• 1870: Defeat by Prussia and proclamation of republic

• 1871: Paris Commune• 1873:

– Prussian occupation troops depart– Marshal MacMahon elected president

• 1875: Major political institutions of Third Republic organized

• 1894: Captain Dreyfus convicted• 1906: Dreyfus’s conviction set

aside

The Third Republic• End of the Second

Republic– Causes: Franco-German War

(1870)– Napoleon III captured at

Sedan on Sept. 2– In Paris, radicals proclaimed

Third Republic• The Paris Commune

– Feb. 1871: monarchist candidates won a majority of seats in the new National Assembly

– Threat from radicals in Paris• Adolphe Thiers, head of

government, ordered dissolution of the Paris National Guard

• Radical Response: elected a new city government, the Paris Commune

• The Constitutional Laws– Established a weak

government with authority centered in parliament

• Two houses: the Chamber of Deputies elected by UMS and the indirectly elected Senate

– Executive functions of gov’t exercised by cabinet, headed by a premier and responsible to parliament

– President: elected by both houses of parliament for a term of 7 years; had little power

– Other Weaknesses:• Multiparty system• Coalition cabinets necessary

since no one party could command a majority in parliament. They were very fragile because of internal conflicts.

More Problems and Scandals of the Third Republic• Anticlericalism

– During 1880’s, the republican leaders promoted an anticlerical campaign in order to reduce the church’s influence in national life

• Gov’t created a system of free secular elementary schools to compete with schools controlled by the church

– The Jesuit Order was expelled from France, and the name of God was removed from oaths

• The Boulanger Affair– In 1889, it appeared that General

Georges Boulanger, minister of war, might attempt to carry out a coup d’etat with monarchist and clerical support

– Failed and fled the country– Discredited the monarchists and

strengthened the republic• The Dreyfus Affair

– December 1894: army court-martial convicted Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, of conveying secret information to the Germans.

– He was sentenced to prison on Devil’s Island.

– 1896: Colonel Georges Picquart, new head of French intelligence service, developed evidence indicating that Major Ferdinand Esterhazy was the guilty party and that documents used against Dreyfus had been forged

– 1898: Emile Zola published article “J’ Accuse” in defense of Dreyfus.

– 1906: French president pardoned Dreyfus

– Gov’t renewed its anticlerical campaign, making laws to exclude members of Catholic religious orders from teaching

• United Socialist Party– 1905: socialist groups joined

under Jean Jaures and Jules Guesde which sought to represent French workers

William Gladstone Benjamin Disraeli

Victorian Reforms• The Reform Bill of 1867

– In mid-1860s, Disraeli, the Conservative Party leader, decided to push for the adoption of a new reform before liberals did

– Passed Reform Bill of 1867. Some seats of House of Commons were redistributed. Right to vote was extended to most of the urban workers.

• Gladstone’s “Great Ministry”– 1868-1874: William Gladstone,

the Liberals’ leader, served as prime minister

– Reform Program• 1870: competitive

examinations were introduced to the civil service

• Education Bill of 1870 provided financial support to local school boards to operate free nonsectarian schools

• Church-operated and other voluntary elementary schools continued to receive state assistance.

• 1871: workers’ right to organize unions and to strike gained legal recognition. Ban on picketing remained though.

• Ballot Act of 1872 introduced the secret ballot in British elections.

• Reform of the judiciary was enacted in 1873.

• Gladstone maintained the laissez-faire tradition of the Liberals.

• Disraeli as Prime Minister– 1874-1880: serves as prime

minister– Promoted program of Tory

Democracy, designed to benefit working class

– Labor and Housing Reforms• 1875: series of laws expanded the

government's role in economic affairs

• Factory Act: extended earlier legislation regulating working conditions

• Public Health Act: expanded role of the state in urban sanitation

• Artisans’ Dwelling Act authorized local authorities to carry out slum clearance programs and to construct public housing.

• Picketing was legalized.• Reform Bill of 1884

– Gladstone won adoption of Reform Bill of 1884 which extended the right to vote to most farm workers.

• The Irish Question– Home Rule

• As a result of the Act of Union of 1801, Ireland had been united with Great Britain and was governed by British Parliament

• Number of Irish Catholics in the House of Commons was growing. These members began to demand home rule for Ireland under their own parliament, although Brits. Would continue to control foreign policy.

• 1886: Gladstone introduced Irish home-rule bill, but it was defeated. A second home-rule bill was defeated in 1893.

– Conflict between Ulster and Nationalists

• 1914: Liberals finally pushed Irish home-rule bill through Parliament. It could not be enforced because of opposition in Ulster, where Protestants organized illegal militia. Irish nationalists organized militia on their own. Ireland was on the brink of civil war.

• Development of Labor Party– The Fabian Society

• Formed in 1883, advocated a gradual approach to socialism, with the ultimate objective of establishing a public ownership of the means of production and distribution

– Fabian Society Cont…• Major Leaders:

– Sidney and Beatrice Webb– George Bernard Shaw– H.G. Wells

– Growth of the Labor Party• 1906: 29 Laborites won seats

in the House of Commons. Labor Party replaced the Liberals as one of the two major political parties in G.B.

• The Liberal Government– Prime Ministers: Henry

Campbell-Bannerman and Herbert Asquith

– Economic Reforms• Workmen’s Compensation Act

of 1906, expanding programs of aid to workers injured on the job

• Old Age Pensions Act of 1909 provided state-supported pensions for low-income citizens over the age of 70

*The Parliament Act of 19111909: Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George presented a budget calling for tax increases to support the new programs of social insurance and naval expansion. Provided for higher income rates for the wealthy and increases in inheritance taxes, as well as new taxes on the unearned increase in the value of land. The House of Lords refused to pass the budget. King George V agreed to create enough new Liberal lords to insure the passage of the Parliament Act of 1911. Lords passed the bill before the enactment of this threat. The House of Lords could no longer refuse to pass a money bill, nor could they prevent the adoption of other legislation if the House of Commons passed it 3 times in a period of not less than two years.

Other Reforms1911: bill passed providing for salaries for

House of CommonsNational Insurance Act established system

of health and unemployment insurance.1912: minimum wage law was passed.

Russia• Reforms of Tsar Alexander II

– Emancipation of serfs: Emancipation Edict of 1861

• Peasants received land but it was insufficient to support their growing numbers

– Rural Zemstvos• 1864: established system of

elected rural assemblies. Authorized to levy local and operate elementary schools and orphanages, build and maintain roads and bridges, and promote public and animal health.

• Elected under 3 class voting system: private landowners, townspeople, and peasant communes

– Other Reforms• 1864: principle of equality before

the law was proclaimed, and new system of courts was established. Trial by jury and public trials.

• An 1870 decree creates municipal dumas

• 1874: reform of army established principle of universal liability for military service. Reduced term of service from 25 years to 6 years.

• Alexander II and Poland– Pursued moderate policy toward

Poland at first. Poles increased their nationalist agitation. Revolt broke out against Russian rule in 1863.

• Russian Expansion– Under Alex. II, Russia continued

its expansionist policies in Siberia and Central Asia. Established port of Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan.

• Populism– 1870s: middle-class radicals

launched the Populist movement. Land and Freedom radicals went out into the countryside to organize peasants as a revolutionary force, but peasants failed to respond and often betrayed radicals to the police.

• Terrorism– People’s Will: believed acts of

terrorism would force the regime to grant concessions.

– The Tsar, responding to proposals made by Michael Loris-Melikov (minister of the interior), agreed on March 13, 1881, to establish a representative council to advise the gov’t on reform measures. Terrorists assassinated Alex. II later on the same day.

• Tsar Alexander III– Determined autocrat who ruled with

iron hand, rejecting further reform proposals.

– Vyacheslav Plehve, head of the secret police, moved to crush the terrorist movement. Constantine Pobedonostsev, procurator-general of the Holy Synod, placed renewed emphasis on the traditional formula of Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism.

– Censorship was tightened, and controls over education were increased.

– Russification

• Tsar Nicholas II– Last of the Romanovs to rule

Russia. Wife, the German-born Alexandra, exerted a lot of control over him.

– Economic Development• Industry: Count Sergei Witte,

minister of finance from 1892-1903, played a central role in industrialization. Put Russia on gold standard, which attracted foreign investment. Spurred construction of Trans-Siberian railroad.

• Agriculture: Remained most agricultural country. Agriculture continued to be backward, and rural poverty was extensive. Migration to Siberia provided only slight relief to overpopulation problem.

• The Growth of Radicalism– Social Democrats: Mensheviks

and Bolsheviks• 1898: Russian Marxists

organized illegal party, the Russian Social Democratic Party. They sought to organize the increasing number of industrial workers as a revolutionary force.

– Social democrats split into 2 rival factions in 1903: Mensheviks (minority) and Bolsheviks (majority), headed by Vladimir Lenin

– Socialist Revolutionaries• 1901: group of agrarian radicals

established illegal Socialist Revolutionary Party. They hoped to organize the peasants in the cause of revolution.

– The Union of Liberation• 1903: middle class liberals

organized the Union of Liberation. Goal: the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

• The Revolution of 1905– After Russia’s defeat by Japan

in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, tsarist gov’t was discredited and the forces of discontent surfaced.

– Bloody Sunday• January 1905: troops fired on a

large peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg. A great wave of demonstrations and strikes swept the country afterwards. Mutiny occurred among sailors of the battleship Potemkin in the Black Sea.

– October Manifesto• Gov’t canceled peasants’

obligation to pay redemption dues. The Tsar also promised to grant a constitution to provide guarantees of civil liberties, and to establish the Duma, an elected parliament.

– Fundamental Laws• Served as Russian

Constitution• In it, Tsar restricted powers of

Duma and retained control of financial affairs and foreign policy, as well as the power to dissolve the Duma and to legislate by decree when the Duma was not in session.

• Created conservative upper house, the Council of State, which would have to pass on legislation adopted by Duma.

• Political Parties– Legalized– MC liberals established 2

parties• the Union of October 17 ( the

Octoberists) took its name from the sate of the October Manifesto and accepted the concession the tsar had granted.

• The Constitutional Democrats (Cadets) urged further political reforms. Called for the establishment of a democratic constitutional monarchy with the prime minister and other cabinet members being responsible to the Duma instead of the tsar.

• The Duma Under Gov’t Control– First Duma was dissolved after it

opposed government policies.– 1907: Second Duma elected,

quickly dissolved as well.– Prime Minister Peter Stolypin

attempted to conciliate the peasants by issuing the Agrarian Reform Act of 1906. Made it possible for peasants to withdraw from village communes and receive title to their land. Before law could be put into effect, was and revolution broke out in Russia.

– Stolypin decreed a new electoral law after 2nd Duma was dissolved which increased the representation of the propertied classes. Made Duma more conservative.

The 2nd Industrial Revolution• Population Trends and

Migration– Mid-century emancipation of

peasants lessened the authority of landlords and made legal movement of migration easier

– Railways, steamships, and better roads increased mobility

– Cheap land and better wages accompanied economic development in Europe, North America, Latin America, and Australia, enticing people to move

• Second Industrial Revolution– New Industries

• Expansion of railway systems on the continent spurred economic growth

• Steel, chemicals, electricity, oil• Henry Bessemer discovered

new process for manufacturing steel cheaply in large quantities

• Formal scientific research played an important role in this growth of chemical industry

• Electricity- electric lights in homes and subway systems; made locations of factories more flexible and factory construction more efficient

• Internal combustion engines: Daimler put it on 4 wheels to make the automobile

– Economic Difficulties• Emigrants who left Europe during

these years came from the countryside or from the least industrialized parts of Europe

• Several large banks failed in 1873, and the rate of capital investment slowed

• General standard of living in the industrial nations improved

• Unemployment was a problem• Strikes and labor unrest common• Consumer goods: all classes could

spend more on them because of lower food prices

• Urbanization crated larger markets• Department stores, chain stores,

packaging techniques, mail-order catalogues, and advertising

• Overseas imperialism opened new markets for European consumer goods

• Redesign of Cities– Created thousands of public

jobs– Eiffel Tower and Basilica of

Sacred Heart- visibly symbolized the social and political divisions between liberals and conservatives in the 3rd Republic of France

– Development of suburbs: home and work became more physically separated than every before

• Expanded Government Involvement in Public Health– Issues related to maintenance

of public health and the physical well being of national populations repeatedly opened the way for new modes of gov’t intervention in the lives of citizens; impact of cholera

• Housing Reforms and MC Values– Middle class reformers turned

to housing reform to solve the medical, moral, and political dangers posed by slums

– Widely believed that providing the poor and working class with adequate, respectable, cheap housing would alleviate social and political discontent

– Migration into cities had made housing a political issue

• Social Disabilities Confronted by all Women– Property rights, family law, and

education– Married women could not own

property in their own names, no matter what

– Married Women’s Property Act 1882 in Britain

• New Employment Patterns for Women– New jobs: secretaries. Shop

assistants, clerks– Still low level of skill and minimal

training involved– Married women moved out of work

force– Prostitution increased– Cult of domesticity supported– Marriage: romantic marriage

viewed as a danger to social stability

• Feminism– Radical– Difficult to get working-class and

middle class women to cooperate– Mary Wollstonecraft The

Vindication of the Rights of Woman– Suffragettes: Millicent Fawcett.

Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia

– Only some British women received the vote in 1918 as a result of their contribution to the war effort

– French women did not receive the vote until after WWII.

– Before WWI, Norway was only nation where women could vote on national issues.

• Labor– Proportion of artisans and skilled

workers declined; factory wage earners predominated

– After mid-century, workers turned to new institutions and ideologies: trade unions, democratic political parties, and socialism

– Trade Unionism• Legalized in Britain 1871 and

France 1884• At first, unions directed

organizational efforts toward skilled workers and the immediate improvement of wages and working conditions. Ay close of the century, industrial unions for unskilled workers were being organized.

• Strikes were common• As the importance of working class

increased, political systems could not longer ignore them. Parties had to start addressing the need of labor and the working class.

Science and Religion• Darwin: natural selection, takes

God out of the picture; supported by Spencer (Synthetic Philosophy) and Huxley

• Comte: Positivism: The Positive Philosophy, stages of human thought

• Mendel: heredity, genetics• Mendeleyev: periodic table• Plank: Quantum Theory• Einstein: Theory of Relativity;

E=mc2

• Joseph Thomson an Hendrik Lorentz both demonstrated that that atoms are composed of particles that Lorentz called electrons

• Roentgen: discovered x-rays• Marie Curie: discovered radium

• John Dalton: revived atomic theory; chemical elements are distinguished by weight of the atoms that compose each element

• Ernest Rutherford: each atom is like a miniature solar system where the electrons revolve around the nucleus

• Comte: father of sociology– Theological (God)– Metaphysical (gods and science)– Positive (science)

• William James: pragmatism and functionalism; encouraged empirical approach to psychology

• Gobineau– Essay on the Inequality of the

Human Races– Degeneration of original white

Aryan race caused by intermarriage; no way to reverse it.

Science and Religion cont…• Chamberlain

– Foundations of the 19th Century– Pioneered concept of biological

determinism– Human race could be improved

through genetics

• Paul de Lagard and Julius Langbehn– German anti-Semitists who

followed Chamberlain

• Pope Pius IX: papal infallibility, Syllabus of Errors, created First Vatican Council, critical of everything

• Pope Leo XIII: Renum Novanum, more liberal, advocated economic and social reform, acknowledged the validity of much of the teaching of modern science and scholarship.

• Strauss: Life of Jesus, rejected divinity of Christ

• Renan: Life of Jesus, rejected belief that Jesus had performed miracles or had been raised from the dead

Philosophy and Psychology• More pessimistic than

science• Schopenhauer

– The World as Will and Idea– Man must survive; the world is

conflict

• Nietzsche– The Birth of Tragedy– Thus Spake Zarathrustra– The Genealogy of Morals– Denounced Christianity– “God is dead”– Believed in overman,

superman

• Pavlov:– Behaviorism– Conditioned reflex with dogs– Mechanical reflexes produced

by subconscious stimuli

• Freud– Psychoanalysis– Emphasized the importance of

the unconscious mind in determining human behavior

– Interpretation of Dreams– Id: irrational– Superego: external morals of

society– Ego: society vs. subconscious

Literature, Art, and Music• Literature

– Thackeray: Vanity Fair– Kipling: The Jungle Book– Hardy: Jude the Obscure, The

Return of the native, The Mayor of Casterbridge

– Conrad: Lord Jim, Heart of Darkness

– Charles Dickens: Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Hard Times

– Shaw: Mrs. Warren’s Profession, Pygmalion

– Virginia Woolfe: Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse, A Room of One’s Own

– Flaubert: Madame Bovary

– Balzac: The Human Comedy– Dumas: The Three

Musketeers, Count of Monte Cristo, The Man in the Iron Mask

– Emile Zola: Nana– Proust: In Search of Time Past– Dostoyevsky: Crime and

Punishment– Chekhov: The Cherry Orchard– Tolstoy: War and Peace– Ibsen: A Doll’s House, An

Enemy of the People

ART• Impressionism

– Manet, Pissarro, Degas, Sisley, Monet, Renoir

• Post-Impressionism– Paul Cezanne: emphasized formal

structure– Paul Gauguin, Vincent Can Gogh:

experimented with the expressive possibilities of form and color

• Fauvism and Cubism– Henri Matisse: founder of Fauvism,

characterized by use of bold and discordant colors

– Picasso: pioneered development of Cubism, which applied geometric approach to the portrayal of the human figure

• Sculpture– Auguste Rodin: introduced

impressionist elements into sculpture

• The Thinker, The Kiss

MUSIC• Romanticism

– Camille Saint-Saens– Peter Tchaikovsky: romantic and

national themes; Swan Lake, The Nutcracker

• Nationalism– Heavily influenced by folk music– Smetana and Dvorak– Rimsky-Korsakov: Night on Bald

Mountain– Edvard Grieg and Jan Sibelius

• Innovations– Debussy: inspired by Impressionist

painters; Claire de Lune– Richard Strauss: operatic

composer– Stravinsky: experimented with

dissonance; The Firebird, Petrushka, The Rite of Spring

– Schoenberg: atonal music

Breezing up: Homer

The Gulf Stream Homer

El Dorado

Toulouse-Latrec

Moulin Rouge

Toulouse-Latrec

Picasso

Mrs. Ralph Curtis

ImperialismImperialism In the early 19In the early 19thth century, imperialism had not century, imperialism had not

been a major concern of European nations, but been a major concern of European nations, but during the 1870s, many European powers during the 1870s, many European powers developed a new interest in overseas developed a new interest in overseas expansion.expansion.• Motives for imperialismMotives for imperialism

Political and psychological factors (competition for power Political and psychological factors (competition for power and prestige)and prestige)

Social Darwinism and RacismSocial Darwinism and Racism Religious and Humanitarian motivesReligious and Humanitarian motives Economic motivesEconomic motives Hobson: Hobson: Imperialism: A StudyImperialism: A Study Lenin: Lenin: Imperialism: The Last Stage of CapitalismImperialism: The Last Stage of Capitalism

Expansion of the British EmpireExpansion of the British Empire North Africa: Egypt 1875, SudanNorth Africa: Egypt 1875, Sudan Sub-Sahara: East Africa, Gold Coast, Sub-Sahara: East Africa, Gold Coast,

Sierra Leona, Cape Colony Sierra Leona, Cape Colony South Africa: Cecil Rhodes, Boer War: South Africa: Cecil Rhodes, Boer War:

resulted in Union of S. Africaresulted in Union of S. Africa Middle East: Iran, Afghanistan (oil, Middle East: Iran, Afghanistan (oil,

keep Russia out, protect India)keep Russia out, protect India) Asia: India, Tibet, Burma, China (ports, Asia: India, Tibet, Burma, China (ports,

Opium wars), Hong KongOpium wars), Hong Kong The French EmpireThe French Empire

North Africa: Algeria 1830s, Tunisia North Africa: Algeria 1830s, Tunisia 1881, Morocco: 18121881, Morocco: 1812

Anglo-French Conflict over the Sudan Anglo-French Conflict over the Sudan 1898; Fashoda Crisis; French 1898; Fashoda Crisis; French ultimately yielded to Britishultimately yielded to British

Sub-Sahara: French West Africa, Sub-Sahara: French West Africa, French CongoFrench Congo

Asia: French Indo-China, ChinaAsia: French Indo-China, China King Leopold IIKing Leopold II

Takes Congo as his own personal Takes Congo as his own personal possession; Belgian Congo 1908possession; Belgian Congo 1908

GermanyGermany German Africa: Togoland, Cameroons, German Africa: Togoland, Cameroons,

German Southwest Africa, German German Southwest Africa, German East AfricaEast Africa

Southwest Asia, Chinese PortsSouthwest Asia, Chinese Ports

ItalyItaly Somaliland 1889, Eritrea 1890, Tripoli Somaliland 1889, Eritrea 1890, Tripoli

in North Africa 1912in North Africa 1912 Failed to take EthiopiaFailed to take Ethiopia

PortugalPortugal Portuguese Guinea and Angola in West Portuguese Guinea and Angola in West

Africa, Mozambique in East AfricaAfrica, Mozambique in East Africa SpainSpain

Rio de Oro, Rio Muni in West Africa, Rio de Oro, Rio Muni in West Africa, established protectorate over Spanish established protectorate over Spanish MoroccoMorocco

JapanJapan Sino-Japanese War 1894-95; Japan Sino-Japanese War 1894-95; Japan

defeated China; China ceded to Japan defeated China; China ceded to Japan the island of Formosa and recognized the island of Formosa and recognized independence of Korea, granted independence of Korea, granted Japanese a lease to Liaotung Japanese a lease to Liaotung peninsulapeninsula

Boxer Rebellion in China 1900Boxer Rebellion in China 1900 Russo-Japanese War 1904Russo-Japanese War 1904

Japanese defeated RussiansJapanese defeated Russians Treaty of PortsmouthTreaty of Portsmouth

New American EmpireNew American Empire Alaska 1867 purchased from RussiaAlaska 1867 purchased from Russia 1899: Samoa partitioned between US 1899: Samoa partitioned between US

and Germanyand Germany Hawaii annexed 1898Hawaii annexed 1898 Puerto Rico, Guam, PhilippinesPuerto Rico, Guam, Philippines Protectorate of CubaProtectorate of Cuba

“The lamps are going out all over Europe;We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Sir Edward Grey, British foreign secretary

The Coming of WWI The Three Emperor’s League 1872

Dreikaiserbund Germany, Austria, Russia pledge

to maintain peace and status quo The Russo-Turkish War 1877-78

1876 revolt against Ottoman rule broke out in Bulgaria. Turks killed thousands. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Russians went to war against Turkey in 1877.

Treaty of San Stefano 1878 Established the independence of

Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania and granted autonomy to a large Bulgaria

Congress of Berlin 1878 Treaty of Berlin: confirmed the

independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania. Bulgaria was reduced in size.

Austria gained right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Dual Alliance 1879: Germany and Austria; Russia out

Revival of Three Emperor's League 1881

The Triple Alliance 1882: Italy, Germany, Austria

Reinsurance Treaty 1887 between Russia and Germany

1890 Bismarck dismissed by William II Franco-Russian Alliance 1894 Anglo-French Entente 1904: colonial

issues The First Moroccan Crisis 1905

Algeciras Conference 1906: international conference to consider the status of Morocco

Anglo-Russian Entente 1907 Recognized a Russian sphere of

influence in Northern Persia and a British sphere in the south.

The Triple Entente France, Great Britain, Russia

The Bosnian Crisis 1908-09 Austria proclaimed the annexation

of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This infuriated the Russians and Serbia. Germany backed Austria, so Russia had to back down.

The Second Moroccan Crisis 1911 Germany sent Panther (warship) to

Moroccan port of Agadir to protect German interests. British navy began to concentrate its warships in the North Sea while French shifted the bulk of their navy to the Mediterranean.

Italo-Turkish War 1911-12 Italy’s attempt to take control of

Tripoli. Defeated Turks and signed peace treaty in 1912.

The First Balkan War 1912-13 Small Balkan states began to

press their demands against the Ottoman Empire.

1912: The Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece, went to war against Turkey.

Treaty of London: Ottoman Empire lost all of its territory in Europe except for area immediately adjacent to Turkish Straits.

The Second Balkan War 1913 Serbia, Montenegro, Greece,

Rumania, and Turkey joined to defeat Bulgaria. Treaty of Bucharest forced Bulgaria to cede territory to Rumania, while Serbia and Greece gained most of Macedonia.

Sarajevo: June 28, 1914 Archduke Ferdinand, heir to

Austrian throne, and his wife are assassinated by member of Slavic group Union or Death.

World War I• Austria declares war on Serbia

on July 28, 1914• Germany gives Austria a

“blank check”• Declarations of War

• Germany declares war on:• Russia: August 1, 1914• France: August 3

− Schlieffen Plan• Invaded Belgium on August 3

• Great Britain declares war of Germany August 4

• U.S. declares war on Germany April 6, 1917

• Time Line of Events• 1914

• WWI breaks out in Europe• Germans fail to take Paris in

Battle of Marne; trench warfare begins in France; stalemate on the Western front

• The Germans defeat a Russian offensive in East Prussia

• The Ottoman Empire enters the war on the side of the Central Powers

• 1915• Italy enters the war on the

Allied side• The British launch the Gallipoli

campaign• Germany’s campaign of

unrestricted submarine warfare results in the sinking of the Lusitania

• 1916• The German offensive at

Verdun and the allied offensive on the Somme fail to produce breakthroughs

• The British and German fleets fight the Battle of Jutland

• David Lloyd George takes office as Great Britain’s prime minister

1917 The U.S. enter the war

on the Allied side Georges Clemenceau

becomes premier of France

Stalemate in West continues

1918 President Woodrow

Wilson announces the Fourteen Points

Soviet Russia signs the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Germany agrees to an armistice

1919 The Paris Peace

Conference begins its deliberations

The Germans sign the Treaty of Versailles

The Eastern Front German victories:

Defeated Russians in the Battle of Tannenberg and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes 1914

War in the East 1914-16 By the end of 1914,

Russians held almost all of Galicia

By January 1917, Austro-German forces had defeated and occupied Rumania

Defeat of Russia by the end of 1916

Also: revolutions of 1917 ended Russian aid in war

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended war between Russia and the Central Powers

The Italian Front 1915-1917The Italian Front 1915-1917 Treaty of London drew Italians Treaty of London drew Italians

into war on the Allied sideinto war on the Allied side Unsuccessful in war against Unsuccessful in war against

AustriaAustria War in the Middle EastWar in the Middle East

In the Caucasus, The Russians In the Caucasus, The Russians succeeded in turning back the succeeded in turning back the Turkish offensive in early Turkish offensive in early 1915.1915.

March 1917, The British March 1917, The British seized Baghdad and soon took seized Baghdad and soon took control of most of control of most of Mesopotamia.Mesopotamia.

Colonel T.E. Lawrence Colonel T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) (Lawrence of Arabia) succeeded in stirring up succeeded in stirring up revolts among the Arab revolts among the Arab subjects of the Turks.subjects of the Turks.

The War at SeaThe War at Sea Battle of JutlandBattle of Jutland Unrestricted German Unrestricted German

submarine warfare draws U.S. submarine warfare draws U.S. into war with Germany on the into war with Germany on the side of the Allies.side of the Allies.

Zimmerman telegram revealed Zimmerman telegram revealed Germans proposal of an Germans proposal of an alliance with Mexico.alliance with Mexico.

The End of the WarThe End of the War Allied AdvanceAllied Advance

U.S. troops, under General U.S. troops, under General John J. Pershing, aided the John J. Pershing, aided the Allied war effort in 1917.Allied war effort in 1917.

In mid-July 1918, the In mid-July 1918, the French, British, and French, British, and American armies began a American armies began a counterattack that marked counterattack that marked the beginning of the long the beginning of the long offensive that ended the offensive that ended the war. The Germans began war. The Germans began to retreat. On August 8, to retreat. On August 8, 1918, The Black Day of the 1918, The Black Day of the German Army, British German Army, British tanks scored a major tanks scored a major breakthrough near breakthrough near Amiens. Amiens.

ArmisticeArmistice September 30: Bulgaria September 30: Bulgaria

signed an armistice. signed an armistice. Turkey capitulated to the Turkey capitulated to the Allies on October 30, and Allies on October 30, and Austria gave up on Austria gave up on November 3. The November 3. The armistice with Germany armistice with Germany was signed on November was signed on November 11.11.

Some 10 million military Some 10 million military and civilian lives were lost, and civilian lives were lost, and another 20 million and another 20 million were wounded.were wounded.

Paris Peace ConferenceParis Peace Conference January 1919 deliberations began January 1919 deliberations began

in Parisin Paris 32 nations represented32 nations represented Council of Four:Council of Four:

Wilson of the U.S.Wilson of the U.S. Clemenceau of FranceClemenceau of France Lloyd George of Great BritainLloyd George of Great Britain Orlando of ItalyOrlando of Italy Neither Germany nor Soviet Russia Neither Germany nor Soviet Russia

was represented.was represented. Wilson’s Fourteen PointsWilson’s Fourteen Points

Open diplomacy, freedom of the Open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, free trade, a reduction of seas, free trade, a reduction of armaments, self-determination, armaments, self-determination, League of Nations, “peace without League of Nations, “peace without victory”victory”

Other nations wanted Other nations wanted reparations, territory, and power reparations, territory, and power for their losses due to the war.for their losses due to the war.

The Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles Five treaties for Germany, Austria, Five treaties for Germany, Austria,

Hungary, Bulgaria, and TurkeyHungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey Rhineland: Allied occupation for 15 Rhineland: Allied occupation for 15

years and permanently years and permanently demilitarizeddemilitarized

Alsace and Lorraine restored to Alsace and Lorraine restored to FranceFrance

Poland: received large piece of Poland: received large piece of eastern Germany; Polish Corridor was eastern Germany; Polish Corridor was createdcreated

Germany was disarmed, army Germany was disarmed, army restricted to 100,000 men, navy restricted to 100,000 men, navy reduced to the status of a coastal reduced to the status of a coastal defense force. No air force, tanks, or defense force. No air force, tanks, or submarines. Deprived Germany of its submarines. Deprived Germany of its colonies, islands, and territory.colonies, islands, and territory.

Article 231: war guilt clauseArticle 231: war guilt clause

Treaty signed in Hall of Mirrors of the Treaty signed in Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919

Self-Determination in Eastern EuropeSelf-Determination in Eastern Europe-collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire-collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire

Treaty of Saint-GermainTreaty of Saint-Germain-Czechoslovakia created from territory -Czechoslovakia created from territory taken from Austria and Germanytaken from Austria and Germany-Yugoslavia emerged as the national -Yugoslavia emerged as the national state of the South Slavsstate of the South Slavs-Rumania was awards the province of -Rumania was awards the province of Transylvania and annexed Bessarabia.Transylvania and annexed Bessarabia.-The Baltic Countries of Finland, -The Baltic Countries of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania profited Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania profited from Russia’s weakness and won their from Russia’s weakness and won their independence.independence.-Poland gained Galicia from Austria -Poland gained Galicia from Austria under the Treaty of Saint-Germain, under the Treaty of Saint-Germain, and in 1920 waged a successful war and in 1920 waged a successful war against Russia and pushed their against Russia and pushed their frontiers eastward.frontiers eastward.-Bulgaria lost territory to Yugoslavia.-Bulgaria lost territory to Yugoslavia.

German Submarine: U14

Two Views of the trenches of WWI

Village of Esnes before WWI

Village of Esnes after WWI

Sargent: Gassed

• March Revolution– National Collapse during WWI– End of Tsarist Regime

• Strikes and demonstrations swept Russian capital of Petrograd.

• Tsar Nicholas II dissolved the Duma.

• March 15, Tsar abdicated

• The Provisional Government– Duma committee became

Russia’s Provisional gov’t headed by Prince Lvov. Gov’t promised reforms and announced plans for the election of a constituent assembly to draft a constitution for a democratic republic.

– Creation of Soviets• Workers, soldiers, sailors

responded to a call issued by socialist leaders and elected the Soviet of Workers’ and Solders’ Deputies

– Bolshevik Program• April 1917, Lenin presented the

April Theses urging his followers to push for a proletarian socialist revolution.

• Called for “Peace, Land, and Bread”: an end to war, the confiscation of the land of the great landowners and its distribution to the peasants, and the seizure of food for the cities

– Policies of the Provisional Government

• Wanted to continue war against the Central Powers. Russian army launched offensive against the Austrians in Galicia in July 1917. It quickly collapsed.

• The July Days– Revolt against Provisional

Government– Kerensky replaced Lvov as

head of the Provisional Government.

• The Kornilov Affair– September 1917 Kornilov

attempted to seize power and establish a military dictatorship. He was not successful.

• The November Revolution– In October, Lenin ordered his

followers to begin plans to overthrow the Provisional Government. November 6-7, Red Guards seized key strategic locations in the city

– November 7, Lenin announced establishment of a new regime, Council of People’s Commissars

– Leon Trotsky became commissar for foreign affairs and Joseph Stalin was commissar for nationalities.

• Lenin– Reform Laws

• Bolsheviks sought to destroy Russian Orthodox Church

• Church and State separated, church property was seized, and many churches, monasteries, and convents were closed.

• Religious instruction was prohibited, and only civil marriage ceremonies had legal recognition.

• Replaced Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar and simplified the Cyrillic alphabet.

• Titles of nobility were abolished.

– The Constituent Assembly• Lenin’s gov’t allowed

elections to the constituent assembly to take place, but the Bolsheciks won only 225 seats.

• 1918 The assembly met in Petrograd, but the Bolsheviks dissolved it after only one session.

• Lenin organized a secret police force to combat counterrevolutionary activity. Lenin began the process of creating a Bolshevik dictatorship to replace the autocracy of the tsars.

– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk• Pulls Russia out of WWI

• The Civil War– Reds vs. Whites

• Bolsheviks dominated much of Russia’s industry and Trotsky succeeded in creating an effecti9ve fighting force, the Red Army.

• Anti-Communist forces, known as the Whites, failed to coordinate their efforts.

• Murder of the Tsar and his family was ordered by the local Communists to prevent their rescue by the Whites.

• 1919 and 1920, the Reds gradually defeated the major White commanders: Kolchak, Yudenich, Denikin, and Wrangel.

– Allied Intervention• French, British, and American

troops were sent to Russia to prevent the Germans from seizing stockpiles of raw materials, while the Japanese intervened in eastern Siberia.

– Soviet Territorial Losses• Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and

Lithuania gained their independence, while Rumania seized the province of Bessarabia.

• War Communism– Established by Soviet regime– The major industries, banks,

and insurance companies were nationalized.

– Private trade was prohibited, and food was requisitioned from the peasants in order to feed the cities.

– The Supreme Economic Council supervised the operations of the Russian economy.

• The New Economic Policy– February and March 1921

sailors mutinied at the Kronstadt naval base.

– Lenin introduced the NEP in March 1921.

• Brought partial restoration of capitalism

• State retained ownership and control of large industries, transportation, and foreign trade.

• Private retail trade was permitted

• Lenin ended the requisitioning of food

• A tax in kind, payable in grain, was levied on the peasants, who could then sell their surplus on the open market.

• Peasants were permitted to rent additional land and to hire labor.

• Russian economy revived

• The Soviet State– The Russian Soviet

Federated Socialist Republic

• Constitution of 1918 established the RSFSR. The indirectly elected All-Russian Congress of Soviets served as the republic’s parliament, while executive authority was entrusted to the Council of People’s Commissars

– The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

• 1924 new constitution went into effect, creating the USSR. Political control was exercised by the Communist party leaders in Moscow.

– The Stalin Constitution 1936

• 1936 the Stalin constitution was adopted.

• The USSR remained a federation of states, which now numbered 11 republics.

• A new national parliament, the Supreme Soviet, was established. Members were directly elected, with all citizens 18 years of age and over granted the right to vote. The Council of People’s Commissars continued to exercise executive authority.

• Contained a bill of rights and some guarantees of civil liberties.

• Communist Party Rule– Power remained in the hands of the leaders of the

Communist Party.– The Political Bureau, which consisted of the party’s

top leaders, dominated both the Communist Party and the Soviet state.

• The Secret Police– Soviet Union remained a police state.

• The Death of Lenin– In 1922, Lenin suffered the first of several strokes.

He died in January 1924. Before his death, the struggle for power began between Trotsky and Stalin.

– Stalin would ultimately gain control.