análisis de los factores condicionantes del uso del suelo en el orientede Tabasco, México”, Universidad y Ciencia, 21: 56-72.
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50
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Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use
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4. Mainstreaming biodiversity into other sectors/policy areasMainstreaming or integrating biodiversity into other policy areas is one of the pillars
of the NBS. It is to be achieved primarily through the national land use planning
framework, and secondarily by means of interventions in key sectors such as agriculture,
forestry and fishing. Sectoral interventions include pro-active measures promoting
biodiversity conservation (e.g. sustainable agriculture, ecotourism), as well as corrective
measures that eliminate perverse incentives that are detrimental to biodiversity
(e.g. removal of certain agricultural support programmes). Mainstreaming biodiversity into
other policy sectors also requires looking into synergies and possible trade-offs
(e.g. between biodiversity and food production, or biodiversity and climate change
policies), as well as integrating biodiversity policy with equity objectives.
4.1. Israel’s national planning framework and biodiversity
One of Israel’s unique features is that land is publicly owned. How it may be used is
determined by the national land use planning policy. Within this framework, a relatively
high share of the total land area has been designated as protected. In addition, extensive
areas that are used for military training remain virtually unexploited, thereby contributing
to the conservation of natural habitats. To address the conflicts between the need for
development on the one hand, and the need to preserve landscapes and ecosystems on the
other, a series of new land use planning initiatives was devised in the 1990s and integrated
into a non-statutory strategic master plan complemented by sectoral National Master
Plans. The Comprehensive National Master Plan for Building, Development and Conservation,
an overarching outline plan affecting biodiversity conservation, was approved in 2005. It
establishes guidelines for the development of conservation worthy areas, including coastal
areas. It also gives protection to landscape ensembles and to coastal, river and landscape
strips (MoEP, 2008, 2010a) (Box 2.4). Key sectoral national plans include: the National Master
Plan for Forests and Afforestation; the National Master Plan for National Parks, Nature
Reserves and Landscape Reserves; the National Master Plan for Coastal Areas; and the
National Master Plan for Rivers and Drainage.
In addition, recently updated guidelines for landscape and environmental planning,
published by the Israeli National Road Company, are aimed at addressing fragmentation
and barriers caused by infrastructure.6
Israel now requires environmental impact assessments (EIAs) to be carried out for all
major development projects and investments, with the explicit requirement to account for
the impact of development plans on biodiversity (Chapter 2). Revised EIA regulations,
which came into effect in 2003, expand the possibility to require EIAs for proposed
development in environmentally sensitive areas such as coasts, riverbanks and stream
corridors (MoEP, 2008). Most EIAs consider species and habitat diversity, endangered
species, and connectivity issues (i.e. with regard to ecological corridors). However, the
terms of reference (ToRs) of EIAs only occasionally consider impacts on biodiversity
directly, and EIAs seldom incorporate estimates of new development projects’ biodiversity
costs and benefits.
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4.2. Mainstreaming biodiversity into agriculture
Agricultural practices in Israel are more environment-friendly than in the past, but
there is as yet no integrated policy for farmland’s biodiversity conservation and sustainable
use. In 2002, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development prepared a plan for
sustainable agricultural development (PSAD). In addition to measures concerning the use
of treated wastewater in agriculture and reforms with regard to livestock, it included others
concerning the maintenance of open landscape for sustainable grazing.
Israel is developing a number of agri-enviromental schemes aimed at providing
farmers with incentives to deliver biodiversity-related ecosystem sevices. For example, a
two-year pilot project under way pays farmers through an auction system to maintain
farmland for biodiversity conservation. A similar scheme related to grazing is mainly
implemented in areas for which there is no alternative agricultural use. From 2004, this
scheme provides a per-hectare grazing payment, taking into account livestock density
relative to land vegetation cover, with the regions of Israel divided into four categories
according to pasture richness. Herd owners must follow appropriate production practices
and environmental criteria. The area covered by this scheme amounted to about 60% of
total agricultural land area in 2008. Preliminary research suggests that such managed
grazing regimes have helped support floral diversity (OECD, 2010).
The reform of the livestock sector, and integrated pest management (IPM)
programmes, have also reduced environmental pressures from excess applications of
nutrients and pesticides (OECD, 2010). Considerable attention has been given to biological
pest management, for example in a project started in 2007 that uses barn owls and kestrels
as biological pest control agents (OECD, 2010).
There are programmes to support farmers who have suffered losses of yields in fish
ponds impacted by migratory birds. Agriculture is also subject to other forms of damage
and losses from wildlife, such as damage to irrigation equipment by mammals and birds
and losses to field crops and orchards due to small rodents and birds. In addition to support
for some losses, farm advisory, bio-control, IPM and other approaches are used to address
these wildlife-agriculture conflicts (OECD, 2010).
4.3. Mainstreaming biodiversity into forestry
The 1926 Forestry Ordinance remains the basis for current formal afforestation policy
in Israel. Although the act is still in force, afforestation policy is largely implemented under
the guidelines included in the 1995 National Master Plan for Forests and Afforestation
(TMA 22), under which about 1 620 km2 of forest and open spaces is protected (Table 5.3).
Forest management in Israel is carried out by the Jewish National Fund (JNF), an NGO
that currently manages about 1 000 km2, largely in areas with a semi-arid climate and
rocky, hilly terrain unsuitable for agriculture where there is a high risk of land degradation.
Afforested areas are used for tourism, pastureland and wood supply, as well as providing
other general ecosystem services and contributing to the water budget and stream
restoration. Israel is one of the few countries in the world that has more trees today than it
did 100 years ago (MoEP, 2010a). Figure 5.2 shows trends in new and regeneration planting
areas during the last 11 years.
Early afforestation efforts in Israel have been criticised for not creating functional
ecosystems that support endemic species and conserve biodiversity. Yet Israel’s
afforestation programme has gradually changed its orientation towards increased
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consideration of biodiversity. In the past decade there has been a shift in the direction of
ecologically oriented forest management, with a growing emphasis on fostering woodland
biodiversity. Conifer-dominated forestry has changed to mixed woodland management,
allowing the regeneration of wild tree and shrub species, their penetration into carefully
managed areas, and increasing biodiversity in these areas. About 55% of afforestation
areas are to remain as open space, with natural woodlands contributing to soil fertility and
in many cases serving as sanctuaries for protected wildlife.
4.4. Mainstreaming biodiversity into fishing
Israel’s marine fish catch comes principally from the Mediterranean Sea. Total
production from the marine environment is small and steadily declining, partly due to the
relative impoverishment of fish stocks in the eastern Mediterranean. The bulk of Israel’s
fish production comes from aquaculture and mariculture (Chapter 3). The 1937 Fishing
Ordinance regulates the use of fisheries, so that it is sustainable, fish stocks are not
depleted, and the wider aquatic environment is protected against fishing-related
externalities (e.g. pollution and the death of sea turtles). Fishing is overseen by the Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development.
During the past two decades, measures have been taken to protect fish stocks and
aquatic biodiversity in the Red Sea. In 2008, all fish cages in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba were
dismantled and mariculture in the Red Sea ceased due to concern about impacts on the
vulnerable reef complex, a major tourism attraction (Chapter 3). However, few effective
protective measures have been taken with regard to the Mediterranean or Lake Kinneret.
In 2000, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development concluded that the capture
fishing industry in the Mediterranean had reached exploitation limits for most species.
More recently, some important initiatives have been taken. They include: a cap on the size of
the fishing fleet; mesh size restrictions; gear modifications; prohibition of scuba diving;
relocation of inshore fishing efforts to deep sea areas; seasonal fishing restrictions or
temporary outright fishing bans (e.g. a ban on fishing in Lake Kinneret in the period 2010-12);
doubling the minimum depth allowed for fishing with trawlers; and online monitoring of
trawlers. Evidence suggests that the implementation of these policy measures is still
Table 5.3. Existing and proposed forest area under the National Master Plan for Forests and Afforestation
Type Area (km2)
Existing forest area
Existing planted forests 536
Recommended planted forests 142
Existing forest parks 75
Proposed forest area
Recommended forest parks 181
Fostering natural woodlands 176
Natural woodlands for preservation 428
Coastal forest parks 44
Riverside/dry stream plantings 39
Total 1 621
Source: MoEP.1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932495931
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unsatisfactory in practice. Some members of Israel’s scientific and environmental
communities, and of the general public, have raised concerns that fishing off the country’s
coasts is endangering other living marine resources, including marine mammals
(Chapter 3). Most of these initiatives constitute command and control approaches. The use
of economic instruments (notably schemes for tradable fishing permits) has not been
pursued but deserves further consideration.
4.5. Mainstreaming biodiversity into tourism
Tourism is one of the most important sectors of the Israeli economy, with 45 million
tourist arrivals in 2010. There is significant potential to utilise Israel’s natural resources for
ecotourism, both as a source of growth and a means of sustainably managing ecosystems.
The main destinations for developing this niche tourism market are nature reserves and
other protected areas. Tourism activities in protected areas are overseen by the Society for
the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI). The number of visitors to NPA nature reserves showed
an increasing and stable trend over the decade, with over 7 million visitors in 2009 (Figure 5.4).
A challenge that must be addressed with regard to nature reserve ecotourism is how
to optimally price the entry to reserves and other related services. This, in turn, rests on
determining the optimal carrying capacity of each reserve so that profits can be maximised
while biodiversity is protected. An assessment of the carrying capacity levels in Israel’s
protected areas should be prepared (Box 5.4).
Beyond protected areas, planted forests, overseen by the Jewish National Fund (JNF),
have gradually become a main local tourism attraction. They include hiking trails, camping
areas, and areas for sports and recreation activities. Forests adjacent to nature reserves
attract visitors and consequently help lower visitor pressure on nature reserves.
The development of ecotourism will require mobilising and promoting the use of
private resources. Some notable private initiatives exist, such as Eco and Sustainable
Tourism Israel, a non-profit organisation established in 2006 to promote sustainability and
ecotourism awareness and implementation. It is part of the international Global
Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC) initiative.
Figure 5.4. Visitors to NPA nature reserves, 2000-09
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932495399
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
million visitors
Source: NPA.
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4.6. Mainstreaming biodiversity into climate change mitigation and adaptation
There is considerable scope for mainstreaming biodiversity concerns into climate
change mitigation and adaptation measures. One of the pillars of Israel’s mitigation efforts
is the development of new renewable energy sources. There is potential for conflict with
solar parks and wind farms, in that the land they occupy could contribute to habitat
fragmentation. This problem might be mitigated by producing these types of energy
off-shore or by using existing structures (e.g. for the installation of solar panels).
Afforestation efforts in Israel, led by the Jewish National Fund, entail considerable
synergies with climate change mitigation and adaptation. The JNF is examining ways to
plant trees that are resistant to dry conditions and to introduce genetic improvements of
plant species so that they can cope with high temperatures and water stress. Such actions
could help respond to the potential northward expansion of the desert (MoEP, 2010b).
Israel has taken steps to develop its National Climate Adaptation Plan. Several
adaptation actions being contemplated for sectors affected by climate change could have
either positive or negative impacts on biodiversity. For example, in the case of agriculture
the suggested actions of expanding the crop varieties used, developing substitutes for
grains in animal feed, and better water management would all benefit biodiversity directly
or indirectly. However, other suggested actions (e.g. increased use of treated effluents and
the introduction of genetic improvements to crops and farm animals) could erode
biodiversity. Likewise, adaptation actions taken in relation to coastal zone defence, such as
specific forms of coastal infrastructure and the use of sea protection and sand
nourishment techniques, could negatively impact biodiversity. Such trade-offs and
concerns should be reflected in the final National Adaptation Plan.
4.7. Distributional issues
Biodiversity considerations are not generally integrated into poverty reduction
strategies, as the issue of the economic dependence of low-income sectors on biodiversity
is generally irrelevant in the case of Israel. Most poverty reduction efforts are targeted at
urban populations and are not necessarily related to agriculture or to natural resources. Yet
Box 5.4. Ecotourism and carrying capacity in Israel
The Hula Agmon pond, located in the Rift Valley, is a critical migratory stopover andwintering site for more than 500 million birds belonging to over 390 species, including21 globally threatened species and 16 nationally threatened ones. The nature area, openedin 2004, has witnessed a sharp increase in the number of visitors, from 78 000 in 2004to 240 000 in 2008.
Several studies have been conducted to monitor and assess the impacts of tourism onbird populations. They have examined the impact of tourist demand, tourismdevelopment trends and management on birds, and how management policies canalleviate negative tourist-bird impacts and enhance real ecotourism. One finding was thatfor every 20 visitors, birds tend to retreat by 27 metres. This led to the development ofsustainability guidelines concerning visitor load regulation, fencing, appropriatesignposting and the positioning of telescopes. Further research could help establish visitorvolumes that are consistent with maintaining optimal numbers of various species.
Source: MoEP (2009, 2010a).
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biodiversity considerations are linked to equity issues, as part of the discussion on
resource availability (mainly related to drinking water availability, access to marine and
inland coasts, and the availability and accessibility of natural areas to socially deprived
sectors for recreation) (MoEP, 2009). More progress needs to be made in including
participatory and institutional approaches that address equity issues in the National
Biodiversity Strategy framework.
Notes
1. The NPBB is made up of 32 representatives, one-third of whom represent the government, one-third local government and the other third academia and NGOs.
2. For example, Mount Carmel was declared a Biosphere Reserve in April 1996, within the frameworkof UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme. Other areas considered appropriate to bedeclared biosphere reserves include Mount Meron in northern Israel and the Judean Hills area inthe transition zone between the Mediterranean Sea and the desert biome.
3. These include the double dividend benefits that can be derived from instruments such as greentaxes, and the benefits emerging from the added innovation and entrepreneurship that economicinstruments stimulate (e.g. providing growth and employment opportunities, as well as improvinginternational competitiveness through first-mover advantages).
4. European Biodiversity Observation Network (EBONE) (www.ebone.wur.nl/uk).
5. The National Ecosystem Assessment (NEA) is a systematic attempt to assess the value of ecosystemservices that stem from biodiversity over a 100-year period (1950-2050) (http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org).
6. For example, by requiring the construction of animal passages below and above roads, and throughthe implementation of ecological considerations in planning, rehabilitation and management ofroad verges and other areas affected by road construction (www.ecotourism.org.il).
Selected Sources
The government documents, OECD documents and other documents used as sources for thischapter included the following:
BBOP (Business and Biodiversity Offsets Programme) (2009), Biodiversity Offset Cost-Benefit Handbook.BBOP, Washington DC.
Cairncross, F. (2006), “Connecting Flights”, Conservation in Practice, Vol. 7, No. 1.
CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics) (2006), Environment Data Compendium of Israel, No. 2, Central Bureau ofStatistics, Jerusalem.
Emerton, L. (2001), National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans: A Review of Experiences, LessonsLearned and Ways Forward, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Regional EnvironmentalEconomics Programme for Asia, Karachi, Pakistan.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010,FAO, Rome.
Frankenberg, E. (2005), Israel Third National Report to the Biodiversity Convention, 2005, Ministry ofEnvironmental Defence.
MoEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection) (2002), The Environment in Israel 2002 (chapter onlandscape and biodiversity), Ministry of Environmental Protection, Jerusalem.
MoEP (2008), “Brief Note on Environmental Policy and Institutional Framework of Israel”, paper for theOECD Environment Policy Committee, Paris, available from the Israeli Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection, Jerusalem.
MoEP (2009), “Fourth Country Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity”,Ministry of Environmental Protection, Jerusalem.
MoEP (2010a), Israel’s National Biodiversity Plan, Executive Summary, Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection, Jerusalem.
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MoEP (2010b), “Israel’s Second National Communication on Climate Change”, submitted under theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Ministry of Environmental Protection,Jerusalem.
MoEP (2010c), The Environment in Israel – Indicators, data and trends, 2010, Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection, Jerusalem.
OECD (2008), People and Biodiversity Policies: Impacts, Issues and Strategies for Policy Action, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2009), OECD Environmental Performance Reviews – 2nd Cycle (2001-09), OECD, Paris.
OECD (2010), Review of Agricultural Policies – Israel, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2011), Green Growth and Biodiversity, OECD, Paris, forthcoming.
Roberts, D., et al. (2010), “Impacts of Desalination Plant Discharges on the Marine Environment:A Critical Review of Published Studies”, Water Research, Vol. 44.
Shaked, Y. and A. Genin (2010), “The Israel National Monitoring Program at the Northern Gulf ofAqaba”, Scientific Report 2009 (in Hebrew with English abstract), Interuniversity Institute for MarineSciences, Eilat.
Ten Kate, K., J. Bishop and R. Bayon (2004), Biodiversity Offsets: Views, Experience, and the Business Case,IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, and Insight Investment, London, UK.
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