1139528580 2005 ancient history notes

7/22/2019 1139528580 2005 Ancient History Notes

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Amenhotep III

Amenhotep III ruled Egypt for almost forty years. During that time Egypt enjoyed greater power and prestige that it

had ever done before or since, prompting modern historians to call the reign of Amenhotep III the Golden Age of

Egyptian history.

Politically, Egypt was the dominant power in its part of the world, with influence extending from the Euphrates in the

north to the Fourth Cataract in the south. Economically, Egypt surpassed its neighbours. Within its territories, Egypt

exploited vast resources of gold and precious stones; Egyptian merchant fleets brought wealth from trade; incredible

riches came in the form of gifts and tribute from vassal kings; and Egypts own population, slave and free harvested the

agricultural bounty of the Nile Valley and the Delta. Artistically, a confident style of elegant beauty emerged in

paintings, reliefs, sculpture and architects.

Over all this, Amenhotep III ruled from a court renowned for its splendour and opulence. The magnificence of the

temples he built for his gods and the monuments he erected for himself suggest that he was indeed a great pharaoh.


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Chief sources for the period

There is a wealth of archaeological and written sources from the reign of Amenhotep III, including the remains of

buildings and monuments, inscriptions, letters and reliefs and even a series of commemorative scarabs.

Amenhotep III constructed colossal statues. The largest of these, the Colossi of Memnon, still stand in their original

position in a cane field on the western side of the Nile at Thebes. These seated statues of Amenhotep III once marked

the entry to his mortuary temple. Each statue is carved from a single piece of stone and is over sixteen meters high.

Another set of huge statues exists, of Amenhotep and his Greta Royal Wife, Tiye. These statues now dominate the

atrium of the Cairo Museum. Such statues, by their sheer size, convey a sense of power and majesty.

The building program of Amenhotep III was more extensive that that of any other earlier pharaoh. Some of his many

buildings were exceptional for their size, others for their beauty. He built many temples throughout Egypt, from

Bubastis and Heliopolis in the north to the Temple of Amun in Luxor, where the central colonnade and the forecourt,

with their elegant paired columns, still stand. The remains of his vast Malkata palace complex which covered 32

hectares at Thebes offer some idea of the activities of palace life under his rule.

Inscriptions from mines, quarries and temples provide documentary evidence of further building projects of which little

or no material evidence remains. Those inscriptions include a valuable description of the architectural details of his

mortuary temple, the construction and decoration of the Third Pylon at Karnak, and the construction and furbishment of

many temples.

Stelae and other inscriptions convey the impression that Amenhotep III was a warrior pharaoh. Several different

inscriptions refer to his conquests in Nubia and others refer to him as Crusher of Naharin, Plunderer of Shinar and

Smiter of the Asiatics. One stela, the Tablet of Victory , shows Amenhotep symbolically driving his chariot over the

people of Kush and Syria, Bound figures representing conquered foreign peoples feature in temple decorations and on

statues, reinforcing the image of Amenhotep III as a conqueror.

Amenhotep III issued a series of commemorative scarabs to publicise various events of his rule, including his hunting

prowess, two of his marriages, and his construction of a pleasure lake for his wife Tiye. Copies of these scarabs were

issued throughout the empire and many have survived.

The Amarna letters are a valuable source of evidence about diplomatic relations of this period. These letters, over three

hundred in all, are what has been discovered of the correspo0ndence between the pharaohsAmenhotep III,

Akhenaten and Tutankhamunand foreign kings and provinces.

Inscriptions and reliefs from the tombs of nobles and officials also provide valuable information about life under the

rule of Amenhotep III.


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Promotion of the image of the superhuman warrior king

It was essential that early in his reign, Amenhotep, like his predecessors, promote an image of himself as the

superhuman, all-conquering warrior king.

The scarab bulletins

Amenhotep advertised his abilities as a great hunter of wild animals in a series of commemorative scarabs issued in

years 2 and 10 of his reign.

The earlier series of scarabs claim that, during a hunting trip, probably somewhere in the delta, the young king rounded

up a total of 75 wild bulls with the help of a detachment of soldiers. Aldred suggest that since this event occurred when

the king was very young, it seems more likely to have been a military operation with the king in attendance.

Larger scarabs, issued eight years later, recorded that in the first decade of his reign his majesty brought down with his

arrowsfierce lions, 102. This seems more credible that the previous claims about the wild bulls.

Military propaganda

Owing to the exploits of his predecessors, the era of warring in Asia over extending the boundaries of Egypt (was)

over - (Breasted).

There was only one minor revolt in Nubia, which occurred in the fifth year of Amenhoteps reign. The people of the

district of Ibhat, south of the Second Cataract, occasionally raided southern Egyptian settlements and it was decided to

teach them a lesson.

This minor police action, under the leadership of the kings viceroy of Kush, Merimose, was exaggerated into a major

victory for the king even though he was only a youth. When the number of the dead and captured (1052) are taken into

consideration, the true nature of this affair can be gauged.

Amenhotep III had no opportunity to play the warrior-king but the official records still depict him as the all-conquering

pharaoh. For example:

His marriage scarab, issued when he was barely a teenager, described him as smiter of Asiatics. On a victory tablet set up in his mortuary temple, he is shown driving in his chariot over conquered Syrians with

the words smiting Naharin with his mighty sword (Breasted). There is no evidence of any campaigns

undertaken in western Syria during his reign.

The stela at the First Cataract shows the king killing two Nubians. The text described him as leading his troops tovictory and like a fierce-eyed lion, he seized Kush (Breasted).

The Konosso inscription adds that his majesty returned, having triumphed on his first victorious campaign in theland of Kush (Breasted).

A further stela from Bubastis records that during the Nubian campaign his majesty smote them himself with thebaton which was in his hand (Breasted).

The Senna inscription informs its readers that the might of Nebmare tookthem (Rebels in Nibia) in one day, inone hour, making a great slaughter (Breasted).


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Foreign policy

Even though Amenhotep had to deal with a minor incident in Nubia in year 5 and maintained a military (presence in

western Asia (forts and garrisons), he governed his empire by a policy of diplomacy. This involved:

communicating by letters with the vassal princes of Syria and Palestine and with Egyptian officials negotiating alliances with the rulers of the north-east adding foreign princesses to the royal harem exchanging gifts with brother kings employing highly trusted envoys who travelled throughout the east

This international diplomacy was based on a system in which the status of the rulers was clearly designated and

relations between them were conducted according to acceptable conventions. It was a patriarchal system in which the

independent rulers or great kings who were on close terms regarded themselves as brothers. Within such a

relationship it was customary to exchange letters and gifts, and even to give family members in marriage. Lesser

kings were regarded as sons of the great kings. The relationship of the lesser king to the great king was often that of

a vassal, bound by treaty and by obligations such as the payment of taxes, the provision of troops, and favourable trade

agreements.

Within this system Egypt was clearly the greatest power. The kings of Mitanni and Babylon referred to the pharaoh as

brother while the lesser kings and vassals referred to him as my god, my sun and my lord.

The great kings kept firm control of their domains and borders. Territorial or factorial disputes sometimes erupted in

lesser kingdoms. When they did, exaggerated accounts of events were sent to great kings to enlist their support.

Amenhotep III ruled his empire from a position of great advantage. The battles had been won, the treaties and alliances

made and the administration of the empire established before he came to the throne. His role was to maintain and

protect what already existed. For most of his reign he ruled the empire efficiently and peace and stability were

maintained through a carefully kept balance of power between greater and lesser kingdoms.

Administration of Egypt

For the first part of his reign, Amenhotep lived in the northern capital of Memphis and so it is not surprising that a large

number of his chief officials came from Lower Egypt. When he moved his residence to Thebes, these men

accompanied his so that he continued to have a group of dedicated and highly competent administration around him.

Although there are some significant gaps in the evidence, it seems that Egypt was well governed during Amenhotep

IIIs reign. The bureaucracy ran smoothly under the supervision of the viziers, public works were maintained, a

massive building program was undertaken, manufacturing and the arts flourished, bumper harvest were recoded, and

taxes were collected. Throughout the land, Amun and the other gods were honoured in temples that were maintained

by the various priesthoods.

Amenhotep III showed great wisdom in his appointment of key officials. Some positions, such as that of treasurer,

remained within the one family for generations, but other officials were appointed and dismissed by Amenhotep III

himself.


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The greatest building boom of the Eighteenth Dynasty

Goods that cannot be counted, silver, gold and all kinds of costly stones in their millions (Breasted) poured into Egypt

from the empire. These enabled Amenhotep to inaugurate a massive building program which earned him a reputation

for magnificence.

It pleased his majestys heart to make very great monuments, the likes of which had not existed since the beginning of

the Two Lands. (Lichtheim)

Although all pharaohs made this claim, it was probably closer to the truth in the case of Amenhotep III than for any

other king of the Eighteenth Dynasty.

The work which continued throughout his reign included new buildings as well as renovation of monuments that had

fallen into disrepair.

The four main features of his building were:

1. enormous size and massive statuary2. lavish use of rich materials3. quality of design4. precision of workmanship

Not only are these features evident in the surviving monuments, but Amenhotep left a detailed description of his work

on a black granite stela, three metres high, originally set up in his mortuary temple.

The Temple of Luxor-

The Temple of Luxor was Amenhoteps greatest building achievement and has the distinction of having been planned

as a unit and three-quarters constructed by a single king (Hayes)

It was designed by the architects Suti and Hor and built for the celebration of the Opet Festival. During this annual

celebration, the statues of the Theban trinity of Amun, Mut and Khonsu were taken from their shrines in Karnak to the

southern harm.

The temple was built of sandstone and originally decorated with gold, silver, lapis lazuli and coloured glass.

The Third Pylon at Karnak

Amenhotep commissioned a great triumphal gateway to be built for the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Because the king

intended this two-towered, monumental entrance to be the final western faade of the temple, he had a canal built from

the Nile to the gateway. This ended in a docking and turning basin for ships. The pylon was worked with gold

throughout, with the gods shade in the likeness of a ram, inlaid with real lapis lazuli and worked with gold and costly

stones. The like has never been made. (Lichtheim)


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Amenhoteps Mortuary Temple

Amenhotep IIIs mortuary temple is the single largest royal temple known to us from ancient Egypt. Although the

temple was built to house the funeral service for the pharaohs spirit, it was dedicated to Amun. The description from

the great building stela gives some idea of its splendour and wealth.

Behold, the heart of his majesty was satisfies with making a very great monument; never has happened like since the

beginning. He made (it) as his monument for his father Amon, lord of Thebes, making for him an august temple on the

west of Thebes, an eternal, everlasting fortress of fine white sandstone, wrought with gold throughout; its floor is

adorned with silver, all its portraits with electrum; it is made very wide and large, and established forever; and adorned

with this very great monument. It is numerous in royal statues, of Elephantine granite, of costly gritstone, of every

splendid costly stone, established as everlasting works. Their stature shines for than the heavens, their rays are in the

faces (of men) like the sun, when he shines early in the morning.

In front of the temple Amenhotep III constructed two large statues of himself, over sixteen metres tall, and they are

considered to be the most grandiose of Amenhoteps numerous monuments to himself. These statues are known as the

Colossi of Memnon and are the only remains of the temple in this present day.

The House of Rejoicingthe Palace at Malkata

One kilometre south of the mortuary temple, Amenhotep built a palace complex, which covered 32 hectares. It was

originally called the Radiance of

the Aten but after his first jubilee it was renamed the House of Rejoicing. Unlike his temples, the palace complex was

built of mud-brick and timber. It was gaily coloured and its white-washed, plastered walled were decorated with

natural scenes.


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Art during the reign of Amenhotep III

The statues, tomb reliefs, jewellery, household furnishings and personal possessions produced for the court and the

families of pharaohs officials reveal a high standard of technical excellence, combine beauty and elegance and a show

a lively imagination and a love of novelty.

It appears that a new trend towards naturalism in art, influenced by contact with the east, was beginning at this time

although it did not yet exhibit the exaggerated naturalism of the Amarna period which followed.

In the latter part of Amenhotep IIIs reign, there appears to have been two schools of artists working in Thebesthose

following the more traditional style and others tending towards the style later inaugurated by Akhenaten. The exquisite

tomb reliefs of Amenhoteps vizier Ramose, are evidence of this.

The role of women

Women relatives of the pharaoh had a range of duties and enjoyed considerable status.

Many of the women in Amenhotep IIIs life are known to us: his mother Mutemwiya, his Great Royal Wife, Tiye, his

mother in law Thuya, some of his foreign wivesprincesses from Syria, Mitanni, Babylon and Arawaand Sitamun,

his eldest daughter from Tiye. These women and the roles they played in the life and reign of Amenhotep III are

revealed through a wide range of evidence, which includes reliefs, inscriptions, letters, statutory, tombs and mummies.

Mutemwiya -

It was once believed that Amenhotep IIIs mother Mutemwiya was a princess from Mitanni. His father, Thutmose IV,

did enter into such a marriage, but it was well after Amenhotep was born. The historian Aldred has shown that

Mutemwiya was Egyptian, not Mitannian, and that she came from a military family from Akhmin, a city about 240

kilometres north of Thebes. This family, although not royal, enjoyed a close relationship with the pharaohs family.

Amenhotep III came to the throne when he was a teenager. In those early years he was advised by his mother and a

group of administrators he had inherited from his father. Quite early in his reign many of these men were replaced with

others who became famous as brilliant administrators. Amenhotep III retained a close association with his mother and

it is likely that her mature judgement guided these early appointments. In Tomb 226 at Thebes there is a relief showing

Amenhotep in pharaonic regalia, seated on his throne. Mutemwiya, wearing the queens head-dress, stands behind him

with one of her hands on his arm, her other arm around his shoulder, evoking the image of the affectionate but firmly

guiding power behind the throne.

Tiye

Early in his reign Amenhotep III married Tiye, a woman of non-royal birth. On a

scarab commemorating their marriage Tiyes non-royal background is clearly proclaimed by the naming of her parents,

Yuya and Thuya.


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Tiye was a beautiful young woman. She was obviously very important to Amenhotep and he held great affection for

her. She was his Great Royal Wife, Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lady of the Two Lands. Her name often

appears in a cartouche, and in reliefs and statutory she is often shown beside the pharaoh as the same size. The huge

statue in the atrium of the Cairo Museum is an excellent example, showing the pharaoh and his queen seated side by

side as partners.

Tiye bore at least six children to Amenhotep IIIfour or five daughters and two sons, including the future pharaoh

Akhenaten. Although Amenhotep III had many other wives and consorts, Tiye retained her statues. In all the

commemorative scarabs, includi9ng one announcing the arrival of the princess Gilukhepa from Naharin as a new wife,

Tiye is named as the Great Royal Wife and her father and mother are also named.

One of the commemorative scarabs announced the construction of a lake which Amenhotep III made for Tiye. This

was a massive undertaking and obviously something that Amenhotep III took great pride in.

Amenhotep III also built a palace for Tiye at Malkata, and in a temple he built in Nubia he had Tiye portrayed as a

goddess. Such monuments and depictions indicate the important part Tiye played in the life of Amenhotep III.

Evidence from the Amarna letters suggests that Tiye played an active role in diplomatic affairs. Foreign rulers wrote

directly to her. Sometimes it was simply to ask her to support their requests for gold or other treasure, but at other

times the correspindenc4e indicates more significant involvement. When Amenhotep III died, King Tushratta of

Mitanni wrote to Tiye requesting that Egypts good relations with Mittani be continued. His letters show his respect for

Tiye and indicate the important role she played in relations between the two kings.

Sitamun -

In about the thirteenth year of his reign, Amenhotep III promoted his eldest daughter Sitamun to the same statues as her

mother TiyeGreat Royal Wife.

Diplomatic marriages -

Little is known of the personal relationships between Amenhotep III and his other wives. Some f these marriages were

made for political, not personal, reasons. The Amarna letters reveal that Amenhotep III married two Babylonian

princesses, a sister and a daughter of the king Kadashman-Enlil. These marriages ensured stable diplomatic relations.

In letters between the kings, reference is often made to the brotherhood or friendship between them and the fact that

marriage between their families makes them more closely related.

Another of Amenhotep IIIs wives was Gilukhepa, daughter of Shutarna, king of Mitanni. Her arrival in Egypt was

recorded on commemorative scarab which was then distributed throughout the empire.


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The cult of king and the rise of Amun

The most striking feature of religion during the Eighteenth Dynasty was the dominance of the cult of Amun over all

others. Not only did the kings ascribe their military successes to the support of Amun, but they filled the gods treasury

with untold wealth and endowed the temples with vast tracts of land and captives. The priests of Amun had played a

part in deciding who sat the throne by giving or withdrawing the support of their god and the king had adopted one

other their tiles, son of Amun.

Throughout his reign, Amenhotep III, like those before him, showed his devotion to Amun but there is evidence that he

may have believed that temples and estates of Amun had received enough of the riches of empire to pose a threat to

the king in certain circumstances(Thomas)

Amenhotep began to promote the interest of a form of the sun called the Aten. He associated the Aten with the cult of

the king.

Unlike other kings who became gods when they died, Amenhotep was deified during his lifetime and statues of him

were worshipped in a number of temples. A relief in a temple at Soleb in Nubia depicted him \worshipping and making

offerings to an image of himself as a god.


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Amenhotep IIIs reign became known as the Golden Age because he was the greatest pharaoh ofthe late 18th

Dynasty.

Through source analysis, support or refute this hypothesis.

The reign of Amenhotep III, known as the Golden Age was indeed the pinnacle of the late 18th dynasty, a period of

unparalleled peace and prosperity, which saw great artistic achievements and religious developments. It was the age of

Egypt's greatest splendour; there was peace in his Asian empire and he invaded Nubia only once. Under his reign, and

as a result of many conquests of his predecessors, Egypt was flooded by uncounted wealth, promoting incredible

flourishing of civilization. Amenhotep III built extensively at Thebes, Luxor, and Karnak. Abroad, the pharaohs

prestige had never been higher. Tablets found at Tel-el-Amarna shed light on the socio-political conditions in Egypt

and Asia Minor during this period. All these factors augment to show us that Amenhotep IIIs reign is rightly called

The Golden Age.

Amenhotep III was the ninth ruler of the Eighteenth dynasty. From his predecessors he inherited a great empire, whose

borders stretched from northern Syria to the fifth Cataract of the Nile, in the Sudan. Amenhotep III had inherited the

most secure throne in the Ancient world. The 18th Dynasty was now some two centuries old and the age of the warrior

was no longer necessary; all effective rebellion had ceased and there were no more wars to fight due to the successful

military campaigns of his forebears such as those of Amenhotep II.

His majesty had this stela carved and erected in this templefollowing his return from his first

victorious campaign in eastern Syria, where he killed all his enemies and extended the boarders

of Egypt. His majesty approached his father Amen happily, after personally clubbing to death

seven princes who had previously ruled the land of Takhshi and hanging their corpses head-

down from the city wall at Thebes, along with their severed hands. The one remaining corpse he

transported south to Nubia, and hung it from the enclosure wall of Napata, so that his victories

would be remembered forever throughout the land of Nubia. He has seized the southerners and

crushed the northerners as far as the ends of the earth, wherever the sun shines. He is free to fix

his borders where he chooses, because his father Amen-Re has decreed than no one can oppose

him

~Amada Stela of Amenhotep II

The Amada Stela gives insight into the military strength of the pharaohs in the period leading up to the reign of

Amenhotep III, by detailing the victorious campaign of Amenhotep II it acknowledges the conquests of those past

pharaohs and their part in bringing peace to the empire. As a result, Joyce Tyldesley notes that Egypt was at peace;

rich, respected and ready to enjoy the magnificent fruits of the empire. Nevertheless, Amenhotep IIIs own

willingness to defend his empire must not be ignored. He was not averse to taking action when needed, specifically in

Palestine where he personally led a Nubian campaign. Ancient evidence such as Stela from the First Cataract, the

Semna Inscription, the Tablet of Victory, the Temple at Soleb and the Temple of Amun-Re-Mont at Karnak provides

an extensive record. The Stela cut into the rock near the First Cataract records the revolt in Nubia in the fifth year of

Amenhotep IIIs reign, and that he had invaded the country to crush the rebels.

One came to tell his majesty: The foe of Kush the wretched has planned rebellion in his heart.

His majesty led on unto his victory, he completed it on his first victorious campaign. His majesty


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went forth like Horus, like MontuHe knew not this lion which was before him; Nebmare

(Amenhotep III) was a fierce-eyed lion, he seizedKush. All the chiefs were overthrown in their

valleys, cast down in their own blood.

~J.H .Breasted

Despite his own contributions, the empire Amenhotep III inherited was largely at peace as a result of the diplomatic

policies and military campaigns of his grandfather Amenhotep II and father Thutmose IV. Many modern historians

have disparaged Amenhotep III for being more interested in his own pleasures than ruling, for having a limp foreign

policy, for showing indolent neglect of his Asiatic provinces and for combining an unwavering pursuit of all manner

of worldly pleasures with a program of self glorification claiming that with such a firm foundation Amenhotep IIIs

rule should have been an impressive rule. However, the period in which Amenhotep III ruled was unique in that it was

a period of peace enabling Amenhotep III to maintain peace through diplomatic relations. Throughout his reign he

exemplifies Egypts prominence by producing impressive building works which have contributed to his rule being

labelled the Golden Age following claims that he was the greatest pharaoh of the late 18 th dynasty.

In the absence of war, Amenhotep III ruled his empire through his policy of diplomacy, which allowed Egypt to be in a

state of peace and prosperity. Egypts wealth was the envy of the ancient world as is evident in the famous cache of

diplomatic correspondence called the Amarna Letters, recording the correspondence of foreign rulers who wrote to

the Egyptian king, pleading for gold, of which Egypt had plenty.

Great King, King of Egypt, my brotherGold in your country is like dust; one simply picks it

up. Why are you so sparing of it? I am building a new palace. Send me as much gold as is

required for its adornment.

~Letter from the King of Assyria to Amenotep III

May my brother send me in very great quantities unworked goldand much more gold than he

sent to my father. In my brothers country gold is as plentiful as dustWhatever my brother

requires for his house, let him write and take it.

~Letter from the King of Mittani to Amenotep II

These excerpts are typical examples of the letters received by the pharaoh Amenhotep III and show how foreign leaders

did not see it below themselves to beg for gold, clearly acknowledging Egypts impressive wealth and dominance in the

region. In return for gold the Egyptians were able to acquire prestige commodities, which they desired but lacked,

prominent among them were lapis lazuli, conifer wood such as cedar and royal women. Evidence for this comes from a

clay tablet found in Amarna which is inscribed with a letter from Tushratta, King of Mitanni to Amenotep III (seen

above), one of a series detailing negotiations for a marriage between Tushrattas daughter Tadukhipa, and the Egyptian

King. As a bride-price, Tushratta asks for gold in very great quantities, adding that gold is like dust in the land of

my brother. This period was indeed a Golden Age for Egypt, who as an empire exerted unprecedented power and

influence over its neighbours as is evident in the political correspondence recorded in the letters found at Amarna.


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As a result of Amenhotep IIIs policy of diplomacy, Egypt became a multicultural society due to the growing number

of foreigners coming to Egypt to trade and settle. The trade and exchange of gifts between rulers made the Egyptians

familiar with the skilfulness of foreign craftsmen and consequently the local arts and crafts contained some eastern

influence. For most of Amenhotep IIIs reign he governed the empire efficiently through his policy of diplomacy and

peace and stability were maintained, however, there are reports that the lack of military action meant that his

administration became complacent towards the end of his reign. Overall the empire was effectively ruled adding to the

power and prominence of Egypt fitting of a Golden Age.

The reign of Amenhotep III was a period of unprecedented wealth for Egypt, and with the empire at peace, he was able

to focus on internal affairs, initiating a large program of rebuilding and renewal. Amenhotep III practically transformed

the landscape of the Nile Valley during his thirty-nine year rule, with a building program that surpasses that of any of

his predecessors. Indeed, as OConner says few pharaohs from any period in Egyptian history are as noteworthy for

their monument-building activities as Amenhotep III.

The administration of Amenhoteps empire and the implementation of his ambitious building program required an

army of officials. These officials oversaw the building of works such as the Luxor temple and the Colossi of Mennon

the most famous of the monuments that Amenhotep III erected throughout Egypt and northern Sudan. No previous

king had left more tangible proofs of his greatness, than Amenhotep III. Dubbed Amenhotep the Magnificent by

historians, Amenhotep III preferred to call himself the Dazzling Sun Disk. His impressive building works are a

substantial contributor towards Amenhotep III being recognised as the greatest pharaoh of the late eighteenth dynasty

and the construction of a Golden Age.

The temple of Luxor was a stunningly beautiful example of the architectural achievements produced during the reign of

Amenhotep III and is said to be the most magnificent of Amenhotep IIIs temples. Many historians have described

the magnificence of Luxor Temple; Hornung says that it is the most beautiful of the preserved buildings of Amenhotep

III while Reeves says that it is clearly Amenhotep IIIs principal architectural triumph and as Bradley acknowledges

it to be Amenhoteps greatest building achievement. This sandstone temple was built on the site of an existing temple

which had to be dismantled specifically for the building of the Luxor temple for the purpose of the rituals of the Opet

festival. This festival renewed the pharaohs power and reaffirmed that he was the gods son. Reliefs in the birth

chamber narrate Amenhoteps divine conception and birth.

Amenhotep IIIs mortuary temple is the single largest royal temple known to us from ancient Egypt. Although the

temple was built to house the funeral service for the pharaohs spirit, it was dedicated to Amun. The description from

the great building stela gives some idea of its splendour and wealth.

This inscription acknowledges the greatness of his construction when it says never has happened like since the

beginning. The wealth of Egypt is highlighted with the description of the materials used to construct this one temple:

Elephantine granite, costly gritstone and every splendid costly stone. In front of the temple Amenhotep III

constructed two large statues of himself, over sixteen metres tall, and they are considered to be the most grandiose of

Amenhoteps numerous monuments to himself. These statues are known as the Colossi of Memnon and are the only

remains of the temple in this present day.


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Historians are in agreement that Amenhotep IIIs building programme outshone those of his predecessors and that it

cannot be outdone.

The reign of Amenhotep III became known as the Golden Age because he was the greatest pharaoh of the late 18th

Dynasty. This statement is supported through the wealth of sources both archaeological and written about the reign of

Amenhotep III. Amenhotep capitalised on the peace which he inherited as a result of the campaigns of his forebears

allowing him to achieve great things such as his impressive building program and the peaceful, diplomatic negotiations

with foreign leaders. In the reign of Amenhotep III, Egypt reached the peak of her wealth and glory, Aldred calls it an

autumn of richness and luxury, controlled by taste and high standards of fine craftsmanship. It was truly a golden age,

the pinnacle of Egyptian society in terms of both political power and cultural achievement.


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Akhenaten

Amenhotep IV, son of Amenhotep III and his great wife Tiye, has stimulated the most controversy and debate of any

Egyptian pharaoh.

A great deal of research and further archaeological work must still be done before many problems of his reign are

solved. The evidence available is patchy, and the historians task is made even more difficult by later pharaohs

attempts to destroy Amenhotep IVs memory. His name was omitted from king list recorded by Manetho, and much of

his material evidence was destroyed. Later pharaohs used the stone from his structures at Karnak and his city of

Akhenaten for their own building programs.

Historians have differed widely in their treatment of Akhenaten. J. Breasted claimed that Akhenaten was the first

individual in history, whilst J. Pendelbury, one of the earliest excavators of Amarna wrote Today, the impression that

the art and civilisation of Amarna gives us, is that of an ephemeral butterfly age, with that total lack of moral standards

usually associated with happy morons.

Summary of events during the Amarna Period

Date Developments

Years 1-4

Amenhotep IV

Amenhotep IV proclaimed a new version of the solargod Re-Horakhte.

He ordered the decoration of hisfathers pylongateways at Karnak in the traditional forms.

The name Re-Horakhte was enclosed in doublecartouches and a new icon (the rayed sun-disk) was

inscribed on the temple pylons.

A decree was issued, announcing the erection of foursun temples near the enclosure of the god Amun-Re at

Karnak.

Amenhotep IV held a jubilee (sed-festival) in year 3.

Years 5-8

Akhenaten

The king had produced three daughters by year 5. Akhenaten announced the founding of a new capital

city dedicated to the Aten half-way between Memphis

and Thebes.

He changed his name from Amenhotep IV toAkhenaten, and ordered the closure of Amuns temple.

The city of Aketaten became the religious andadministrative centre of Egypt by year 8.

Years 9-11

At Akhetaten

Akhenaten changed the name of the Aten and purgedany reference to other gods except Reno plurality of

gods.

Maat (truth) was no longer represented as a woman. Three more daughters fathered by Akhenaten. By


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year 9 he had six daughters.

Years 1217

At Akhetaten

A great reception of foreign ambassadors from Asia,Africa and the Aegean held at Akhetaten in year 12.

The Queen Mother, Tiye, visited and possibly lived atAkhetaten.

The Egyptians were faced with problems in Syria andPalestine and a plague, originating in the kingdom of

Mitanni, spread to Egypt.

About year 14, bit Queen Tiye and Akhenatenssecond daughter died.

After year 14 there were no more references toNefertiti and soon after Kiya died.

Akhenatens eldest daughter took the role of the queenand in year 15 was married to Smenkhare.

Between years 14 and 17, intensification of attach onAmun.

Co-regency between the heir, Smenkhare andAkhenaten.

Possible death of Akhenaten in year 17.

Marriage to Nefertiti

It is believed that Amenhotep IV was already married to Nefertiti when he came to the throne. There are no details

about the queens background or parents but it is generally believed that she came from a family that was well known

at court. It has been suggested that she might have been the daughter of Ay, thought to be the brother. Despite

Nefertitis obscure background, there are more images of her as queen, wife and mother than of any otherwoman in

New Kingdom Egypt.

The earliest depiction of her is one found in Ramoses tomb. At this early date the young king and queen are

represented in the traditional artistic form with the wife standing demurely behind her husband. There appear to be no

children at this time., However, after the birth of her fist daughter, Nefertiti is shown officiating as the kings equal and

from this time on she is treated as the kings partner, not only in their family life but in religious and political life as

well. They were hardly ever shown apart as she is described in the records as possessed of charm, sweet in love and

one who makes others happy by the sound of her voice.

From the magnificent bust of Nefertiti in the Berlin Museum, she appears to have been a great beauty and is usually

depicted wearing the elegant and distinctive crown which she initiated for herselfthe tall straight-edged blue

headdress perhaps an echo of the blue khepresh or war crown frequently worn by the king. This was just one eof the

many indicators of her great status.


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Even in the early years when the couple were still living at Thebes, Nefertiti was depicted in kingly styles on the walls

of temples and in statuary. In one scene she is shown as a warrior king subduing the enemies of Egypt in female form

and in another she is depicted wearing a version of the kingly atef crown. Samson believes that Amenhotep IV was

emphasising her equality with him in the rule.

Religious revolutionthe cult of the Aten

During the first few years of his reign, Amenhotep IV made no great change to religion. It seems that he completed

work begun by his father at the temple of Amun at Karnak, particularly pylon 3. This showed scenes of Amenhotep IV

in traditional pharaonic form, offering to the falcon-headed god Re-Horakhte: he who rejoices in the horizon in his

name Sunlight that is in the Disk (Redford).

However, Amenhotep IV soon made his revolutionary break with other cults and devoted himself to the Aten. By

formally changing his name to glorify the Aten, Akhenaten was announcing hat State religious policy now supported

his one godthe actual sun-disk Aten.

Why did the king make these changes?

There is great debate over the reasons behind the changes. Were his reasons political? Was he trying to reassert power

of the kingship over the old established nobility?

Were the Theban priests of the god Amun becoming too powerful and trying to control the king? If so, a religious

change, with emphasis on a new god and only the pharaoh having a direct link to that god would be an effective

alternative.

Were his reasons religious? Did Akhenaten truly believe in his one god and so wish to eliminate the worship of other

gods?

Were the religious changes unique?

Sun-worship was already present in Egypt in the form of the sun-god Re of Heliopolis. Re was often amalgamated with

other important gods e.g. Amun-Re, Sobek-Re, Re-Horakhte and so on. However there was no god Aten before the

eighteenth dynasty.

The word Aten meant the physical disk of the sun, Aten was represented as a disk with human hands extending from

it, offering the symbol of eternal lifethe ankhto Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Worship of the Aten achieved great

prominence under Akhenaten, but Akhenaten was not the first to use the term.

Earlier, Thutmose IV issued a scarab stating that he had fought with the Aten before him and that he campaignedabroad to make the foreigners to be like the (Egyptian) people, in order to serve the Aten forever (J.A. Wilson).

Amenhotep IVs father Amenhotep III built a lake for Queen Tiye to sail upon in her boat Aten Gleams. During Amenhotep IIIs reign a certain Ramose was both a priest of Amun and Steward in the Temple of the

Aten. Thus, it seems there was a temple at Thebes for Aten before Akhenaten came to the throne.


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The universalism of Akhenatens religion has often been stressed. It was stated that the ASten cherished all living

things in all countries.

Only Akhenaten and his family could worship the Aten directly. Ordinary people instead worshipped Akhenaten as a

god on earth. Prayers were directed to Akhenaten, not the Aten. Akhenaten was referred to as the good god, and was

depicted as the physical son of the Aten.

Effects of Akhenatens religious changes

Akhenatens religious revolution had an effect on:

temple architecture, decoration and ritual art the kings jubilee the site and layout of the new capital city of Akhetaten the economy funerary practices the social life of the ordinary Egyptians.

Foreign Affairs

Historians disagree of Akhenatens role in maintaining the empire. Many have agreed that he was a pacifist who had

no interest in military matters, allowing the empire to disintegrate whilst he enjoyed life at Akhetaten.

However, it appears that Akhenaten did not turn his back on all military matters. The German historian H. Schlogl

points out that many men in high positions at the Amarna court had links to the army. Scenes depicting the military

and soldiers in the private Amarna tombs are more frequent that in most other periods. At the very least Akhenaten

must have had the support of the army to continue ruling as pharaoh.

There is evidence of campaigns during his reign. For example, it seems that around year 12 ofAkhenatens rule a

campaign in Nubia was led by Thutmose, viceroy of Kush. A victory stela was set up in the temple of Buhen,

announcing the capture of more than 145 Nubians and 361 cattle.

A commemorative scarab describes Akhenaten withgreat war cry, possessed of a mighty reputation (Redford),

whilst in a stela of the general Nakhtmin from early in his reign, Akhenaten is called Ruler of happy heart, who curbed

all lands and the mighty king, lord of every foreign land (Redford).

As far south as Kawa, near the Third Cataract, a temple the sun-disk has been found. It seems that, in the south at least,

Akhenaten continued the warrior-pharaoh role, carrying on the traditional harassment of Nubia.

The Amarna Letters


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Most of our information on the empire to the north and relations between Egypt and northern lands comes from a

collection of clay tablets, now known as the Amarna tablets or the Amarna letters. These were found at Amarna in

1887 by an Egyptian peasant. They are the royal correspondence, in cuneiform, between Akhenaten and the Hittites,

Mitanni and Kassites, and cities such as Byblos, Jerusalem, Gezer, Askalon, Kadesh, Amurru, Sidon, Tyre and Ugarit.

The letters show that there was considerable unrest and squabbling between the Hear East towns. Some areas were

threatened by the Hittites, and Ribaddi of Byblos complained of the invasion by the Amurru.

The first interpretation if the Amarna tablets was that Akhenaten showed no real interest in the slow invasion and

conquest of the Egyptian vassals by the new and rising state of the Hittites under King Suppiliumas. However, there is

not enough evidence to be sure that Akenaten played no role in the events of the north-east. He took part in no great

military campaignsbut neither did his father Amenhotep III.

It seems that when Egyptian interests were not directly at stake Akhenaten saw no great need to intervene. The Hittites

moved south into Syria and the Mittani had to submit. However, it seems that the Hittites did not press further south,

so not to antagonise Egypt.

Towns that had been loyal to Egypt in Palestine were fearful:

I hear that Hittite troops were setting the countries on fireand now, in fact, the soldiers of Khatte (Hittites) were

being brought to take Byblos.

- Redford

Rebellion within towns once loyal to Egypt continued. Redford suggests that the policy of taking rulers children to

Egypt and raising them as Egyptians produced kings who were very loyal to Egypt but who may have been estranged

from their subjects. An example would be Rib-addi of Byblos.

It seems that Akhenaten was kept informed of events in the Near East but did not intervene unnecessarily. Tribute was

still sent by many towns, and many kings and leaders continued to write directly to the pharaoh about local activities.

As long as important Egyptian interests were unaffected, it appears that Akhenaten was content to let his vassals bicker

and fight amongst themselves.


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Explain the significance of the Amarna period

The Amarna period is a time of controversy amongst modern historians, despite the great deal of research, information

about this period is scarce. Their struggle for information is made more difficult by Akhenatens successors

systematically destroying all traces of his reign. The reign had such a revolutionary impact on Egyptian society and

went so against traditional thinking of the Egyptian people that Akhenaten was called a heretic by later pharaohs.

Today, the view of Akhenaten is more favourable, Breasted describes Akhenaten as the first individual in history.

Akhenatens reign attempted to fundamentally alter all aspects of Egyptian life through the dramatic change in religious

thinking from traditional polytheism to monotheism with the worship of the Aten. As well as religious changes

Akhenatens reign is also characterised by a dramatic transformation in the artistic conventions, style and subject

matter. Foreign relations during the period is a matter of disagreement amongst historians, many say he was a pacifist

who allowed the empire to disintegrate while other believed that he pursued a diplomatic policy with a laissez-faire

attitude. The Amarna years were a significant period in Egyptian history, different to all other period of Egyptian

history.

Akhenaten made the revolutionary break with tradition in the early years of his reign and devoted himself to the Aten.

By formally changing his name to glorify the Aten, Akhenaten was making a statement that State religious policy

would now support his one godthe sun disk Aten. The reasons behind this dramatic change have gathered much

speculation amongst historians. There is speculation over whether his motive was political or religious. During the

New Kingdom the priests of Amun were becoming significantly more powerful and it is believed that in order to

reduce their power Akhenaten made this religious break away from Amun. Also his relationship with the Aten was

unique in that only the royal family had a direct link to the god. There is also speculation over the move was simply

what Akhenaten believed, he believed in one god and wanted to eliminate what he may have perceived as false gods.

Whatever the reason for the change it was of significant proportions, an extreme break from the traditional Egyptian

worship of many different gods.

During the New Kingdom sun-worship was common in the form of the sun god Re. However, there was no god Aten

before the 18th Dynasty and worship of the Aten achieved prominence only under Akhenaten. Despite this the Aten

had been referred to by Akhenatens predecessors, for example, Thutmose IV had issued a scarab stating that he had

fought with the Aten before him and that he campaigned abroad to make the foreigners to be like the Egyptian

people, in order to serve the Aten forever. Akhenatens father and Amenhotep III built a lake for his great royal wife

Tiy to sail upon in her boat Aten Gleams. There is also mention of a temple to the Aten at Thebes before Akhenaten

came to the throne under the direction of Ramose, who was both a priest to Amun and Steward in the Temple of the

Aten during the reign of Amenhotep III. This shows that Akhenatens changes may not have been as radical as

previously believed as there was evidence for the Aten in earlier reigns.

Another significant characteristic of the reign of Akhenaten was the move to Akhetaten (Amarna), a new, purpose built

city dedicated to the worship of the Aten. This city was situated in Middle Egypt, surrounded by vast natural cliffs.

These cliffs formed the shape of the hieroglyph for horizon on a cosmic scale. To Akhenaten it seemed that he had

found the very site of creation. An Amarna Boundary stela records the decision to move to Amara

Then they prostrated themselves before His Majesty and grovelled in the dust in front of him.

And His Majesty said to them, The Aten wanted Akhetaten to be built for his as an everlasting

monument to his name. It was my father, the Aten himself, who pointed out the site for


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Akhetaten; none of my advisers suggested it, none of the inhabitants of the whole land suggested

itRemember before His Majesty found it, it did not belong to any king or queen, it did not

belong to any official or commoner to exploit it for profit

There would be no turning back, Akhenaten intended to live, die and be buried in his new and magnificent city. The

city was constructed using mud bricks and specially designed stone blocks known today as talitat. The workmen

managed to build the city up to full functionality in a mere four years. Akhenaten transferred all his family and royal

entourage to the new city and many courtiers from Thebes, along with scribes, accountants and bureaucrats from

Memphis, priests, soldiers, officials and labourers left their homes and moved to Aketaten. Here they would live to

serve the king and his god. The city was provided with everything that a king and his god could possibly need.

Impressive mud brick palaces, stone temples, roads, processional ways, wells, gardens, factories, storage houses,

hosing for the rich and poor, a port and a burial ground were constructed. The city quickly developed into an isolated,

self sufficient city. Akhenatens achievement of building this new city was an achievement of grand proportions and

has set the Amarna period apart from all other reigns. The construction of a new city was a significant characteristic of

the period.

The Amarna period was also a scene of artistic revolution with changes made to style, convention and subject matter of

art. The first four years of Akhenatens reign carried on traditional art, the royal scribe Kheruefs tomb was decorated

in the traditional fashion and inscriptions still mention many gods. We see a shift in style in the tomb of vizier Ramose,

whose tomb shows a blend of both old and new artistic style. On the left doorway of his tomb Akhenaten is depicted

enthroned with the goddess Maat in the traditional form, however, on the right side there is an example of the new

Amarna art with Akhenaten and Nefertiti leaning out of the Window of Appearances. The Atenis shown in its fully

developed from, with human hands holding the ankh to the royal pair. This new art forms were continued and

exaggerated, epitomised by the colossal statue of Akhenaten at Karnak. The statue shows the king in an exaggerated

and distorted fashion with heavy hips and an elongated head. Artists would not have produced this style without direct

orders from the king, the sculptor Bak, tells us that he was merely the pupil whom His Majesty taught. By the end of

the fifth year of his reign Akhenaten had developed a decidedly effeminate body with underdeveloped shoulders arms

and lower legs but with wide hips, thunder thighs, obvious breasts and a narrow waist. During a later phase of the

kings rule the art becomes less extreme but it still represent the king and his family in an unprecedented way, including

intimate family scenes with Akhenaten and Nefertiti playing with their daughters, riding in chariots, embracing,

holding hands and dining together. The new type of art was soon extended to Egypts elite and Amarna courtiers were

drawn in this new artistic style. They also painted scenes of life and naturewheat rippling in the wind, farmers

ploughing, birds taking flight. This revolution in artistic style was a significant change from traditional forms of art.

Despite the major upheavals involved in establishing the new city, twelve years of peace had passed. Akhenaten ruled

Egypt in what appears to be a diplomatic laissez fair policy, although historians do debate this point. Akhenaten was

confident in Egypts international glory, his belief was assured during a celebration which was held at Aketaten. On

this occassion distinguished ambassadors from all foreign lands came to visit, all bearing gifts for the new pharaoh.

Representatives from Africa bought gold, ivory, leopards and monkeys. From Punt came incense, musk and

sandalwood. Syrians bought chariots decorated with gold, an antelope, a lion and an oryx; Libyans brought ostrich

eggs; Minoans paraded through Egypts new capital with rows of extravagantly decorated amphorae. Despite the

festivities Akhenatens loyal vessels found themselves without any real support from Egypt, this discontent is made

known in the Amarna letters.


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The king my lord should be informed that the king of Hatti has seized all countries that were the

vassals of Mitanni

In the time of Thutmose III anyone threatening Tunip would have been plundered by the king.

New Tunip weeps: In Canaan some locals beat my merchants and stole their moneyCanaan is

your country and its kings are your slavesin your country I was robbed

Akhentaen did not respond to pleas of his imperial subjects. Some historians argue that he was a pacifist; however,

Akhenaten had sent troops to Nubia to quash a rebellion in Year 12 of his reign.

The cuneiform correspondence known as the Amarna letters tells us the story of the slow

disintegration of the Empire in Asia as a result of new forces in that area and of the indifference

and preoccupation of the pharaoh.

J.A. Wilson

Swept up in religious passion, Akhenaten brought the vast and powerful Egyptian empire to the brink of collapse.

The Amarna period was a time of significant change as the pharaoh Akhenaten was determined to revolutionise the

empire in accordance to his own belief in the god Aten. The changes to religion, art and politics set the Amarna period

apart. The dramatic change to religion caused a great upheaval amongst the Egyptian people as all other gods were

banned despite the pharaohs god, the Aten. Also the move to the new capital of Akhetaten sets this period apart from

all others. This move was significant in that never before had a project of such grand proportions been carried out.

Akhenatens foreign policy is his downfall; his neglect of foreign powers is evident in the Amarna letters and is a cause

fro controversy amongst historians. Despite this the Egyptian empire held prestige over other nations due to the

military and diplomatic achievements of Akhenatens forebears. The Amarna period was a significant change from

anything Egypt had ever experienced, perhaps too radical as, following the death of Akhenaten in the 17th year of rule

the city of Akhetaten was systematically destroyed, old gods restored and the capital city returned to Thebes.


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Tutankhamun

Post-Amarna period begins here, old religion was being restored. Tutankhamun reintroduced polytheism, but there was

not a complete attempt to banish the Aten. Earlier historians believe Tutankhamun achieved very little in his short

reign, but Okcinga pointed out that even though his reign was short. There is an abundance of evidence, recently

because so much of his work was discovered to be scratched out by Horemheb building work of his own, we know far

more of him than originally historians believed. Tutankhamun is most famous for his tomb, his glorious funerary mask

was the only tomb discovered intact.

To appear to the population as a traditional pharaoh he:

Payed a lot of attention to showing himself as a virile hunter, warrior pharaoh. He brought back the traditional festivals He embarked upon a very ambitious building program Went back to traditional pharaoh depictions Egypts political capital returns to Memphis: Thebes re-established as centre of the state cult of Amun Extensive building works carried out at the temples at Karnak and Luxor.

There is evidence in the early part of his reign that he fought against the Hittites. Hittite sources say Egypt was defeated

in Kadesh in Syria. His tomb has war scenes of him and in Horemhebs tomb. Redford suggests that the Assyrians and

Egyptians linked up as they could have been next in line for Hittite expansion. Relief fragments at Karnak and Luxor

show that he was involved in campaigns also. This all shows he was again conforming to the traditional pharaoh image.

Military Campaigns

Hittites were slowly gaining more power and were adding conquered territory further south. They finally defeated king

Tushratta of the Mitanni, and ally of Egypt. The Assyrians to the north-east under king Ashur began to fill the power

vacuum left by the defeated Mitannians. Redford argues that Hittite records suggest that Egypt and Assyria acted

together to attack the area around Kadesh but were beaten back into Egyptian held territory near the Orentes river.

Egyptian sources are silent on the actual details.

Horemhebs tomb revealed evidence of several campaigns during Tutankhamuns reign, realistic reliefs and texts show

delegations of Asiatic princes asking for aid against their enemies.

Building Program

Recent archaeological work reveals that Tutankhamuns did more projects than first thought. It appears that many

buildings had been diminished or usurped by Horemheb and Aye. His works included:

Figures of Tutankhamun were added to reliefs on the third pylon at Karnak. In the Hall of Records of Thutmose 2, two beautiful statues of Amen and the goddesses Amenet were carved with

the features of Tutankhamun and his wife Ankhenespa-aten.

Tutankhamun was buried in a small tomb in the valley of the kings. That was probably being prepared for a noble,it is only decorated in the burial chamber and gives the impression of being hurriedly prepared. Perhaps a

mortuary temple was begun, but its location has not been found.


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Tomb for himself at Thebes Restoration Stela refers to Temple of Amun at Karnak, which he restored the damaged 6 th pylon and Built temples

of his own

Magnificent reliefs of the Opet festival which adorn the walls of a colonnaded hall in the temple of Amun at Luxor At least one temple was built at Memphis, and in Nubia temples were built at Kawa and Faras

Symbols of Kingship

Tutankamun portrayed himself as a tradition king with all the accompanying symbols of Kingship. He received the age

of sportsman king and warrior pharaoh. He wore the false beard ureaus, and royal collar and carried the crook and flail.

He is buried in a typical osirian burial. As warrior pharaoh, in his tomb he is depicted defeating his enemies in battle

from chariot and trampling the traditional enemies of Egypt. He calls himself The good god, son of amen. The valiant

one. Without his equal. A possessor of strength who tramples hundreds of thousands, who makes them into a pile of

corpses

Death of Tutankhamun

His death was obviously unexpected as there was no royal tomb. There are different stories as to how he died ranging

form assassination, to accidental death either in a sporting accident or battle against the Hittites but there is no record

from the Hittites. He ruled for 9 years.

His early death deprived him of an opportunity to show what he could do if given a change (Redford).


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Seti I

Setis ambitions

According to Kitchen, Seti Is overriding aim was the renewal of Egypt which he hoped to achieve by following the

examples of the great Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs Thutmose III (conqueror) and Amenhotep III (builder). His royal

titulary is evidence of this. He adopted the throne name of Men-ma-re which Kitchen maintains was a cross between

that of Thutmose III and Amenhotep III. His Two Goddess attribute was Bringer of Renaissance (Rebirth), Strong

armed, Subduing the Foe.

His ambitions seem to have been:

to restore those areas of Syria which had been part of the Egyptian empire by following the military strategyof Thutmose III

to equal in magnificence the buildings of Amenhotep III.

Setis military campaigns

Setis ultimate military objective was to conquer the lands of Kadesh and Amurru, but he knew that if he were to

achieve his objective he would have to follow the three-step strategy used by Thutmose III. This was:

to gain a firm hold of Palestine to control the seaports along the Phoenician coastline to launch his attack on central and northern Syria from the coast.

During the first six years of his reign he achieved his objectives. However, the records on the walls of the Temple of

Karnak, which provide an overview of his campaigns, make it difficult to build up a clear chronological picture,

particularly with regard to his activities at Kadesh.

Campaigns in Palestine and Phoenicia

As had often happened in the past, when a new king came to the throne of Egypt, the local princes in Palestine took the

opportunity to rebel. According to the records at Karnak, the Shosu Bedouin of southern Palestine had revolted, they

have taken to cursing and quarrellingthey disregard the laws of the palace (Breasted). The hostile Bedouin chief of

Hammath, further north, had captured the Egyptian garrison towns of Beth-Shan and Rhob, His Majesty was glad on

account of itrejoicing to begin battle, he delighted to enter it (Breasted).

He moved with the three divisions of his army against the poorly-armed Shosu Beouin near Gaza and then despatched

the First Division of Amun, Mighty of Bows, against the towns of Hammath; the First Division of Re, Abounding in

Valour, against the (captured) town of Beth-Shan; and the First Division of Seth, Strong of Bows, against the town of

Yenoam (Kitchen).

After erecting a victory stela at Beth-Shan, he may have re-established Egyptian control over the southern part of the

Phoenician coast before returning in triumph to Egypt.


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During the next three years he led several more campaigns during which:

he dealt with disturbances in Galilee caused by the Apiru he secured the provinces of Upi in southern Syria he marched up the Phoenician coastline taking control of the seaports of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos and Simyra he organised the shipment to Egypt of precious cedar from Lebanon which was used for Amuns barge and

flagstaffs.

He erected three more steal at Beth-Shan, Tel el-Shihab and Tyre describing his triumphs.

Seti had reaffirmed Egypts hold on her possessions in Palestine and southern Syria, had control of the Phoenician

coastline and had cut off the Hittite-controlled territory of Amurru from the sea. He was now prepared to launch an

attack on Amurru and Kadesh and face the opposition of the Hittiies who were more formidable that the doughy

Mitanni of Thutmose IIIs day (Kitchen).

Threat from Libya

There is some confusion in the sources as to the chronology of Setis campaigns in Syria but Kitchen believes that the

kings attempt to take Kadesh was interrupted by the need to deal with the Libyans who were threatening Egypt from

the west.

The Libyans were being pushed eastward as they were displaced by groups of Sea People moving into the coastal areas

of northern Africa. This movement was part of a general upheaval throughout the Mediterranean area at the time.

Seti and his forces dealt with the Libyans so effectively that they were not a serious threat to Egypt for about another

115 years.

Campaign against Amurru and Kadesh and conflict with the Hittites

In year 5 or 6, Seti probably launched his attack on Amurru and Kadesh from the Phoenician coastline, following the

strategy of Thutmose III. The reliefs on the walls of the hypostyle hall at the Temple of Amun depict the storming of

Kadesh. For this important victory, Seti honoured the gods Montu, Seth and Amun by erecting a steal inside the city of

Kasesh. Seti was the first pharaoh for over 100 years to bring Kadesh under the control, of the Egyptians.

However, the kings triumph was short-lived because the young Hittite king, Muwatallis, did not stand by and watch

territory held by the Hittites for two generations fall under the control of the Egyptians.

It appears that Seti, satisfied that he had proved himself as a warrior, may have signed a peace treaty with the Hittites.

Although this was not mentioned in the Egyptians records, Seti seems to have agreed to stop further attacks on Amurru

and Kadesh in return for Hittite acceptance of Egyptian control over Palestine and the cities along the Phoenician

coastline. Seti knew when to withdraw from the area.

Actions in Nubia


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In year 8, according to a rock inscription in Nubia, Seti ordered military action against a group of nomadic people

called the Irem who roamed between the wells and oases beyond the Third Cataract in Nubia. These tribesmen seemed

to have planned a raid on the Nile Valley to seize cattle, crops and land if possible. It appears that Seti did not lead this

campaign himself.

The results of Seti Is military actions

Between years 1 and 8, Seti carried out five campaigns by which he:

showed his own potential as a military leader revived the image of the warrior pharaoh which had developed in the early part of the Eighteenth Dynasty satisfied his honour by being the fist pharaoh to capture the formidable city of Kadesh in over a century secured Egypts borders proved that Egypt was once again a force to be reckoned with, by subduing rebellious tribes and cities in

Palestine and restoring much of Egypts former territory along the Phoenician coast.


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Building, quarrying and mining

To fulfil the second of his ambitionsto emulate the building activities of Amenhotep IIISeti directed his many

capable officials to oversee the construction and decoration of:

a magnificent pure white limestone temple at Abydos a great columned hypostyle hall at Karnak a glittering summer palace at Avaris new work on the sanctuaries of Re at Heliopolis and Ptah at Memphis his mortuary temple and tomb in western Thebes.

Since his extensive construction program required massive amounts of building material, he initiated expeditions to

locate better supplies of fine stone and gold and attempted to improve the conditions of the quarry workers and miners

who laboured in the intense heat of the desert.

Much of the initial building work was supervised by the vizier Nebamun but after year 10, Paser became Setis vizier

of the south and took over the tremendous task of construction work in Thebes. The viceroy of Nubia, Amen-em-ope,

was responsible for the vital gold supply needed fro the mansions of the gods.

Crown Prince Rameses not only visited most of his fathers building sites but was put in charge of the multitude of

works commissioned by the king at Aswan such as very great obelisks, and great and marvellous statues (Breasted).

This project involved the construction of huge barges for transporting the obelisks and black granite statues down the

river. Rameses also spent much of his time at Abydos, supervising the work on his fathers cenotaph temple and the

preparation of a huge gold statue of the king for the sanctuary.

Seti often left his palace in the north to travel south, to celebrate one of the great festivals and check on the progress of

his temples and tomb. It was during two of these visits, in year 6 and 9, that he took a personal interest in the welfare

of his quarrymen and transport force and personally investigated the conditions of the gold miners in the desert near

Edfu.

Because of his non-royal background, Seti was probably more aware than most kings of the hardships under which his

workmen and supervisors laboured. He attempted to encourage them and made their work a little easier. According to

a quarry inscription at Silsila, Seti ordered that those individuals involved in quarrying and transporting sandstone

should have their rations substantially increased. As a result, they worked hard for him with a loving heart (Kitchen).

To speed up the delivery of gold from the mines to the treasury of the temple he was building at Abydos, Seti took a

personal interest in improving the conditions of the mine workers as well.

The mines were located at Wadi Mia, 60 kilometres from the Nile in the eastern desert, an area where water supplies

were limited and the heat intense. Seti ordered workers to find a place in the mountains suitable for digging a well in

orderthat it might uplift the weary and refresh the heart of him who burns in the summer heat (Breasted).


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The Temple of Osiris at Abydos

The temple was built in the time of Seti the first and was finished by kind

Ramses II and his son Mern-Patah

The temple is unique in shape where it taking a L shapes. The temple also contains the most complete kings lists and

god list and contains 7 shrines dedicated to 7 gods. Here there are the most perfect painted intact reliefs and texts from

the 18th dynasty.

The temple of Abydos was constructed with very white marble; the front of the temple is a square columned facade.

The temple has originally seven gates leading the 7 shrines originally constructed by Seti I.

The great columned hypostyle hall at Karnak

This awe inspiring building was initiated at the beginning of the dynasty and during Setis reign the northern half of the

great hall, including the nave, was completed. The project was finished during the long reign of Rameses II.

The mortuary temple and tomb in western Thebes

Setis mortuary temple was built of fine white sandstone with doors of real cedar, wrought with Asiatic copper, made

high and large and with a wide hall for the appearance of his august image and his beautiful Feast of the Valley

(Breasted).

Buildings in Lower Egypt

Seti built extensively in Lower Egypt as well as at Abydos and Thebes. In the delta city of Avaris he constructed a

summer palace and at Memphis and Heliopolis added substantially to the ancient temples of Ptah and the sun god Re.

An inscription at Aswan indicated that he filled Heliopoliswith obelisks.

1139528580 2005 ancient history notes

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