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DETAILED CONTENTS

List of Figures xi

List of Case Studies xiv

Author’s Acknowledgements xv

Publisher’s Acknowledgements xvi

Preface xvii

Managing Information Systems in the 21st Century Videos xxii

Tour of the Book xxiii

Part I Enterprise Information Systems 01

1 Information Systems 02Summary 02Learning Outcomes 03Key Terms 03Information Systems 03Information Systems and organizations 04Supermarket case study 07

EPOS systems 07e-Shop 11Regional warehouse 13Replenishment 14Loyalty cards 15Th e supermarket IS/IT infrastructure 17

Comprehension Test 18Exercises 18

2 Th e IS Business Environment 20Summary 20Learning Outcomes 20Key Terms 21Business functions 21Th e IS Business Model 26

Operations 27Support functions 27Management 29

Copyrightedmaterial - 9780230370500


vDetailed Contents

Environment 31IS/IT infrastructure 32

Further Reading 33Comprehension Test 34Exercises 35

3 IS Organization and Management 36Summary 36

Learning Outcomes 36

Key Terms 36

Th e IS function within an organization 37

Th e IS department 38

Projects 40

Project management 42

Outsourcing 43

Further Reading 46

Comprehension Test 47

Exercises 48

Part 2 Information Systems in Business 49

4 Corporate Systems 50Summary 50


Key Terms 51

Corporate systems 51

Payroll 52Payroll standing data 52Payroll calculation 54Payment and reporting 55

Order processing 57Order processing – standing data 58Process customer order 61Process replenishment order 65e-Order processing 67Order processing – management information 69Order processing – data structures 70

ERP systems 71

Further Reading 73


Exercises 75



vi Detailed Contents

5 e-Business Systems 76Summary 76Learning Outcomes 77Key Terms 77e-Commerce/e-Business 77

e-Commerce technologies 78Th e trade cycle 79

EDI systems 81EDI defi nition 81Implementing EDI 88Advantages and disadvantages of EDI 91

i-Commerce (e-Shop) 92Th e e-Shop trade cycle 93Shopbots 98m-Commerce 99Web 2.0 100Th e e-Shop as an IS 101e-Shop market changes 102

e-Markets 104Electronic markets 105Usage of e-Markets 106e-Procurement systems 107Advantages and disadvantages of e-Markets 107Future of e-Markets 108


Part 3 Computer Systems 113

6 Computers and Information Technology 114Summary 114


Key Terms 115

Information Technology 115

Th e development of IT 115

IT equipment 118

Technology 126

Th e IT infrastructure 130

Further Reading 130


Exercises 131



viiDetailed Contents

7 Data and Information 133Summary 133Learning Outcomes 133Key Terms 133Data in and information out 134Data capture 134

Data capture technology 135Data entry 140Human–computer interaction (HCI) 144

Management information 145Levels of decision-making 146Structured and unstructured decisions 147Management information reports 149

MIS, EIS, DSS and data-mining 156Information and operations 157Further Reading 159Comprehension Test 159Exercises 160

8 Files and Databases 163Summary 163Learning Outcomes 163Key Terms 163Data storage 164Databases 165

Data structure 166Relational databases 167Example database 169SQL 171

Data structures and processing effi ciency 172Other database paradigms 177Further Reading 179Comprehension Test 179Exercises 180

9 Networks and Computer Security 181Summary 181Learning Outcomes 181Key Terms 181Networks 182

Th e network connection 184Protocol 185Network equipment 187Example network 188Th e internet 190



viii Detailed Contents

Computer security 192Physical security 193Data security 193Encryption 194Access control 194Network security 195Process protection 196Malware 196Cyber warfare 198


Part 4 System Analysis and Design 203

10 Th e System Development Lifecycle 204Summary 204Learning Outcomes 204Key Terms 205System development lifecycle 205Iterative lifecycles 211Methodologies 214

Structured system analysis and design 215DSDM 218Object-oriented analysis and design 220Agile development 222Socio-technical system analysis and design 223


11 System Analysis and Design Toolbox 227Summary 227Learning Outcomes 227Key Terms 228System analysis and design 228User requirements and use cases 230Data fl ow diagram (DFD) 236Entity relationship diagram (ERD) 241

ERD additional features 247Sequence diagram 250Class diagram 254Other SA&D documentation 259

State diagram 259



ixDetailed Contents

Relational data analysis 260Jackson structures 262


12 Implementing the Information Systems 272Summary 272Learning Outcomes 272Key Terms 272Implementing the Information Systems 273Project planning 273

PERT 273Gantt chart 275

Programming 276Testing 279Implementation 281

Project failures 282Maintenance 284Further Reading 286Comprehension Test 286Exercises 287

Part 5 Information Systems and Society 289

13 Computing, the Law and the Environment 290Summary 290Learning Outcomes 290Key Terms 291Computing and the law 291

Computer Misuse Act 294Data Protection Act 296

Green computing 300Environmental issues 301Environmental solutions 303


14 Th e Information Society 306Summary 306Learning Outcomes 306Key Terms 307Th e Information Society 307



x Detailed Contents

Work in the Information Society 308Social interaction in the Information Society 310Automated systems 312e-Government 313Civil liberties 316

Th e IT profession 318Careers in IS 320Further Reading 321Comprehension Test 322Exercises 323

Glossary 324

Bibliography 354

Index 358



2

1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Summary An Information System (IS) is defi ned as a business application of the computer. Informa-tion Systems are an essential part of the infrastructure of an organization.

Organizations have a central operational function: this could be maintaining bank accounts, selling groceries or making cars. Such complex operations are supported by equally complex IS, and these are mission-critical: if the IS fails, the company has to suspend its central operations. Th e organization also has many support functions, for example marketing and accounts – these too will be making use of IS.

Th e nature of IS and the essential role of IS in the organization is examined in the fi rst part of this chapter. Th e second part of the chapter is an extended case study of the application of Information Systems in a large supermarket chain. Th e customer-facing end of the setup is the electronic point of sale (EPOS) system. Th e EPOS system not only adds up the bill but processes multibuys, card payments and loyalty cards. EPOS data then feeds into the regional warehouse and stock control functions. Th e super-market branch needs to have the required stock at the right time, and it is the stock control IS that makes it happen. Th e regional warehouse also needs to have the right amount of stock. Replenishing the warehouse is an IS function and ordering from suppliers is done automatically using electronic data interchange (EDI) links. Th e supply chain is IS-controlled throughout, ensuring just-in-time availability.

Supermarkets’ IS provision has enabled the introduction of online shopping – the e-Shop. Supermarkets can piggy-back their e-Shop services on their existing supply

chain infrastructure in a bricks-and-clicks operation. Th e exception to this is Ocado, who compete using a pure-play e-Shop model. Th e IS provi-sion at the supermarket also encompasses the loyalty card scheme. Th is is a major source of marketing and management information. Each purchase by each loyalty card member is recorded and can be analysed for patterns that are fed back into marketing, store organization and merchandizing.

Important themes in IS include security, outsourcing and competitive advantages. Th ese

Source: Corbis



points are noted in this chapter and will be among the themes that will be highlighted throughout the rest of the book.

Learning outcomes Having read this chapter and completed the exercises, you should:

● Know what is meant by the term Information System ● Appreciate that large organizations are crucially dependent on their Information Systems for all aspects of their operations

● Understand that organizations have one Information System (or a small number of Information Systems) that are central to their operations

● Understand that IS is needed for support functions within the organization ● Understand the concept of linking the IS in partnering organizations, a structure known as an Inter-Organizational Information System (IOS).

Key terms Information System (IS), Inter-Organizational Information System (IOS), electronic point of sale (EPOS), e-Shop, bricks-and-clicks, supply chain, just-in-time, replenish-ment, stock control.

Information Systems

Information Systems (IS) are an essential part of the infrastructure of every business and organization. Many organizations are totally dependent on their IS – if the IS closes down, so does the organization. Consider banks. We could think of a bank as an imposing building in the high street (or as an institution where potentially risky investment decisions are made). However, the bank can also be thought of as a computer system:

Our bank accounts are, essentially, simply entries in an IS. We can access these accounts electronically via the web or using a cash machine. Payments to other accounts are simply debits from one electronic record and a match-ing credit to a second electronic record in the same, or another, IS. If we do venture into a branch then any transaction still works through the IS but with the bank clerk operating the system. The investment arm of the bank is similarly dependent on IS, since records of stocks and shares and the transac-tions concerning those fi nancial instruments are equally entries in an IS (or series of networked IS).

The bank system outlined above is complex and very expensive to create and maintain. It is essential to the operation of the business and if it fails the busi-ness (and other businesses that are linked to its systems) ceases to operate until the system is back in operation.

These massive IS in large organizations are one end of a spectrum. In the middle of the spectrum are the main systems of smaller organizations and

Information System (IS): a business appli cation of a computer.

Information Systems 3

1



4 Enterprise Information Systems

secondary systems and departmental systems in large organizations. At the far end of the spectrum are PC systems, possibly using packages such as Microsoft Offi ce, that can also be classifi ed as IS.

Many of these systems are networked. They may well have links to other systems and/or with customers and suppliers. The electronic integration of operations across organizations creates an Inter-Organizational Information

System (IOS). Electronic access for customers is provided by e-Commerce systems. Electronic integration along the supply chain from, for example, suppliers, to manufacturers, retailers and ultimately to the customer, is an example of networking and an IOS.

Computer networks have merged with mobile networks and customers’ access to e-Commerce systems anytime and anywhere. The smartphone is, in effect, a mobile computer and is also used to access e-Mail, the web and social networking applications.

As academics and students, we are likely to have experience of smartphone apps, small PC systems and the user interface of online systems. The study of IS includes such small systems, but it is also essential that we understand and appreciate:

● The nature and architecture of corporate IS ● How a corporate IS is essential to the operations of the organization ● The security and resilience requirements of the IS infrastructure ● How IS is designed and developed ● The impact of IS on society.

All (except the fourth) of these points are illustrated in the extended case study of supermarket IS at the end of this chapter.

Information Systems and organizations

An Information System is a broad categorization. The term does not mean quite what it would seem to imply. The defi nition we gave above was:

An Information System is a business application of the computer.

An Information System, or a Management Information System (MIS) which is the North American term, is not just about providing information but also about processing business transactions. The IS has a business transaction processing (TP) function as well as being a source of management informa-tion. The anatomy of the Information System includes:

● Data capture: The fi rst task is to get data into the IS effi ciently and accurately. Data can be sourced from within the organization, from trading partners or members of the public (often using the internet to facilitate direct data input).

● Processing: The computer programs that together make up the system. It is the job of the IS specialist to defi ne and design the processing requirement.

● Data storage: The IS has to remember; and its memory is its fi les and database. Stored data can be conceptualized as standing data, such as a fi le of custom-ers, and transaction data, such as the customer orders that are passed through the system.

Inter-Organizational Information System (IOS): Information System in separate organizations that are closely coupled and eff ectively work as a single IS.




● Transaction output: Business documents that are output by the system, such as an invoice.

● Management information: Analysis of the business transacted and its fi nancial implications; used to empower manage-ment in decision-making and strategy formulation.

● Information Technology (IT): The comput-ers and servers used to run the IS and host the database, the networks that link the system to the users and the desktop, laptop or mobile devices employed by those users.

● People: The IS/IT specialists who design, create and maintain the system and all the other stakeholders who interact with that IS.

The dual role of transaction processing and management information, and the elements that make up the IS, are brought out in the following examples of commonly used IS:

● Payroll: This system starts with details of employees and their rates of pay and processes these transactions, together with the employee’s payroll history, to produce bank transfers, payslips and so on. The system also provides management information on, for example, the payroll cost of staff in the various departments within the organization (see Chapter 4 for an extended study of a payroll system).

● Order processing: The main input is the customer order, which is processed, using customer and product data, to produce delivery note and invoice transactions. In addition to processing the business transactions the system can produce a wealth of management information on what is selling, who is buying and the overall sales totals for each month and year (see Chapter 4 for an extended study of an order processing system).

Most organizations have one IS (or a small number of IS) that are central to their operations. Examples of such organizations are:

● An insurance company with its policy records, renewals and claims process-ing system

● A manufacturing company with materials requirement planning (MRP) and production control systems

● A college or university with its student registration and records system.

In addition to these central systems, on which the operations of the organi-zation depend, there are a number of further systems for functions such as marketing, accounts and the customer complaints department.

The central business systems of the organization are supported by an extensive IT infrastructure. Many organizations are totally dependent on their IS and IT infrastructure – the banks, airlines, insurance companies and large multiple retailers are good examples of such dependence. The central systems

© jamdesign/Fotolia

1




of these organizations are mission-critical, and in these organizations most or all employees will be interfacing with the core Information System. In the supermarket for example:

EPOS reads the barcodes, looks up the prices of the merchandise and calcu-lates the customer bill. As each item is checked through the EPOS system, the sales are totalled and that total is then taken from the store’s stock total to calculate the replenishment requirement for each product sold. The stock replenishment system then comes into operation to order a delivery from the regional warehouse to the store and, after further calculation, electronic orders are sent to the suppliers for stock to be delivered to the warehouse. Details of all transactions are stored and analysed to derive accounts, marketing and management information.

A large supermarket chain concerned with ensuring good stock availability with minimum stock holding requires a very large and sophisticated IS. The system consists of EPOS terminals and back offi ce servers in the stores, ware-house systems in the regional warehouses and, in all probability, a large data centre at a head offi ce site. The supermarket’s IS will be linked to its suppli-ers’ order processing IS, thus creating an IOS. The overall system is illustrated in Figure 1.1. It costs a large sum of money, and many years of effort will have gone into building and fi ne-tuning it. The supermarket cannot operate without the system: if, for example, the EPOS infrastructure breaks down, the store has to close its doors (and that occasionally does happen, despite the efforts of the organization to make their systems resilient). There is an extended case study of IS in supermarkets in the second part of this chapter.

EPOS

EPOS

EPOS

Server

Store

EPOS

EPOS

EPOS

Server

Store

EPOS

EPOS

EPOS

Server

Store

Datacentre

Headoffice

Server

Regionalwarehouse

Order IS

Supplier

Order IS

Supplier

Order IS

Supplier

Server

Regionalwarehouse

Figure 1.1 Supermarket chain – IT infrastructure.

Not all systems are large and a system’s operation is not necessarily critical to the organization. For example, colleges and universities have their own Information Systems, but these do not, in general, greatly impinge on the




day-to-day function of teaching and learning – the classes can still go ahead even if the student registration and record system is not available.

Supermarket case study

Supermarkets are totally reliant on their own IS and those of their partner organizations. When the IS is not operating effectively the supermarket is in trouble. If the IS fails in crucial areas, the supermarket has to close down. This section is a generic case study of the IS/IT infrastructure of a (any) supermar-ket. The study contains the following subsections:

● EPOS systems ● e-Shop ● Regional warehouse ● Replenishment ● Loyalty card.

Within the generic case study there are a number of real case studies that further illustrate the overall use of IS in the supermarkets.

EPOS systemsIn the supermarket we are left to select our own goods from the shelves. Once we have fi lled up our basket, trolley or cart we take it to the checkout. The checkout is an electronic point of sale (EPOS) system. These systems are PC-based (and you can sometimes see the Windows screen or a Windows error when they are not operational). Their basic function is to scan the barcode (see the Barcodes explanation box) on each of the products that the customer is buying. The barcode does no more than identify the product being purchased, but that identifi cation links to a wealth of information held in the EPOS system and feeds into the stock control and replenishment systems.

electronic point of sale (EPOS): a computerized shop checkout system that will typically read a barcode, look up prices, record the sale and total the customer’s bill.

Th e retail barcode is a machine readable article

number/product code (the number is printed below the barcode) authorized and issued by the Article Numbering Association (ANA). Th e standard EAN article number is 13 characters long (EAN-13) and the alternative UPC, used in the US, is 12 characters.

EAN once stood for European Article Number but is now referred to as the International Article Number (but the acronym has not been changed). UPC stands for

Explanation

Barcodes

Source: Photoalto

1




Universal Product Code (but only has a one digit country code and hence has limited applicability). Th e format of the EAN-13 is:

● Country code (2 characters), e.g. 50 for the UK ● Manufacturer code (5 characters) ● Product code (5 characters) ● Check digit.

A company needing to barcode its products will apply for its own manufacturer code (within the country code it will be using). Once that is obtained it can then allocate each product its own article number. Th e check digit is a 10s complement and is used to check that the barcode has been correctly read (the EPOS system bleeps to warn of a misread or invalid barcode).

For the 10s complement check digit, each digit in the article number is multiplied by, alternatively 1 and 3 (the rightmost digit is always multiplied by 3) and the resultant products are added up. So, for the EAN product code (from a book of fi rst-class stamps):

50 ∣ 14721 ∣ 11228 ∣ 2

We get:

5�1�0�3�1�1�4�3�7�1�2�3�1�1�1�3�1�1�2�3�2�1�8�3�68.

68 modulo 10 is 8. Th e check digit is 10�8�2.

Th e barcode is calculated when the number is allocated and then checked each time the barcode is swiped.Th ere are other variants of the product barcode, such as the UPC-12 and the EAN-8. Th e ISBN book

identifi cation number is also represented as an EAN-13 barcode on a book. Th e article number system is an example of the way trade sectors have to cooperate to enable inter-organizational IS to operate eff ectively.

Barcodes are used for a number of purposes other than product identifi cation. Delivery services use barcodes to track packets, and your student card may well have a barcode representing your student number. Th e use of the barcode for data capture is further examined in Chapter 7.

Th ere are also a number of 2D (two dimensional) barcode systems. Th e 2D barcode is standard on airline boarding cards. Many smartphones can read 2D barcodes encoded to the quick response (QR) code standard. One use of these barcodes is to include them on adverts to provide a hyperlink to the company’s website.

The EPOS system holds a detailed list of information about each product. When the product is scanned the system uses this list to ensure that:

● The product name and price is displayed and printed on the receipt ● Any special offers (e.g. two for the price of one) can be calculated ● The customer’s total bill is calculated.

The EPOS system works well for standardized, pre-packaged items. The barcode is printed on the packaging when the product is made and there is no signifi cant extra cost involved. The system is less convenient for loose items, which either have to be weighed and barcoded by staff at (say) the deli counter or have to be weighed at the checkout.

The EPOS system also keeps the till total and processes card details:

● The cash taken is recorded, totalled and can be reconciled with the cash in the till at the end of a shift




● Card payments are processed. Card details are passed through the super-market’s network to its banking partner for authorization (which is another complex IOS)

● Loyalty cards are processed – we will look at loyalty cards in more detail later in the case study.

Finally, the EPOS system records all the products that have been sold. This data is used to calculate replenishment (restocking) requirements. The general principle is that there is a stock total for each product stocked in the branch. For each sale that is recorded through the EPOS system one item can be deducted from that stock total. When the stock total gets down to the reorder level, more stock can be ordered from the regional warehouse. We will look at restocking later in the case study.

The reliable operation of the EPOS system is crucial to the operations of the supermarket. If the EPOS system is not working the supermarket cannot open its doors. If the sales data is lost the stock control system will be put out of kilter, which will take days to correct. If the payments systems fail, people will not be able to pay without cash (and the majority of payments are made with credit or debit cards). So the EPOS system needs to be resilient (see the EPOS resilience explanation box).

Th e EPOS system consists of a number of EPOS terminals and a backoffi ce server.Th e fi rst vulnerability is improper use of the system. Staff have to log in to the system at the

beginning of each session on the checkout. Th is should ensure that only authorized staff use the checkout and that any improper practices can be traced back to the member of staff involved.

Th e EPOS system is also vulnerable to a system failure. Th e failure of one or more EPOS terminals is not necessarily an issue since a typical supermarket has a number of terminals installed. Th e failure of the server would cause problems – this can be tackled by having a backup server with duplex data and automatic switchover to the backup server should the primary server fail. Some EPOS terminals can also work in terminal offl ine mode using a terminal-based product fi le and log sales within their own memory (this would not cover card-based transactions that need to be checked over the network).

Th e EPOS system also needs to be secure against data loss. Th is is addressed by transaction logging in the terminal system and the holding of all data on the duplex servers (where installed). Providing a duplex copy of the product data on the terminal also reduces network traffi c.

Th e EPOS terminal processes card payment, and customer card data can be vulnerable whilst in the system. Visa (the credit/debit card issuer) identifi es the following as the top three security risks (Visa, 2006):

● Many EPOS systems include remote access for system maintenance and troubleshooting. Th ese can be exploited to gain unauthorized access to the EPOS system. Th e provision of a secure password (not the default) and appropriate encryption of transmissions within and to/from the system are examples of protection measures.

● Most EPOS systems consolidate payment data into a central repository that provides authorization functionality, data backup and management functionality for the system user (in our case the supermarket). Some EPOS systems keep a full copy of the card magnetic stripe (and sometimes pin/chip) data, which is unnecessary and adds to the vulnerability. An attack on the host can give access to payment-sensitive data and allow the data to be destroyed. To minimize risk the retained data must be restricted to the minimum

Explanation

EPOS resilience

1




An alternative to the standard, staff-operated EPOS system is the self-service checkout. The basic principles are the same but it can save staff resources and customer queuing. An interesting feature of the self-service EPOS is that the bagging area weighs the products and cross-checks that with the weight recorded in the product database.

The product data on the EPOS system is downloaded from the systems at the supermarket’s data centre – this allows all products, prices and offers to be kept up to date in all the company’s stores. The sales data is uploaded to systems at the data centre and used for replenishment and management infor-mation. The network to the data centre will also be used to transfer payment and loyalty card data. Through these links the EPOS system becomes an integrated part of the supermarket’s IS/IT infrastructure. A supermarket EPOS network is shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.2.

required for payment processing and the host must be compliant with strict security standards (which are much greater than those applying to the stock control and management information parts of the supermarket’s system).

● Th e third risk is network security (with wireless networks being a particular area of vulnerability). Data needs to be encrypted, activity-logged and secure passwords must be used on all access points.

Th e supermarket’s IT infrastructure must be secure.

In this context security covers:

● Resilience: vital subsystems need (virtually) 100 per cent availability. Th is includes the EPOS server which can be duplexed with a provision for automatic failover. It is also vital that no EPOS data is lost; this data can also be duplexed within the system.

● Privacy: the supermarket handles customer information, including fi nancial data. Th is needs to be secured from unauthorized access (for reasons of privacy and to prevent fraudulent use).

● Financial control: the supermarket handles a lot of money, which has to be accounted for. Th e EPOS logon and till procedures provide an audit trail for till receipts.

Th emes

Security

EPOS

EPOS server Data centre

EPOS

EPOSFigure 1.2 Supermarket EPOS network.




e-ShopAn alternative to shopping at the supermarket is to buy groceries through the e-Shop online. Most UK supermarkets have added e-Commerce to their conventional retail operations by adopting the bricks-and-clicks model. Tesco is the market leader, with the neat catch phrase You shop, we drop. Also in the market are Sainsbury’s, Asda and Waitrose, with Morrisons predicted to join soon – out of the big six, that would leave just The Co-operative without an e-Shop, and since The Co-operative mainly operates in the convenience market sector, that may be the right choice for them. The other online supermarket is Ocado, which is pure-play – they operate from a purpose-built warehouse without any conventional retail operations: see the Ocado/Tesco case study.

bricks-and-clicks: a retail organization that sells through a conventional store (bricks) and an e-Shop (clicks).

e-Shop: an online shop – the website of an internet e-Commerce business.

Ocado e-Shop. Ocado was founded in 2000 and made its fi rst commercial deliveries in January 2002. Th e Ocado Group website (Ocado, 2011) states: Ocado

is the only dedicated online supermarket in the UK and the largest dedicated online supermarket by turnover in the world. Ocado off ers delivery of grocery products to customers centrally picked from a single, state-of-the-art, highly automated warehouse (the customer fulfi lment centre or CFC). Ocado sells more than 21,000 diff erent products, the majority of which are sourced through Waitrose, the leading quality UK supermarket.

Th e CFC is located in Hatfi eld. Th e single CFC is the hub of a hub-and-spoke network – there are currently some seven spokes. All orders are picked at the hub and then bulk delivered to the spoke depots – the home delivery vans are based in the spoke depots. Th e model is distinct from Ocado’s bricks-and-clicks competitors, which use branches for their fulfi lment. Th e CFC is, in many ways, equivalent to the conventional supermarket’s regional warehouse, where goods-in are direct from the suppliers but goods-out are the customer order as opposed to replenishment of a retail branch, hence cutting out one step in the supply chain. Th e concentration of all e-fulfi lment in one dedicated warehouse allows the extensive use of IT and automation (which would not be possible in a retail branch – Ocado claim that the setup is unique and the development of the facility requires a large, in-house IT team). A second CFC was opened in Tamworth at the end of 2012 (Wood, 2010) – the location is close to Hatfi eld, which probably refl ects Ocado’s (and Waitrose’s, its main supplier) concentration in the southern half of the UK.

Ocado started life as a private company but was fl oated in 2010. Since its fl oatation the share price has had a bumpy ride as investors evaluate its ability to compete with its larger bricks-and-clicks competitors. Concerns have included discounting from Tesco and increased online competition from Waitrose (Ocado’s primary supplier). Ocado made its fi rst quarterly profi t (a very small profi t) in 2011, but has yet to achieve a profi t over a full 12-month period.

Tesco e-Shop. Tesco dates itself back to 1919 when Jack Cohen fi rst opened his market stall in the East End of London. Tesco fi rst used the self-service model in 1956 and the label superstore in 1968 (Tesco, 2011). Tesco is the largest supermarket in the UK by some margin – its market share is just over 30% against just over 16% taken by Asda and Sainsbury’s (2011 fi gures).

Th e grocery e-Shop tesco.com was launched in 2000 and Tesco Direct, selling a very large range of non-grocery goods, was launched in 2006 (Tesco, 2011). For Tesco (and

Case study

Ocado/Tesco

1



358358

acceptance test 42, 209, 213, 280, 324access control 134, 193, 194–195, 324

password 195user-id 195

accounting 21, 23, 28, 59accumulator 324

see also registeractivity level 23

operations 23support functions 23

actor 231, 324ad hoc reports 153, 157, 324aggregation 324agile manifesto 222, 324agile software development 214, 218,

222–223, 324airfreight 302airline booking systems 77, 104, 106,

107algorithm 128, 174, 175, 194, 324alpha test 280, 324Amadeus 106Amazon 26, 69, 77, 94, 97, 100, 191,

324American Airlines (AA) 109analogue 184, 324analysis report 149–151, 154, 324Ancient History Library case study

246, 257AND gate 127, 324ANSI-X12 83, 93, 324Anthony’s triangle 146, 324

operational level 147, 149strategic level 146tactical level 146

Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) 293

anti-virus software 196app 99, 101, 324Apple 116, 325application 121, 123, 124, 284, 325

bespoke 44package 42, 208, 276

application generator 165, 205, 208, 212, 215, 276, 325

application service provider (ASP) 124, 325

application software 115, 121, 284, 325

Arab Spring 318archive 57, 164, 325Ariba 106, 325arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 128, 325ARPAnet 190, 191, 325array processor 119, 325Article Numbering Association

(ANA) 7, 325artifi cial intelligence (AI) 325Asda 11, 16, 85Aspire 46association 325

class diagram 254entity relationship diagram

242–247use case diagram 231

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 319

attribute 325class diagram 254–257computer-aided software

engineering (CASE) 215entity relationship diagram 166,

242–248object-oriented system analysis

and design (OO-SA&D) 220

relational data analysis 260–261relational database 167–171

audit trail 10, 89, 90, 325authoritarian government 318automated system 312–313, 325automated teller machine (ATM) 27,

285, 325automatic recording device 135, 138,

325

Baby 115, 325Bachman diagram 177–178, 326backdoor 197, 326backoffi ce 326

e-Shop 13, 93, 101, 102, 195supermarket 6, 9, 12

backorder 59, 60, 63, 67, 70, 142, 152backup 9, 45, 70, 120, 194, 196, 285,

298, 327BACS 52, 55, 326Ballantine, Matt 311bandwidth 140, 182, 185, 187, 189,

326bank 119, 294, 312

e-Commerce 53, 93, 96example Information System 3operations 27

barcode 6, 7–8, 326data capture 135–136QR code 8, 94order processing 58, 64, 68, 69

base two 126–127, 326see also binary

basket 80, 95, 101, 326batch process 65, 172, 173benchmarking 326best practice 72, 326beta test 280, 324Betsy and the band case study 268Bezos, Jeff 97big bang implementation 209, 281,

326Big Brother 316, 326binary 126–127, 128, 184, 326biometric 137, 326BlackBerry service failure 285, 312black box test 280, 326blackmail 295block 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 326bluetooth 185, 327bot 327

see also shopbotbotnet 197, 327bottom-up 43, 260, 327bricks-and-clicks 11, 12, 94, 97, 98,

327bricks-and-mortar 98, 327Brighton and Sussex University

Hospitals NHS Trust 300

INDEX



359Index 359

British Computer Society (BCS) 319see also Chartered Institute for IT

brought forward 55, 56, 327browser 93, 102, 122, 124, 142, 191,

327bureau 52, 81, 327business 3, 4, 21, 23, 25, 30, 37, 78,

327business analyst 38, 206, 320,

321, 327business environment 24, 29, 31–32,

327Business in Context Model (Needle)

23–24, 341business model

Business in Context Model (Needle) 23–24, 341

Information System (IS) Business Model (Th e) 26–33, 310

Porter’s Generic Value Chain 21–22, 343

business process re-engineering (BPR) 103, 327

business structure 30business study 327business system options 216,

217, 327business-to-business (b2b) 31, 327

electronic commerce (e-Commerce) 77–80, 191

electronic market (e-Market) 106e-Shop 93, 96

business-to-consumer (b2c) 31, 77, 78, 80, 93, 191, 327

byte 127, 187, 327

C 277, 327call centre 138, 309, 327Capgemini 46cardinality 242, 247, 328carry forward 55, 228cart 7, 13, 96, 328CATWOE 225, 328central processor unit (CPU) 119,

127, 328chartered engineer 319Chartered Institute for IT (BCS) 319,

320, 328associate member (AMBCS) 319chartered engineer (Ceng) 319

chartered IT professional (CITP) 319

fellow (FBCS) 319member (MBCS) 319

Checkland, Peter 223, 328checksum 186, 328chief information offi cer (CIO) 38,

315, 328chip 23, 116, 120, 127, 129, 135,

136–137, 328CICS 123, 328citizen-to-government (c2g) 315,

316, 328civil liberties 296, 316–318, 328civil monetary penalties (CMP) 299,

300class 251, 254, 255, 259, 328class diagram 221, 254–259, 328

computer-aided software engineering (CASE) 215

conventions used for an entity relationship diagram (ERD) 242, 247

from a sequence diagram 250method 251, 254, 255, 257, 340

click and collect 97, 328clickthrough 94, 95, 99, 328client 93, 118, 122, 124, 130, 141, 172,

328client-server system 93, 118, 122–123,

141, 185, 279, 328client side script 101, 141, 328climate change 303, 304cloud computing 117, 120, 124–126,

164, 183, 328coaxial cable 184Cobol 129, 277, 329Codd, Edgar 167, 329code of conduct 319, 329Colossus 115, 329communications technology

115, 183Community Earth System Model

(CESM) 304competitive advantage 16, 38, 61, 92,

206, 276, 329outsource 44, 45, 52

compiler 129, 215, 329composition 248, 329computer 115–117, 118–120, 329

computer-aided design (CAD) 27, 28, 329

computer-aided manufacture (CAM) 27, 329

computer-aided software engineering (CASE) 215, 329

computer breakdown 193computer cluster technology 119computer equipment lifecycle

301–303build 302design 301recycle 303ship 302use 302

Computer help desk case study 270Computer Misuse Act 294–296, 329computer security 188, 192–199,

329confi gure to order 104contact-less smart card 137context diagram 236, 237–238, 241

329contract 291, 292, 329

Data Protection Act (DPA) 298, 299

outsource 40, 44–46contract employment 321control systems 138, 199, 280, 312,

313control unit 128, 129, 329conventional fi le 165, 175, 329conventional machine 116, 329cookie 101, 330copper wire 184, 330copyright 292, 293, 330

wars 293Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

292corporate culture 30corporate database 165, 330council tax 299, 313Covisint 106Creese, Jos 315Crest system 284crime prevention 299critical path 274, 330CSNet 191, 330customer not present protocol 96,

330



360 Index360

customer relationship management system (CRM) 28, 330

cyber warfare 198–199, 330Estonia 198Iran Nuclear Industry 199

C# 277, 320, 330C++ 122, 220, 277, 330

data analysis 169, 260, 262, 330database (DB) 4, 42, 118, 122, 142,

165–166, 330computer-aided software

engineering (CASE) 215computer security 195, 197electronic data interchange

89, 92entity relationship diagram (ERD)

241e-Shop 95, 101, 102extensible mark-up language

(XML) 86management information 146,

151, 157order processing 60, 70–72other database paradigms 177–178paradigms 167, 177–178process effi ciency 172–177, 282relational database 167–172supermarket case study 10, 13,

15, 16update log 194, 330

database administrator 321database designer 42, 330database management system

(DBMS) 70, 117, 165, 167, 169, 172, 174, 175, 177, 330

data capture 4, 8, 42, 134–145, 281, 330

technology 135–140, 330data centre 6, 10, 14, 124, 196, 285,

300, 302data controller 297, 330data cutover 42, 281, 330data dictionary 215, 330data enquiries 156data entry 68, 91, 116, 134, 135,

140–143data fl ow diagram (DFD) 51, 53, 58,

59, 62, 66, 217, 236–241, 331datafl ow 237, 330

datastore 51, 165, 236, 237, 238, 331

external 51, 237, 334Level-1 236Level-2 236process 51, 237, 344

data logging 70data mining 156–157, 331data modelling 242, 331data processing system 331Data Protection Act (DPA) 57, 206,

296–300, 317, 331data security 45, 70, 192, 193–194,

331data structure 57, 70, 166–167,

172–177, 195, 262, 331data subject 297, 298, 331data warehouse 15, 157, 164, 331DB2 167, 331decision-making 30, 146–149, 157,

298decision support system (DSS) 31,

157, 331delivery slot 13, 97, 102Dell 45, 104, 302

Computer Equipment Lifecycle 301

denial of service (DoS) attack 196, 197, 198, 331

departmental system, Department of Computing Library case study 130, 235

desktop 28, 30, 37, 118, 182, 187, 192, 193, 284, 302, 331

support 29, 44packages 72, 125, 165, 277, 307

despatch note 65, 331development team 187, 209, 331

see also project teamDevlin, Stephen 26digital 126, 128, 138, 184, 186, 292,

331digital divide 316digital exclusion 316, 331digital signature 90, 196, 331Directgov 314, 331directory 123, 331disaster recovery operator 196discounted cash fl ow analysis 206,

331

distance education / learning 182, 191, 332

distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack 197, 332

distributed system 14, 172, 332distribution depot 12, 13, 14

see also regional warehousedivisional structure 30document management system

(DMS) 138, 332dongle 189, 332driverless trains 312drop down menu 143, 332DSDM (dynamic system

development methodology) 218–219, 222, 332

deployment 219engineering 219, 333exploration 219, 334feasibility 218foundation 219

Dunnhumby 16Duplex 9, 10, 70, 196, 313, 332Dutch fl ower markets 108DVLA (Driver and Vehicle Licensing

Agency) 313–314, 317

eBay 78, 99, 100, 103, 332EBCDIC 127, 332e-Book 24, 25, 103economy 23, 24, 31, 146EDIFACT 81, 83–85, 90, 92, 332eff ect correspondence diagram (ECD)

218, 332e-Fulfi lment 11, 12, 97, 332e-Learning 40, 182electronic business (e-Business) 78,

100, 332electronic cash (e-Cash) 95, 96, 332electronic commerce (e-Commerce)

4, 77–80, 191, 332Data Protection Act 299electronic contract 291electronic data interchange (EDI)

81–92electronic government 313electronic market (e-Market)

104–109e-Shop 92–104order processing 67–69



361Index 361

supermarket case study 11, 12electronic contract 291, 332electronic data interchange (EDI) 15,

77, 79, 81–92, 332agreed message standard 81,

83–86, 332data capture 135, 139defi nition 81–82electronic contract 291electronic means 82, 87–88interchange agreement 89–90, 332network 87–88, 183, 188, 180one computer system to another

82, 85order 82order processing 67–68security 90software 88–89structured data 81, 82XML messaging 85–86, 334

electronic funds transfer (EFT) 55, 81, 333

electronic government (e-Government) 313–316, 333

electronic information service 155–156

electronic market (e-Market) 77, 79, 104–109, 333

electronic point of sale (EPOS) 6, 7–10, 14, 117, 333

e-Mail 92, 130, 182, 191, 197, 285, 333embedded IT systems 303, 307, 312EMI Music 26, 98empowerment 309, 333encapsulation 220, 255, 333encryption 9, 90, 96, 101, 194, 333end user support 310, 320, 321energy effi ciency 300, 301, 302, 303enhance prototype 212ENIAC 115, 333enterprise resource planning system

(ERP) 39, 40, 71–72, 276, 283 333

resilience 9–10enterprise system 130, 333entity 167, 169, 217, 242, 245, 247,

248, 333entity life history (ELH) 218, 262, 333entity relationship diagram (ERD) 51,

70, 166, 241–250, 262, 333

aggregation 248cardinality 242composition 248entity 242generalization 247part-of 249pig’s ear 249–250relationship 242, 243, 248, 249

envelope 88, 186, 333environment (business) 23, 24, 29,

31–32, 310environment (natural) 300, 303e-Petition 315e-Procurement 107Equality Act 158e-Reader 103e-Shop 25, 60, 77, 79, 80, 92–104, 291,

333see also internet e-Commerce

(i-Commerce)after-sales 98app 99as an IS 101–102backoffi ce 102basket 95, 101checkout 101clickthrough 94delivery 97–98login 101market changes 102–103order 62, 95–96order processing 67–69payment 95product database 60, 95registration 101search 94–95security 70, 101 194, 195social media 94supermarket case study 11–13,

17, 23trade cycle 80, 93–98

estimating 42, 282, 333ethernet 187, 188, 333European Article Number (EAN) 7–8,

9, 58, 82, 136, 333European Convention on Human

Rights 297European Model Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) Agreement (EU-IA) 89

evolutionary prototyping lifecycle 211–214, 218, 222, 334

exception report 151–152, 334exchange of value 80, 96Executive Information System (EIS)

31, 157, 334extend 233, 334extensible mark-up language (XML)

85–86, 88, 123, 334extensible stylesheet language

transforming (XSLT) 86, 334external 51, 237, 334extract fi le 334extranet 192, 334extreme programming (XP) 223, 334

Facebook 94, 100, 191, 302, 334agile software development 223Information Society 310–311see also case study on page xxi

failover 10, 196, 334fail-safe 313fall back strategy 282, 334fault-tolerant 313feasibility report 206, 211, 216, 334feasibility study 43, 205–207, 211,

216, 218–219, 334ferric oxide 334fi bre optic 184, 334fi le 121, 164, 334fi le sharing 103, 296, 334fi nance 21, 28, 33

and accounting 28fi ngerprint checking 137, 195fi rewall 107, 188, 195, 334fi rm’s infrastructure 22fi rst-generation computer 115–116,

334fi rst-level support 284fi rst mover advantage 16, 334fi rst normal form (1NF) 260, 261, 335Five-a-side football case study 267foreign key 168–169, 175, 245, 261,

335forgery 294Fortran 335fourth-generation language (4GL)

153, 208, 212, 335Fraud Act 294functional analyst 321



362 Index362

functional decomposition 236, 335functional language 172, 335functional specialism 30

Galileo 106Gantt chart 43, 275–276, 335gap analysis 29generalization 220, 233, 247–248,

255, 335general ledger 33, 70, 72, 335General Medical Council 318global distribution systems (GDS)

106, 109, 335globalization 31, 308, 335global warming 300, 301, 335go live 42, 219, 283, 335goods-in 11, 13, 67, 69, 335goods-out 11, 64, 67, 69, 335Google 78, 119, 124, 310, 316, 335go to 129, 262, 336governmental organizations 32government-to-citizen (g2c) 313, 315,

336graphical presentation (of

management information) 154, 157

graphical techniques 228graphical user interface 117, 121green computing 300–304, 336Green Movement (Iran) 318

hacker 195, 336hacking 96, 101, 198, 294–296, 336

aggravated hacking 295half adder 128Hall, Richard 125Hampshire County Council 314, 315hand held device 13, 64, 69, 135, 139,

140, 336hard disk 118, 120, 164, 193, 336hash random 174, 336heap 336help desk 38, 39, 284, 336

management 321system 28, 336

Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HRMC) 46, 52, 53, 56, 81

hierarchical database 177, 336high level (programming) language

129, 277, 336

High Peak Bicycles case study 228Hippocratic Oath 318Hollerith, Herman 115, 336hosting 44, 336hot standby 70, 196, 313HSBC 312hub 187, 336hub and spoke 11, 336human computer interaction (HCI)

144–145, 336human resources (HR) 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 28Human Rights Act 297hyper text mark-up language (HTML)

86, 99, 336

IBM 109, 119, 120, 122, 167, 177, 336

IBM PC 117, 336ICL 336Identity Document Act 294identity theft 294, 337IDMS 177implementation 42, 209, 219,

281–284, 337strategy 282, 337

inbound logistics 21, 22, 337include 232, 234, 337index 175, 337index sequential 175, 176–177, 337Information and Communications

Technology (ICT) 115, 183, 337information commissioner 297, 337information overload 158information revolution 308, 337Information Society 191, 307–311,

337Information System (IS) 3–7, 51, 101,

134, 337centralization 29decentralization 29department 38–40, 337function 37–42implementation 273infrastructure 32–33outsourcing 29, 43–46, 52strategy 30support functions 28system development lifecycle

(SDLC) 205

Information System (IS) Business Model (Th e) 26–33, 37, 130, 147, 310

Information Technology (IT) 5, 32, 115–130, 165, 337

information worker 158inheritance 220, 247, 255, 337

see also generalizationinitial prototype 212, 219, 337innovation 21, 23, 28in-source 39, 45, 52, 337integrated circuit 116, 337integration test 337intellectual property 292–293intellectual property rights (IPR) 292,

337interface design 140, 144, 145, 158,

337interface object 251–252, 338international article number 7international standard book number

(ISBN) 8, 92internet 118, 120, 130, 182, 183,

190–192, 338electronic commerce 77e-Shop 92–93Information Society 307protocol 186–187

internet e-Commerce (i-Commerce) 77, 79, 80, 92–104, 338

see also e-Shopinternet protocol (IP) 186–187, 338internet service provider (ISP) 120,

122, 293, 338Inter-Organizational Information

System (IOS) 4, 6, 85, 105, 338

interpreter 129, 215, 338interviews 207intranet 107, 130, 182, 192, 195, 338iteration 212, 213, 222, 252, 262iterative lifecycle 211–214, 222, 338

Jackson structures 218, 262–263, 338JANET 40, 191, 338Java 122, 277, 278, 338Joe Lyons 115join (relational algebra) 171, 338just-in-time (JIT) 13, 15, 27, 61, 78,

104, 338



363Index 363

key target report 152, 338knowledge work 308, 309, 338

labour market 24, 31laptop 117, 118, 139, 192, 193, 338legacy systems 72, 123, 338Leo 1 115, 338liberal democracy 318liberal economic theory 104Libra system 284lifeline 251, 338LinkedIn 310, 339link test 209, 280, 339Linux 118, 121, 339local area network (LAN) 118, 120,

183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 339logical data structure (LDS) 217, 242,

339logical design 207, 216, 217, 339logic circuit 127, 339logic gate 115, 127–128, 339

AND gate 127, 324NOT gate 128, 341OR gate 127, 342

login 101, 339lower CASE 215, 339loyalty card 9, 15–16, 136, 317

machine code 129, 277, 339Macmillan 24, 25–26magnetic core memory 116, 339magnetic disc 339

see also hard diskmagnetic ink character recognition

(MICR) 138, 339magnetic strip 135, 136, 339mailbox 87, 88, 191, 339mainframe 38, 109, 116, 117, 119, 122,

164, 339main memory 121, 128, 164, 339maintenance 44, 209, 210, 284–285,

339malware 193, 195, 196–198, 199, 295,

296, 339backdoor 197, 326botnet 197, 327denial of service attack (DoS) 197,

331distributed denial of service attack

(DDoS) 197, 332

payload 197, 343spyware 197, 348SQL injection attack 197trojan horse 197, 351virus 197, 352worm 197, 353zombie computer 197, 353

management 146–149, 282, 339Information Systems (IS) Business

Model (Th e) 26, 29–31, 33Information Systems department

38Needle’s Business in Context

Model 24outsource 44project failure 282

management information 5, 134, 145–158, 339

order processing 65, 69–70payroll 56, 57reports 149–156

Management Information System (MIS) 4, 10, 31, 157, 339

Managing Information Systems in the 21st Century 26, 98, 125, 311, 315

Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) 39

Manifesto for Agile Software Development 222

manufacture 27, 91, 104, 302, 308marketing 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28mark sensing 135, 137, 339massively parallel 119, 339materials and requirement planning

system (MRP) 5, 27, 82, 165, 339menu 143, 144, 340message 79, 85, 122, 185, 186, 251,

340message log 88, 194, 340meta-language 85, 86meta tag 94, 340meter reading 139method 340

class diagram 254–259sequence diagram 250–252see also methodology

methodology 205, 211, 214–226, 259, 340

phases 214

philosophy 214techniques 214tools 214

microblog 191, 311, 340micro chip 135, 136, 340micro computer 116, 340Microsoft

Access 167, 169, 172, 208, 215, 276, 324

C# 278, 330dot.net 277, 332Excel 154Offi ce 4, 72, 145, 340Project 276SQL Server 167Visual Basic 278, 352Visual Studio 215, 352Windows 117, 118, 119, 121, 198,

353Word 164, 353

microwave 185, 340millennium bug 72, 210, 340milliondollarhomepage 95, 340mini computer 116, 340Minitel 77, 340mission-critical 6, 52, 119, 122, 285,

340mission statement 30, 340mobile e-Commerce (m-Commerce)

79, 99, 340mobile network 4, 118, 182, 183mobile telephone (mobile) 79, 155,

185, 316, 340modelling language 220, 221, 340module 208, 341module test 208, 209, 279, 341Mosaic 191, 341Motion Picture Association of

America (MPAA) 293multiplexor 188, 341multiprocessing 121, 341multiprocessor 119, 121multiprogramming 122, 341multitasking 121, 173, 341multithreading 121, 341music industry 103MySQL 167, 341

NAND gate 128, 341national lottery 135, 137



364 Index364

national security 299NatWest 312Needle’s Business in Context Model

23–24, 341Net North West 40network 4, 118, 120–121, 182–192,

341bridge 120, 188, 327connection 184–185, 341electronic data interchange (EDI)

87–88equipment 184, 187–188fi rewall 188, 195, 334hub 187, 336interface card 187, 341multiplexor 188protocol 120, 184, 185–187, 351router 188, 347security 195–196, 341switch 187, 349

network administrator 320network database 174, 177–178,

341network eff ect 310, 341new PAYE system (NPS) 46NHS Electronic Patient Record

Project 283Nielsen’s Book Data 92non-repudiation 90, 341NOR gate 128NOT gate 127, 128number system 126

object 178, 220, 250, 254, 255, 341encapsulation 220, 255, 333generalization 220, 233, 247–248,

255, 335polymorphism 220, 255, 343

object oriented (OO) 341object oriented (OO) database 178,

341object oriented (OO) programming

220, 277object oriented system analysis and

design (OO SA&D) 220–221, 250, 254, 342

observation 207Ocado 11, 12Odette 83, 342offi ce systems 130

off shore 45, 308, 310, 342on the fl y 60, 95, 101, 342operating system 115, 117, 118, 121,

164, 197, 342operations 5, 342

business model 21, 23, 24, 26, 27Information System department

38system development lifecycle

(SDLC) 209, 213optical character recognition (OCR)

137, 342Oracle 167, 172, 342order processing 5, 51, 57–71, 85, 166,

342allocate stock 63backorder 63cross docking 67customer data 60customer order 61–65data structures 70–71despatch 64–65electronic invoice 68electronic orders 67–69management information 69–70order entry 142picking 63process payment 65product data 58replenishment calculation 60, 66replenishment order 65–67standing data 58–61stocktake 61supplier data 61warehouse organization 63

organization 3, 21, 26, 27–33, 37–40, 50, 342

organizational level 24OR gate 127, 342Orwell, George 316OS X 117, 118, 121, 342outsource 29, 32, 43–46, 125, 196,

308, 342agreement 44Aspire contract 46contract termination 45Her Majesty’s Revenue and

Customs (HRMC) 46Information Systems department

39–40

payroll 52publishing 24–29security 45Tesco Clubcard 16UK government 45

overfl ow 174, 177

packaging 302packet-switching 302, 342Palgrave Macmillan 24, 25–26paperless trading 81, 342parallel running 209, 282, 342participatory software development

343participatory web 100password 96, 192, 195, 294, 296, 298,

343patent 292, 343PAYE 46, 81payload 197, 199, 343PayPal 95, 343payroll system 5, 51, 52–57, 343

calculation 54outsource 39, 44, 52payment 55payslip 55security 57standing data 52tax and NI 56, 81

performance criteria 44personal computer (PC) 116, 118,

182, 343personal data 95, 294,

civil liberties 316–318Data Protection Act 296–300security 57, 101

personal messaging 191personal privacy 296phishing 96, 343physical design 343, 216, 217

see also technical designphysical security 192, 193, 343picking list 13, 14, 63, 64, 73, 343Piercy, Richard 98pipeline 343pirate download 103, 293Pizza IT case study 240Plan (machine code) 343poll tax 299polymorphism 220, 255, 343



365Index 365

Porter’s Generic Value Chain 21–22, 32, 57, 58, 343

Porter, Michael E. 343post and forward 87, 343postbox 87, 88power consumption 302price comparison websites 99, 123primary key 168–169, 245, 261, 343primary suppliers 22, 23primary supplies 28, 82, 343primary validation 63, 141, 344privacy 10, 45, 90, 192, 296, 297problem requirement list 217, 344problem situation 223, 224, 344procedural language 172, 344process 51, 237, 344processor 116–121, 127–129, 172,

344process privacy 45procurement 22, 28, 33, 107Prodigy 77, 244professional society 318, 319, 344program 344program and unit test 43, 208, 279,

344program development environment

(PDE) 215program evaluation and review

technique (PERT) 43, 273, 344programmer 42, 320, 320, 344programming 129, 205, 208, 220,

276–279, 344programming language 129, 220, 277,

344program team leader 344progress monitoring 43, 213, 273,

275, 344project (relational algebra) 171project 37, 40–42, 205, 344

estimating 42failures 282–284management 42–43, 273, 344plan 43, 273, 275, 282, 344planning 273–276team 38, 40, 42, 205, 211, 214, 276,

344Project management case study

269project manager 40, 41, 42, 72, 275,

320, 321, 344

Protect Intellectual Property Act (PIPA) 293

protocol 88, 121, 184, 185–187, 188, 190, 344

protocol independence 87prototype 212, 219, 344prototype lifecycle 211–214, 218,

222, 345public private key 345publishing 24, 25, 92, 103punched card 115, 116, 135, 345punched card system 115, 116, 345pure-play 11, 27, 98, 345

QR code 8, 94, 345quality assurance 345questionnaires 207quick and dirty 211, 345quick response 13, 61, 91, 104, 345

radio 137, 140, 185, 345radio button 143, 345radio frequency identifi cation device

(RFID) 137, 345RAID (redundant array of

independent disks) 120, 164, 345

rail travel information 155–156random access 173, 174, 345rapid application development

(RAD) 214, 218, 219, 222, 345Rational Rose 215, 345rational unifi ed process (RUP) 221,

345RBS 312record 172–177, 345Recording Industry Association of

America (RIAA) 293recycle 300–303, 346regional warehouse 13–14register (CPU memory) 129, 130, 346register (join) 12, 297, 299, 346registration 101, 141, 346relational algebra 171, 346relational data analysis (RDA) 167,

218, 260–262, 346fi rst normal form (1NF) 260, 261,

335second normal form (2NF) 260,

261, 347

third normal form (TNF) 167, 260, 261, 350

un-normalized form (UNF) 260, 261, 352

relational database 167–172, 346relationship 346

entity relationship diagram 166–167, 241–250

network database 177relational database 168–169,

171–172renewable energy 303repetitive strain injury (RSI) 145replacement cycle 303replenishment 6, 346

order 65–67 346order processing 57, 58, 60,

65–67supermarket case study 7, 9, 13,

14–15replenishment system 13, 14–15,

65–67, 85, 87, 346repository 72, 215, 346representative government 315request for change 285, 346requirement analysis 207, 216, 217,

346requirement specifi cation 346Research In Motion (RIM) 285resilience 9–10, 119, 124, 164, 187,

313, 346restrict (relational algebra) 171, 346rich picture 224, 346roll-over 101, 346root defi nition 225, 346rotational delay 172, 346royalty payment 103, 292, 293

Sabre 106, 109safety critical system 313, 347Sainsbury’s 11, 12, 15, 16salami-slicing 294Sale of Goods Act 292SAP 39, 72, 321, 347satellite 13, 185, 347scanner 135, 138, 347Scrum 223, 347search engine 94, 293, 347search engine optimization (SEO)

94, 347



366 Index366

secondary storage 118, 120, 134, 164, 172, 347

secondary suppliers 22secondary supplies 107, 347secondary validation 63, 141, 347second-generation computer 116,

347second-level support 284second normal form (2NF) 260, 261,

347secure socket layer (SSL) 96, 194, 347security 4, 45, 57, 70, 188, 192–198,

298, 314data security 164, 165electronic commerce

(e-Commerce) 90, 96, 101electronic point of sale system

(EPOS) 9–10sensitive personal data 297sequence diagram 102, 221, 250–253,

254, 347classes 251control object 252guard 252interface object 251iteration 252lifeline 251message 251self call 253

serial access 174, 175, 347serial fi le 174, 347serious crime 295server 9, 93, 101, 117, 119, 122, 141,

194, 347server farm 117, 119, 302, 347server side script 95, 101, 122, 172,

348service oriented architecture (SOA)

123, 348session variable 101, 348shipping 302shopbot 98–99, 348silicon chip 116, 127, 348simultaneous exchange of value 80,

96Sizewell B 312sizing 172, 173, 177, 282, 348Skype 187smart card 136, 137smart grid 140, 348

smart home 307smart meter 140, 303, 348smartphone 8, 30, 99, 136, 139, 285,

348smartphone app 12, 28, 101,

156, 348social and cultural factors 24, 31social media 28, 94, 311, 348social networking system 79, 100,

191, 310, 311, 318, 348sociotechnical SA&D 223–225, 348soft systems methodology (SSM)

223–225, 348software 42, 115, 121, 164, 292, 313,

348agile software development

222–223computer-aided software

engineering 215electronic data interchange (EDI)

88–90enterprise resource planning (ERP)

71–72, 283e-Shop 101–102malware 196–197programming 129–130, 276–279prototype 213, 214software as a service (SaaS) 124

software as a service (SaaS) 124, 348software developer 320, 348software engineering 220, 313speech recognition 135, 138, 183,

348spreadsheet 154, 182spyware 197, 348SQL injection attack 197, 348

see also structured query language (SQL)

staged implementation 281standard general mark-up language

(SGML) 86, 348standby generator 196, 313, 348standing data 4, 164, 169, 348

order processing 58–61payroll 52–54

state and politics 24, 31state diagram 259–260, 348statutory duty 319stock control 14, 57, 60, 85, 349stock control system 349

electronic data interchange (EDI) 82, 85, 88

order processing 57, 61supermarket case study 7, 9, 13

Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) 293strategic management 21, 24strategic planning 29strategy 29, 30, 44, 146, 147, 349structural level 23, 24structured decisions 147–149, 349structured query language (SQL) 153,

168, 171–172, 197, 349join 171, 338project 171, 344restrict 171, 346

structured system analysis and design (SSADM) 215–218, 236, 262, 349

business system options 216, 217, 327

defi nition of requirements 216, 217

feasibility 216, 334logical design 216, 217, 339physical design 216, 217, 343requirements analysis 216, 217, 339technical system options 216, 217,

350Stuxnet 199, 312subtype 247, 248, 349supercomputer 117, 119–120, 122,

301, 304, 349Jaguar 304K 120Sequoia 120

supermarket 6, 7–17, 23, 58, 81, 85, 317

IS/IT infrastructure 17supply chain 14, 23

supertype 247, 349supply chain 4, 61, 349

business models 22, 23, 24, 27order processing 65, 85supermarket case study 11, 13,

14–15supply chain logistics 13, 349Supply of Goods and Services Act

292support functions 21, 23, 27–29, 349system administrator 320



367Index 367

system analysis and design (SA&D) 205, 207, 215, 220, 223, 228, 349

system analyst 41, 42, 206, 215, 320, 349

system and acceptance test 42, 43, 209

system development lifecycle (SDLC) 43, 205–211, 349

system software 115, 121, 164, 277, 349

system test 213, 279, 349system tester 41, 320, 349

tablet 117, 139, 182, 192, 349tabulator 116, 349tag record 174, 176, 177, 349Taylorism 309, 349technical design 207, 350technical system options 216, 217,

350technology 115, 126–130, 184, 307

business models 22, 24, 31data capture 135–140network 184–188

telecommunications 118, 183, 184, 185, 350

Teleordering 92teleworker 188, 189, 191, 309, 350temporary employment 321Tesco 11

Clubcard 15–16e-Shop 11–12

testing 42, 208, 209, 213, 279–281, 350

test prototype 212–213, 350Tew, Alex 95text fi le 350theft 294thick client 122, 350thin client 122, 350third-generation computer 116, 350third-level support 285third normal form (TNF) 167, 260,

261, 350timebox 222, 223time independence 87time-sharing 350toolbox approach 221, 230top-down 260, 350touch screen 350

TP monitor 122, 70, 350Tradacom 83, 92, 351trade cycle 79–80, 81, 85, 94–98, 106,

107 351electronic data interchange (EDI)

81, 85electronic market (e-market) 106,

107e-Shop 93–98

trading partner 31, 78, 79, 351electronic data interchange (EDI)

81, 85, 87, 89network 182, 188order processing 68

trading partner database 89training 209, 281transaction 3, 4, 5, 351

data entry 141, 142, 143electronic commerce

(e-Commerce) 78, 79, 80electronic data interchange (EDI)

81, 90e-Shop 96, 99, 102human-computer interaction

(HCI) 144order processing 70payroll 52

transaction data 4, 118, 164, 351transaction processing (TP) system

70, 122, 145, 156, 351Transfer of Undertakings (Protection

of Employment) Regulations 45, 351

transistor 116, 117, 127, 351transistor equivalent 116, 127, 351transmission control protocol (TCP)

186, 351transmission control protocol/

internet protocol (TCP/IP) 121, 183, 186, 187, 191, 351

transmission protocol 90, 185–187, 351

Tripadvisor 100trojan horse (trojan) 197, 351trolley 7, 95, 351trusted third party 90, 351truth table 127, 128, 351tuple 351twisted pair 184Twitter 100, 191, 311, 351

UK court service 284unauthorized access 9, 10, 194, 195,

197, 294unifi ed modelling language (UML)

220–221, 351class diagram 254computer-aided software

engineering (CASE) 215entity relationship diagram (ERD)

(using UML conventions) 242, 247, 248

sequence diagram 250state diagram 259use case diagram 231

unit test 42, 209, 351universal product code (UPC) 7–8,

351university 27, 30, 38, 39, 296UNIX 119, 121, 210, 277, 351un-normalized form (UNF) 260, 261,

352unstructured decision 147–149,

351update log 194upper CASE 215, 352usability 56, 145, 158use case 221, 230–236, 250, 352

actor 231, 324association 231, 325extend 233, 334description 234, 352diagram 230, 250, 352generalization 233, 335include 232, 337

user-id 195, 352user interface 143, 144, 145, 352user requirements 42, 212, 283

data fl ow diagram 238DSDM (dynamic system design

methodology) 219object oriented system analysis

and design (OO-SA&D) 221

structured system analysis and design (SSADM) 217

use case 230utility program 121, 352

vacuum tube 115, 352validation 53, 63, 88, 101, 141, 352



368 Index368

value added data service (VADS) 87–88, 190, 352

value added network (VAN) 87, 352

value chain 21–22, 23, 32, 58valve 115, 127valve machine 117, 352vector processor 119, 352Venn diagram 79, 352videotext 352virtual learning environment (VLE)

40, 122, 308, 352virtual market place 106virtual organization 32, 352virtual servers 303virus 196, 197, 198, 352V model 280voice-over IP (VoIP) 187voice recognition 138, 352

volume test 213, 352Volvo UK 72Von Neumann architecture 128–129,

352vortal 106, 108

Waitrose 11, 13Waste Electrical and Electronic

Equipment (WEEE) Directive 303

waterfall lifecycle 43, 205–211, 213, 214, 215, 352

weather forecasting 120web-scraping 98, 353web services 99, 123–124, 353Web 2.0 79, 100–101, 353white box test 280, 353wide area network (WAN) 120, 183,

185, 187, 189, 353

Wikipedia 100, 293, 353wikis 100, 353Wild: types of production 24wiring board 116wizard 172, 215, 353workstation 117, 145, 353Worldspan 106World Wide Web (WWW) 191, 353World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

86, 158, 353worm 197, 199, 312, 353

XOR gate 128, 353

year 2000 bug 72, 210, 353YouTube 100

zombie computer 197, 353Zuse 115, 353



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