• 2-Meosis/Mitosis

• 27-Genetics/Heredity

• 65-DNA

• 84- Protein Synthesis

• 99-Evolution

• 128-Ecology

• 179-Bacteria

• 194-Viruses

• 201- THE END

MITOSIS/MEOSIS

What is the purpose of mitosis?

For repair/growth and reproduction

What is the amount chromosomes are in mitosis?

What are the similarities and differences of Mitosis and Meiosis?

Differences- Haploid vs. diploid genetic info- 2 identical vs. 4 different daughter cells

Similarities -Both go throughIPMAT

Mitosis Steps?

Meiosis Steps?

Steps for Meiosis:P (I)M (I)A (I)T (I)CYTOKENESISPIIMIIAIITIICYTOKINESIS

What is a karyotype?

• Chromosomes of an individual are lined up as pairs from largest to the smallest

• It tells us about an individual’s sex and any chromosomal disorders

Male sex cells

Vs.

Female sex cells

XX – female

XY – male

What is mutation?

The process in which such a change occurs in a gene or in a chromosome.

3 different types of disorders caused by meiosis complications…

1- Turner Syndrome – missing an X chromosome (affects girls)

2 – Klinefelter Syndrome - additional X chromosome (affects boys)

3-Down Syndrome – extra 21st chromosome (boys + girls)

An Allele?

Both mom and dad donate this trait to their offspring.

Difference between diploid and haploid?

Diploid = double the genetic information when 2 haploid cells join to form a ZYGOTE

Haploid = half the genetic information (sex cell)

What are sex cells?

• Gametes – half the normal number of chromosomes for the particular species

GENETICS/HEREDITY

Who was Gregor Mendel

• “Father of Modern Genetics”• Founded the study of heredity

Phenotype vs. genotype

• Physical appearance – reflects your genotype

• Genotype--“genes” – the make up of the combination of traits you inherit from your parents

Punnett Squares

• Shows possible phenotypes and genotypes – possibilities of what the offspring could look like or what genes they can inherit.

Homozygous recessive vs. dominant

• Dominant--The gene or allele that is most likely expressed or seen in an offspring – only 1 is needed to show trait.

• Recessive--The gene or allele less likely to be expressed or seen in an offspring – in order for this trait to be seen, the offspring must have 2 of these recessive alleles

What is a Hybrid

• Synonym for “heterozygous”

2 word problems…

• 1)

• What percentage will be albino?

About 70% of Americans perceive a bitter taste from the chemical phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). The ability to taste this chemical results from a dominant allele (T) and not being able to taste PTC is the result of having two recessive alleles (t). Albinism is also a single locus trait with normal pigment being dominant (A) and the lack of pigment being recessive (a). A normally pigmented woman who cannot taste PTC has a father who is an albino taster. She marries a homozygous, normally pigmented man who is a taster but who has a mother that does not taste PTC. What are the genotypes of the possible children (choose all that apply)?

• 2) Wolves are sometimes observed to have black coats and blue eyes. Assume that these traits are controlled by single locus genes and are located on different chromosomes. Assume further that normal coat color (N) is dominant to black (n) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to blue (b). Suppose the alpha male and alpha female of a pack (these are the dominant individuals who do most of the breeding) are black with blue eyes and normal colored with brown eyes, respectively. The female is also heterozygous for both traits. How many of the offspring (assume 16) living in the pack will have each of the following genotypes?

• What percent of the offspring will be normal colored with blue eyes?

Sex Linked Diseases

Sex Linked Causes

What is a carrier?

• A living organism that has inherited a disease

Dominant Diseases:

• Single gene disorders that occur in the heterozygous state

Recessive Diseases:

• Single gene disorders that occur only when an individual carries two malfunctioning copies

What is the universal blood doner?

• Type 0

What is the universal blood recipient?

• Type AB

Blood Types:

A = IA IA or IAiB = IBIB or IBiAB = IAIB

O = ii

Pedigree Charts:

Name common pedigree symbols

Interpret the following pedigree chart:

1 – autosomal dominant disease because the chart shows no carriers

2- in generation II, three out of the 5 siblings have the disease3 – out of the generation II sibling that got married (2) who have the disease, they passed the disease to 50% of their

offspring

Co dominance vs. Incomplete dominance

DNA

Virus vs. Bacteria

Bacteriophage

• A type of virus that injects its DNA into a host cell—they only affect bacteria.

Nucleotides vs. base pairs, complementary

• Nucleotide– A compound consisting of a nucleoside

linked to a phosphate group

• Base PairsA pair of complementary bases in a double-stranded nucleic acid molecule

• Complementary • Supplying a defect or helping

to do so

Strands

• A piece of thin material often referred to when saying “DNA strand”

RNA vs. DNA

RNA duplication

DNA duplication

Cricks and Watson vs. Franklin

• Cricks and Watson– Credit for discovering the shape and makeup of DNA

• Roseland Franklin – A collection of photographs of DNA. These pictures gave clues to the

shape and dimensions of complex molecules. These photos showed the basic shape of DNA to be a helix.

Sugar phosphate backbone

• The repeating set of units

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Translation

• mRNA leaves the nucleus, goes into the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome.

• At the ribosome the tRNA (has anticodon and amino acid attached) connects to the codon.

• The tRNA moves away and leaves the amino

acid behind • Move the next codon into place • Repeat step #6 & #7

• Repeat step #9 until we reach a stop codon • The rRNA breaks apart along with the

ribosome • We have a protein!

• Packed into a vesicle

• Leaves the cell

***Taking the RNA from transcription and translating it into a protein.

Transcription

• Helicase splits up the DNA

• One strand is used as a template to make mRNA

• RNA polymerase builds the mRNA strand• AU• GC

• Introns are removed and the exons are spliced together (mRNA)

***The information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA

mRNA

• RNA molecules that carry genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they identify the amino acid sequence of the protein results of gene expression.

Intron

• A part of a DNA or RNA molecule that does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes

• NOT NEEDED– Is gotten rid of

Exon

• A part of a DNA or RNA molecule holding informational coding for a protein or peptide sequence.

• Is NEEDED– Is kept

Template Mechanism

• Two strands of the helix separate because the DNA is copying. Each single strand acts as a “negative” producing a new complimentary strand.

Helicase vs. Polymerase

• Helicase– Enzymes that join together and may even imitate nucleic acid or

nucleic acid protein complexes.

• DNA POLYMEASE– Type of enzyme that is responsible for creating new copies

of DNA, as nucleic acid molecules.

• RNA POLYMEASE– Causes nucleotides or base pairs to attach to the RNA

EVOLUTION

Who worked with flinches to develop his theory?

Charles Darwin

Who Observed that time affected mountains, rivers, landforms and masses?

Charles Lyell

Who observed that people produce a lot of children, but we don’t use all our natural resources.

Thomas Malthus

If you no longer exist and your type has died out what are you?

EXTINCT

A Structure that looks the same but does different things…

Homologous Structures

What is a structure that an organism once used but no longer uses?

Vestigial Structures

Natural Selection

Natural selection—organisms survive or don’t survive based on survival of the fittest

Pesticides and Antibiotics – Natural Selection in Action…

Antibiotic overuse will cause such medications to not work in the future because organisms adapt to them called natural variation

Pesticides work in a similar way, farmers use them on crops

What is it called when the results of a natural disaster limits the gene pool and the organisms that survive are the “founders” of the next generation?

Genetic Bottleneck and

The Founder Effect

What are the different types of isolation and what did they do?

Geographic Isolation is where the location is difficult to breed

Reproductive Isolation is where two individual are not on the same reproductive cycle such as skunks

Behavioral Isolation is where a physical action that either separates or keeps the females from being interested in the males such as the cranes’ dance

What is a adaptive radiation?

Nature hates an area void of life such as a vacuum. Therefore, if there is the possibility of life, there will be life.

Stabilizing vs. directional vs.

disruptive selection

Cost Benefit Analysis

What is the difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium?

Gradualism is the slow accumulation of mutation over time

Punctuated equilibrium is when organisms stay stable for long periods of time. Then, there is a short amount of time (here there is a major change when organisms mutate) and then stay in that phase for a long time once again.

ECOLOGY

POPULATION

• Groups of the same species that may or may not interact with each other.

– Many different ways to divide up populations.

Community

• Groups of populations – All interacting with each other– At any given day or time

• And interacting with abiotic (non-living) parts

of your community.

Ecosystem

• Many habitats in a generalized area.

• Put many ecosystems together and you get a biome

Habitat

• Group of communities all with very similar abiotic and biotic conditions

Primary ConsumersSecond Tropic Level

• First Consumers – Herbivores

• 90% of energy is lost per level as you move up the pyramid

Secondary ConsumersThird Tropic Level

• Second level consumers – Carnivores or Omnivores

• 10% of energy is left over on this level for those organisms to use

Tertiary ConsumerFourth Tropic Level

• Third level consumers – Carnivores or Omnivores

• 1% of energy is left on this level for those organisms to use

Quandary ConsumerFifth Tropic Level

• Very little energy at this level

• Usually its rare to be at this level

Flow of Energy in a Tropic Level (arrows, Loss of energy)

• The flow of energy moves from the lowest level to the highest level

• 90% of the energy is used up at each level in order for the organism to properly function

• The original energy come from the sun.

Flow of Energy

• The flow of energy moves from the lowest level to the highest level

• 90% of the energy is used up at each level in order for the organism to properly function

• The original energy come from the sun.

Herbivore

• an organism that only eats plants – ex: giraffes, cows, deers etc.

Omnivore

• an organism that eats both plants and meat (basically anything)

• ex: people

Carnivore

• an organism that only eats meat

• ex: lions, tigers, polar bears, etc

Heterotroph

• an organism that obtains its nutrients from other organisms

• ex: lions, humans, mushrooms etc.

Autotroph

• an organism that makes it own food – ex: plants and algae

• water + carbon dioxide + sunlight = oxygen and glucose

Decomposer

• Are much like Saprobes – Ex: Bacteria, mushrooms, insects

• They recycle nutrients back into the soil and the environment as the break up material/ organisms

Scavenger

• Organisms that eat other dead organisms

• Last ones to feed on that organisms – ex: hyena, raccoons, crows etc.

Carry Capacity

Limiting Factors

• Access to resources

• Food, water, money, shelter

Mutualism

• Both organisms benefit from the relationship

EX: Tick Bird sitting on rhinos--and eat the ticks, birds have food and the rhino is cleaned of ticks.

Communalism

• Where one organism benefits, and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed

EX: Sharks and the sucker fish (suckerfish get along for the ride without the shark knowing)

Parasitism

• The host is what the parasite is living off of

• EX: Ticks, fleas, lice.

Predator-Prey

• Predator• The who hunts

the population lags behind the prey in numbers.

• Prey • The one that is hunted

population drops followed by the predator population

J-Curve

S-Curve

BACTERIA

Archaea v. Monera

Archaea bacteriaThe ancient bacteria called extremophiles - live under very extremes conditionsSuch as Thermophiles - live in very hot water/ steam/ geysers)Halophiles – very salty conditions.Methanogens - live in methane rich environments (oxygen will kill them) – provides us with Vitamin K

Monera bacteriaCommon bacteria

Some cause diseases others do not

Cell Shape

– Rods

– Cocci

– Spirals

Motility

• Being able to move from place to place

• Most bacteria move by means of flagella - which is a whip like tail (they can have more than one)

• Bacteria do good and bad

Reproduction

• Binary Fission is the most common type of reproduction in bacteria

Binary Fission

• Bacteria reproduces asexually to form identical cells or clones

• Often performed when environmental

conditions are just right and where they thrive.

Conjugation

• A very primitive form of sexual reproduction, this leads to genetic diversity

• The two bacteria come right next to each other, they form a pili (bridge) and through the protein bridge they share the genetic information, after, the bridge goes away.

• Always followed by binary fission with different DNA

• All for hitting the one bacteria that thrives in the given environment

Endospore Formation

• Many bacteria have the ability to form what is called an Endospore, which forms a shell and seal itself off.

• Bacteria goes into a dormant stage, and would stay that way for thousands of years

VIRUSES

Structure & Function

• All composed of a protein coat with a bit of genetic information on the inside. This genetic info can be DNA or RNA

• Viruses cannot affect you unless they are in you (they need a host to reproduce)

• By our definition viruses are NOT alive!

Lytic cycle

• Make you sick almost immediately • 1: virus sits down on a cell its designed to attack

• 2: releases its DNA into the cell

• 3: the DNA becomes part of the cell’s DNA

• 4: hijacks the cell

• 5: it begins to makes more viruses

• 6: The viruses keeps multiplying

• 7:Eventually the cell is going to explode

• 8: After it explodes it dumps thousands of virus particles into your bloodstream

• 9: The virus particle sit down on other cells

• 10: Repeats until the virus particle gets you sick

Lysogenic cycle

• Takes a long time to take affect

• 1: Phage attaches to the host cell and injects its DNA.

• 2: Phage DNA circularized (similar to a plasmid)

• 3: Phage DNA is integrated into the host cell DNA via recombination. (At this point, the phage DNA is referred to as a prophage.)

• 4: Prophage is reproduced along with host DNA each time the cell replicates. The prophage may continue in this state indefinitely.

• 5: In rare circumstances, the prophage may excise itself from the host DNA and enter the lytic cycle.

THE END!!!