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Global Politics

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Palgrave Foundations Series

Global Politics

A N D R E W H E Y W O O D

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© Andrew Heywood 2011

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of thispublication may be made without written permission.

No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmittedsave with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of theCopyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licencepermitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publicationmay be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published 2011 byPALGRAVE MACMILLAN

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ISBN 978–1–4039–8982–6 paperback

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Printed and bound in Great Britain byCPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne

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For Oliver, Freya, Dominic and Toby

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List of Illustrative Material 00Acknowledgements 00Preface 00

1 Introducing Global Politics 1

WHAT IS GLOBAL POLITICS? 2

What’s in a name? 2From international politics to global politics 3

The state and new global actors 3Increased interdependence and interconnectedness 6From international anarchy to global governance 8

Globalization and its implications 9Explaining globalization 9Globalization: myth or reality? 10

LENSES ON GLOBAL POLITICS 12

Mainstream perspectives 12Critical perspectives 15

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN

GLOBAL POLITICS 17

Power 17Security 19Justice 21

USING THIS BOOK 21

2 Historical Context 25

MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD 26

From ancient to modern 26

Rise of the West 27Age of imperialism 28

THE ‘SHORT’ TWENTIETH CENTURY:

1914–90 29

Origins of World War I 29The road to World War II 32End of Empires 36Rise and fall of the Cold War 38

THE WORLD SINCE 1990 44

A ‘new world order’? 449/11 and the ‘war on terror’ 45Shifting balances within the global economy 50

3 Theories of Global Politics 53

MAINSTREAM PERSPECTIVES 54

Realism 54State egoism and conflict 55Statecraft and the national interest 57Anarchy and its implications 58Polarity, stability and the balance of power 61

Liberalism 61Interdependence liberalism 62Republican liberalism 64Liberal institutionalism 64

CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES 67

Marxism, neo-Marxism and critical theory 67

From classical Marxism to neo-Marxism 68Critical theory 69

Social constructivism 71

Contents

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Poststructuralism 73Feminism 74Green politics 75Postcolonialism 76

THINKING GLOBALLY 77

Challenge of interconnectedness 77Cosmopolitanism 79Paradigms: enlightening or constraining? 81

4 The Economy in a Global Age 83

CAPITALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM 84

Capitalisms of the world 84Enterprise capitalism 84Social capitalism 85State capitalism 86

Triumph of neoliberalism 90Implications of neoliberalism 91

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION 93

Causes of economic globalization 93How globalized is economic life? 96

GLOBAL CAPITALISM IN CRISIS 100

Explaining booms and slumps 100Lessons of the Great Crash 103Modern crises and ‘contagions’ 104

5 The State and Foreign Policy in a Global Age 111

STATES AND STATEHOOD IN FLUX 112

States and sovereignty 112The state and globalization 114State transformation 118Return of the state 121

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT TO

MULTI-LEVEL GOVERNANCE 123

From government to governance 123Multi-level governance 126

FOREIGN POLICY 128

End of foreign policy? 128How decisions are made 129

Rational actor models 129Incremental models 130Bureaucratic organization models 132Cognitive processes and belief-system models 133

6 Society in a Global Age 136

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS: THICK

TO THIN? 137

From industrialization to post-industrialism 137New technology and ‘information society’ 138Risk, uncertainty and insecurity 141

GLOBALIZATION, CONSUMERISM

AND THE INDIVIDUAL 145

Social and cultural implications of globalization 145Consumerism goes global 146Rise of individualism 147

GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY 150

Explaining global civil society 150Transnational social movements and NGOs 152Globalization from below? 155

7 The Nation in a Global Age 157

NATIONALISM AND WORLD POLITICS 158

Making sense of nationalism 158A world of nation-states 161Nationalism, war and conflict 165

NATIONS IN A GLOBAL WORLD 166

A world on the move 168Transnational communities and diasporas 171Hybridity and multiculturalism 173

NATIONALISM REVIVED 175

National self-assertion in the post-Cold War period 175Rise of cultural and ethnic nationalism 00Anti-globalization nationalism 00

8 Identity, Culture and Challenges to the West 00

RISE OF IDENTITY POLITICS 00

Westernization as modernization 00Politics of collective identity 00Is cultural conflict inevitable? 00

viii C O N T E N T S

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RELIGIOUS REVIVALISM 00

Religion and politics 00The fundamentalist upsurge 00

CHALLENGES TO THE WEST 00

Postcolonialism 00Asian values 00Islam and the West 00Nature of political Islam 00The West and the ‘Muslim question’ 00

9 Power and Twenty-first Century World Order 00

POWER AND GLOBAL POLITICS 00

Power as capability 00Relational power and structural power 00Changing nature of power 00

POST-COLD WAR GLOBAL ORDER 00

End of Cold War bipolarity 00The ‘new world order’ and its fate 00

US HEGEMONY AND GLOBAL ORDER 00

Rise to hegemony 00The ‘war on terror’ and beyond 00Benevolent or malign hegemony? 00

A MULTIPOLAR GLOBAL ORDER? 00

Rise of multipolarity 00Multipolar order or disorder? 00

10 War and Peace 00

NATURE OF WAR 00

Types of war 00Why do wars occur? 00War as a continuation of politics 00

CHANGING FACE OF WAR 00

From ‘old’ wars to ‘new’ wars? 00‘Postmodern’ warfare 00

JUSTIFYING WAR 00Realpolitik 00

‘Just war’ theory 00Pacifism 00

11 Nuclear Proliferation and Disarmament 00

NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION 00

Nature of nuclear weapons 00Proliferation during the Cold War 00Proliferation in the post-Cold War era 00

NUCLEAR ARMS CONTROL AND

DISARMAMENT 00

Arms control and anti-proliferation strategies 00A world free of nuclear weapons? 00

12 Terrorism 00

NATURE OF TERRORISM 00

Defining terrorism 00Types of terrorism 00Terrorism: competing views 00

Orthodox theories 00Critical theories 00

SIGNIFICANCE OF TERRORISM 00

Impact of transnational terrorism 00

COUNTERING TERRORISM 00

National-security solutions 00Military solutions 00Political solutions 00

13 Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention 00

HUMAN RIGHTS 00

Defining human rights 00The individual in global politics 00Nature and types of human rights 00Implications of human rights for global politics 00

Protecting human rights 00The human rights regime 00Human rights in a world of states 00

Challenging human rights 00Philosophical backlash 00Postcolonial critiques 00

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HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION 00

Rise of humanitarian intervention 00Humanitarian intervention and the ‘new world order’’ 00Humanitarian intervention and the ‘war on terror’ 00

Conditions for humanitarian intervention 00Does humanitarian intervention work? 00

14 International Law 00

NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 00

What is law? 00Sources of international law 00Why is international law obeyed? 00

INTERNATIONAL LAW IN FLUX 00

From international law to world law? 00Developments in the laws of war 00International tribunals and the International Criminal Court 00

15 Poverty and Development 00

GLOBAL POVERTY AND INEQUALITY 00

Defining and measuring poverty 00Development: competing visions 00

A MORE UNEQUAL WORLD? 00

Making sense of global inequality 00Contours of global inequality 00Globalization, poverty and inequality 00

Does global inequality matter? 00

DEVELOPMENT AND THE POLITICS

OF AID 00

Structural adjustment programmes and beyond 00International aid and the development ethic 00Debt relief and fair trade 00

16 Global Environmental Issues 00

ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS 00

The environment as a global issue 00Green politics: reformism or radicalism? 00

CLIMATE CHANGE 00

Causes of climate change 00

Consequences of climate change 00How should climate change be tackled? 00Why is international cooperation so difficult to achieve? 00

RESOURCE SECURITY 00

Resources, power and prosperity 00

17 Gender in Global Politics 00

FEMINISM, GENDER AND GLOBAL

POLITICS 00

Varieties of feminism 00‘Gender lenses’ on global politics 00

GENDERING GLOBAL POLITICS 00

Patriarchal states and gendered nationalism 00Gendering security, war and conflict 00Gender, globalization and development 00

18 International Organization and the United Nations 00

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION 00

Nature of international organization 00Growth of international organization 00

THE UNITED NATIONS 00

From the League to the UN 00Promoting peace and security 00Banishing the ‘scourge of war’ 00From peacekeeping to peace-building 00

Does UN peacekeeping work? 00Promoting economic and social development 00Future of the UN: challenges and reform 00

19 Global Governance and the Bretton Woods System 00

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE? 00

What global governance is, and is not 00International anarchy 00

Global hegemony 00World government 00Contours of global governance 00

Global governance: myth or reality? 00

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GLOBAL ECONOMIC GOVERNANCE:

THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRETTON

WOODS SYSTEM 00

Making of the Bretton Woods system 00Collapse of the Bretton Woods system 00

EVALUATING GLOBAL ECONOMIC

GOVERNANCE 00

The IMF 00The World Bank 00The WTO 00

REFORMING GLOBAL ECONOMIC

GOVERNANCE? 00

Global economic governance and the 2007–09 crisis 00Obstacles to reform 00

20 Regionalism and Global Politics 00

REGIONS AND REGIONALISM 00

Nature of regionalism 00Why regionalism? 00Regionalism and globalization 00Regionalism outside Europe 00

Regionalism in Asia 00Regionalism in Africa 00Regionalism in the Americas 00

EUROPEAN INTEGRATION 00

What is the EU? 00The EU and the world 00The EU in crisis? 00

21 Global Futures 00

IMAGES AND REALITY 00

CONTENDING IMAGES OF THE

TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 00

Triumphant liberal democracy? 00Chaos and uncertainty? 00A borderless world? 00Civilizations in conflict? 00A community of nations? 00The rise of China? 00Cosmopolitan democracy? 00A world government? 00The rise of the global South? 00The coming environmental catastrophe? 00

Bibliography 00Index 00

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Approaches to

Globalization 15History 31Human nature 56Global political economy 87The state 115Society 139Nationalism 162Identity 00The end of the Cold War 00War and peace 00The balance of power 00Human rights 00International law 00Development 00Nature 00Gender relations 00International organization 00Global economic governance 00

Debate

Was the Cold War inevitable? 40Is democracy a guarantee of peace? 66Do we have moral obligations towards all other people in the world? 80Does economic globalization promote prosperity and opportunity for all? 101Is state sovereignty now an outdated concept? 124

Is globalization producing a global monoculture? 151Is nationalism inherently aggressive and oppressive? 169Is there an emerging ‘clash of civilizations’? 00Does the USA remain a global hegemon? 00Has military power become redundant in global politics? 00Do nuclear weapons promote peace and stability? 00Is humanitarian intervention justified? 00Is the International Criminal Court an effectivemeans of upholding order and justice? 00Does international aid work? 00Can only radical action tackle the problem ofclimate change? 00Would a matriarchal society be more peaceful? 00Is the UN obsolete and unnecessary? 00Does free trade ensure prosperity and peace? 00Does the advance of regionalism threatenglobal order and stability? 00

Deconstructing

‘Cold war’ 39‘Nation’ 160‘Human rights’ 00‘Humanitarian intervention’ 00‘Poverty’ 00‘Development’ 00

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List of Illustrative Material

‘Climate change’ 00‘United Nations’ 00

Figures

Dimensions of global politics 3The billiard ball model of world politics 7Cobweb model of world politics 8Growth of the world’s population since 1750 28Growth of membership of the United Nations,1945–present 37Multi-level governance 126Differences between hard and soft power The accumulation of nuclear weapons by the USAand the Soviet Union, 1945–1990Number of warheads held by nuclear powers Maslow’s hierarchy of needsA pond as an ecosystemThe greenhouse effect

Focus on

International Relations: the ‘great debates’ 4The Westphalian state-system 6Definitions of globalization 11Hitler’s war? 35Neorealist stability theory: the logic of numbers? 63Closing the realist–liberal divide? 65Structure or agency? 72All in the mind? 75A Chinese economic model? 89The ‘Washington consensus’ 92A ‘knowledge economy’? 93Problems of state-buildingPerception or misperception?Consumerism as captivity? 148The two nationalisms: good and bad? 163International migration: are people pulled orpushed? 170Identity politics: who are we?Cultural rights or women’s rights?Islamism: religion as politics?Promoting democracy: for or against?Elements of national powerBeyond ‘power over’?

The ‘war on terror’Pre-emptive attackHegemonic stability theoryOffensive or defensive realism?To balance or to bandwagon?The Iraq War as a ‘new’ war?Principles of a just warNorth Korea: a rogue nuclear state?Nuclear ethics: indefensible weapons?Democracy as a human right?Human developmentThe North–South divideThe Zapatistas in Mexico: alternative developmentin action?World-systems theoryStructural adjustment programmesMillennium Development Goals: ending globalpoverty?The tragedy of the commons? Sustainable development: reconciling growth withecology?Obligations to future generations?The Gaia hypothesis: a living planet?The greenhouse effectThe paradox of plenty: resources as a curse?Human security: individuals at risk?Relative or absolute gains?How the United Nations worksReforming the UN Security Council?A welfare dilemma?The BRICs: the ‘rise of the rest’?The G-7/8: an abandoned project?Regionalism in Asia: replicating European experi-ence?How the European Union worksThe euro: a viable currency?

Global actors

Non-governmental organizations 5The United States of America 46The anti-capitalist movement 70Transnational corporations 99Group of Twenty 117Google 142Russia 177

L I S T O F I L L U S T R A T I V E M A T E R I A L xiii

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Al JazeeraChinaNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationAmnesty InternationalInternational Court of JusticeThe World BankIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeThe women’s movementThe United NationsInternational Monetary FundThe European Union

Global politics in action

September 11 and global security 21Fall of the Berlin Wall 43Paris Peace Conference 1919–20 59Global financial crisis 2007–09 108The invasion of Iraq 2003 131The Rio ‘Earth Summit’, 1992 153The rise and fall of Yugoslavia 167Iran’s ‘Islamic Revolution’The 2008 Russian war with GeorgiaThe war in Afghanistan as a ‘just war’The birth of the nuclear eraHumanitarian intervention in East TimorThe Nuremberg TrialsA ‘Year of Africa’The UN Climate Change Conference inCopenhagenGendered violence in anti-Muslim riots in GujaratThe UN and IraqThe collapse of Bretton WoodsThe EU expands to the east

Key concepts

Cosmopolitanism 21Globalization 9Great power 7Interdependence 8International society 10Politics 3Security dilemma 19Sovereignty 4The West 26

Imperialism 28Third World 36Superpower 38Rogue state 48Idealism 62Internationalism 64International regime 67Chaos theory 79Neoliberalism 90Economic globalization 94Laissez-faire 103The state 114Political globalization 118Failed state 121Governance 125Federalism 128Foreign policy 129National interest 130Fordism/post-Fordism 137Cultural globalization 147Consumerism 149Individualism 150Global civil society 152Postmaterialism 154The nation 158Nation-state 164Racialism 168Transnational community 173Multiculturalism 174Ethnicity 175ColonialismLiberal democracyCultureReligionReligious fundamentalismPostcolonialismConfucianismPowerBipolarityHegemonyUnipolarityRogue stateNeoconservatismMultipolarityWar

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Balance of powerArms raceHuman rightsHumanitarian interventionGenocideInternational lawReciprocityInternational aidEcologyPatriarchyGenderInternational organizationCollective securityPeacekeepingPeace-buildingGlobal governanceWorld governmentSupranationalismIntergovernmentalismMultilateralismRegionalismSubsidiarity

Key theorists

Thomas Hobbes 13Immanuel Kant 16Michel Foucault 17E.H. Carr 34Niccolò Machiavelli 55Hans Morgenthau 58Kenneth Waltz 60Karl Marx 69Antonio Gramsci 71Alexander Wendt 74J. Ann Tickner 76James Lovelock 77Adam Smith 85Milton Friedman 91Immanuel Wallerstein 100John Maynard Keynes 105George Soros 107Paul Krugman 107Ben Bernanke 107Herman Daly 107Robert Cox 120

Manuel Castells 144Ulrich Beck 144Roland Robertson 144Saskia Sassen 144Jan Aart Scholte 144Zygmunt Bauman 144Naomi Klein 146Ernest Gellner 165Anthony D. Smith 165Benedict Anderson 165Marcus GarveyAyatollah KhomeiniEdward SaidSayyid QutbSusan StrangeNoam ChomskyThucydidesMary KaldorKarl von ClausewitzMartin van CreveldDavid KilkullenThomas AquinasMichael WalzerMohandas Karamchand GandhiHugo GrotiusJagdish BhagwatiSusan GeorgeJeffrey SachsAmartya SenErnst Friedrich SchumacherArne NaessGarrett HardinMurray BookchinCarolyn MerchantVandana ShivaThomas MalthusJean Bethke ElshtainCynthia EnloeRobert KeohaneWoodrow WilsonJoseph StiglitzDavid MitranyKarl DeutschErnst HaasJean Monnet

L I S T O F I L L U S T R A T I V E M A T E R I A L xv

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Maps

European colonial holdings, circa 1914 30Yugoslavia 167Global migratory flows since 1973 172Europe and EU membership

Tables

Three generations of human rightsTop ten and bottom ten countries in terms of HDIrankingsTop 10 and bottom 10 countries in the GDI andGEM league Competing models of global politicsKey regional organizations and groupings of theworld

Timelines

World history, 1900–45 33The Cold War period 41The post-Cold War period 49Crises of modern global capitalism 106Advances in communication technology 141The Arab–Israeli conflictConflicts in the former YugoslaviaMajor nuclear arms control agreementsMajor international human rights documentsKey examples of humanitarian interventionMajor development initiativesMajor international initiatives on the environment History of the United NationsGATT/WTO negotiating roundsHistory of the European Union

xvi L I S T O F I L L U S T R A T I V E M A T E R I A L

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Acknowledgements

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Preface

P R E F A C E xix

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xx P R E F A C E

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