1.1 observing living things

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson 2007

1.1 Observing Living Things

• Living things can survive in almost any kind of environment.

• Living things have features that help them survive.

• For example,hummingbirdscan beat their wings up to80 times per second, allowingthem to hover and changedirection rapidly.

• All living things have needs thatmust be met if they are to survive.

See pages 8 - 9


Characteristics of Living Things

• There are 5 characteristics of living things: Living things respond to their environment Living things need energy Living things grow Living things reproduce Living things must get ridof waste

See page 10


Examining Very Small Living Things

• The microscope is used by scientists to observe very small unicellular and multicellular living things.

• Early microscopes were built in the late 1600’s.

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek was oneof the first people to build amicroscope.

• He could magnify up to 250x, andused it to observe microscopicliving things.

See page 11Water flea (Daphnia)


Compound Light Microscope

See pages 12-13

• The compound light microscope hastwo sets of lenses that magnify an image.

• Each of the objective lenses has adifferent magnification power. Low power = 4x objective Med power = 10x objective High power = 40x objective

• Multiply the objective by theeyepiece for total magnification. Example: High Power = 40 x 10 = 400 x

Do you know all the compound microscope parts?


Resolving Power

• The ability to distinguish between two dots or objects that are very close together is called resolving power.

See page 14

• The human eye has a certain resolving power. You can see the individual dots in diagrams A, B and C. The human eye does not have the resolving power to see the dots in diagram D.

Can you think of ways to increase resolving power?

Take the Section 1.1 Quiz


1.2 Cells

• An analogy is a way to understand new ideas by making a comparison.

• A factory can be used as an analogy for the cell.

• Parts of the cell that allow the cell to survive are called organelles.

• Organelles take up about 5 to 30 percent of the cell. The rest of the cell consists of water.

See pages 22 - 24

How is the Newo colony similar to a factory?


The Functions of Cell Organelles

• The cell membrane protects the cell and regulates the movement of particles in and out of the cell.

• Cytoplasm, the jelly-like substance within the cell, contains organelles, water, and other life supporting materials.

• The nucleus: controls all the activities within the cell.

contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

See page 25


Energy in the Cell

• The mitochondria are the organelles that produce energy in the cell.

• When the cell changes chemical energy, in the food we eat, to energy the cell can use, it is called cellular respiration.

• The total of all the chemical reactions that take place in our cells is called our metabolism.

See page 26Cellular Respiration


Organelles for Assembly, Transport, and Storage

See pages 28-29

• Proteins are essential for all life and are assembled by the ribosomes.

• Proteins then pass through the endoplasmic reticulum and are placed in vesicles by the Golgi body.

• Vacuoles are temporary storage compartments.

• Lysosomes break down food particles, cell wastes, and worn-out organelles.


The Difference Between Plant and Animal Cells

See pages 29-30

• Plant cells have two parts that are not found in animal cells: Cell Wall

protects the cell and gives cell shape

Chloroplasts change the Sun’s energy into chemical energy

Photosynthesis

Locate the cell wall and chloroplast


Cell Theory

See pages 31-32

• The cell is the basic unit of life.• All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

• All cells come from other living cells.


Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

See page 32

Cells are classified into two groups:Prokaryotic cells have organelles that are not surrounded by membranes.

Eukaryotic cells have organelles that are surrounded by membranes. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells.


Bacteria and Viruses

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells.• Some bacteria cause diseases such

as: tuberculosis and strip throat.• Helpful bacteria are used to make

food such as: cheese and yogurt.• Bacteria are often grouped by the

shape of their cells.

Viruses are not living.• HIV, chicken pox, and the flu are

examples of viruses.• Viruses do not contain any cell

organelles but reproduce by using a host cell. See pages 33 - 34



1.3 Diffusion, Osmosis, and theCell Membrane

• Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

• Concentration is the amount of substance in a given space.

• The smell of fresh baked bread “spreading” throughout the room is an example of diffusion.

See pages 40 - 41

The diffusion of ink in water.


Diffusion and the Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. This means that it has many small openings that let some

substances pass through it but not others.

• One way that substances can move through the cell membrane is by diffusion.

• When the concentration on both sides of the membrane is the same, it is called equilibrium.

See page 42


Osmosis

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.

• Osmosis occurs when water particles move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.

See page 43


Osmosis and the Cell

See pages 43 - 44

• Cells contain water and need this water to survive.

• Osmosis is how the cell gains and loses its needed water.

Explain how placing this wilted flower in water will cause the flower to “straighten up”.


Examples of Osmosis

See page 45

Example 1: Equal movement of water in and out of cells


Examples of Osmosis

See page 45

Example 2: More water moving into cells than is moving out


Examples of Osmosis

See page 45Take the Section 1.3 Quiz

Example 3: More water moving out of cells than is moving in


2.1 Body Systems

• A system is made of parts that work together as a whole.

• The Characteristics of Systems 1. A system is made of individual parts that work together as a whole.

2. A system is usually connected to one or more systems.

3. If one part of a system is missing or damaged, the system will not function well or may not function at all.

See pages 54 - 55

A stereo system has many parts that work together.


Systems of the Human Body

Eleven systems of the human body

See pages 56 - 57

•Circulatory System•Transports blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes

•Digestive System•Breaks down food and absorbs the nutrients

•Respiratory System•Exchanges gases in lungs and tissues

•Excretory System•Removes liquid and gas wastes from the body

•Immune System•Defends body against infections

•Endocrine System•Manufactures and releases hormones


Systems of the Human Body

More Systems…

See pages 56 - 57

•Reproductive System•Includes reproductive organs for producing offspring

•Integumentary System•Creates a waterproof barrier around the body

•Skeletal System•Supports, protects, and works with muscles to move parts of the body

•Muscular System•Has muscles that work with the bones to move parts of the body

•Nervous System•Detects changes in the environment and signals the body to carry out a response


Organ Systems

• An organ system has one or more organs that perform specific body functions. For example your heart is part of the circulatory system.

• The four levels of organization within the human body are:

cell tissue organ organ system

See page 58


Tissues: The Foundation of Body Systems

See pages 58 -59

• Tissue is a group of cells that have the same structure and function.

• Four types of body tissue: Muscle tissue

Assists in body movement Nerve tissue

Transfers signals to and from brain

Connective tissue Holds together and supports other tissue

Epithelial tissue Covers the surface of organs and bodyTake the Section 2.1 Quiz


2.2 The Digestive and Excretory Systems

• Nutrients are substances the body requires for energy, growth, development, repair, or maintenance.

• We get nutrients from what we eat and drink.

See pages 64 - 65

•Four Food Groups•Grain products•Vegetables and fruit•Milk products•Meat and alternatives


Types of Nutrients

• Carbohydrates The bodies quickest source of energy

Examples include: rice, vegetables, cereal, and bread

• Proteins Used to build parts of your bodies muscles, skin, hair, and nails

Examples include: fish, meat, eggs, nuts, soy products

See pages 66 - 69


Types of Nutrients

• Fats Used to build cell membranes and can be stored for future energy.

Examples include: butter, vegetable oil, and meat

• Minerals and Vitamins Needed in small amounts to perform various body functions

Two common minerals and vitamins are calcium and vitamin D

See pages 66 - 69

Water is not a nutrient but is necessary for life!


The Four Stages of Digestion

See page 70

• The process in which food is broken down, nutrients are absorbed, and wastes eliminated is called digestion and occurs in the digestive system.

• The fours stages of digestion are: Ingesting Digesting Absorbing Eliminating


Stage 1: Ingesting

See page 71

• Ingesting, or ingestion, means to bring food into the body. This is the starting point of the digestive process.


Stage 2: Digesting

See page 71

• Mechanical digestion occurs when your teeth and tongue break food into small enough pieces to swallow.

• Each small piece of food is called bolus.

• Chemical digestion occurs when saliva begins to break down the bolus.

• An enzyme in your saliva begins to break down simple and complex carbohydrates.

The Mouth


Stage 2: Digesting

See page 72

• When you swallow, your food enters the esophagus.

• The esophagus is a long muscular tube that carries food to your stomach.

• The bolus is pushed through the esophagus in a process called peristalsis.

The Esophagus


Stage 2: Digesting

See page 73

• Inside the stomach is gastric juice, which is very acidic.

• The stomach walls are lined with mucus to protect the tissue from being damaged by the acid.

• An enzyme called pepsin, present in gastric juice, breaks down protein.

• The bolus that enters your stomach breaks down into a liquid called chyme.

The Stomach


Stage 2: Digesting

See page 74

• The first metre of the small intestine is called the duodenum.

• The pancreas adds enzymes that help break down the carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the chyme.

• The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder.

• Bile breaks the globs of fat into smaller droplets.

The Small Intestine


Stage 3: Absorbing

See page 75

• Absorption is the process in which nutrients and water are absorbed by the small and large intestine.

• The small intestine is covered with villi to help increase the rate at which nutrients are absorbed.

• The large intestine absorbs water and some minerals.

The Small and Large Intestine


Stage 4: Eliminating

See page 76

• Any solid material, undigested by the end of the large intestine is called feces.

• Feces are stored in the rectum until they are eliminated through the anus.

• Liquid and gas wastes are removed by your excretory system. The main organs in your

excretory system are your kidneys and your bladder.


Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosa is a disorder when a person severely restricts what they eat.

• Bulimia nervosa is a disorder when a person eats large amounts of food and then vomits or takes laxatives to get rid of the food before it is completely digested.



2.3 The Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

• The circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins.

• Your heart is a pump that pushes approximately 4 L of blood through your body every minute.

• The main purpose of the respiratory system is to exchange gases.

• The main organ of the respiratory system are the lungs.

See pages 82 - 83


Taking a Closer Look at the Heart

• The heart pumps blood throughout the body.

• The heart has four chambers: Left atrium

Blood arrives from your lungs Right atrium

Blood arrives from your body Left ventricle

Pumps blood to your body Right ventricle

Pumps blood to your lungs

• Between each of these chambers is a valve.

See page 84


The Circulatory System

• The circulatory system moves blood throughout the body.• There are three types of blood vessels:

Arteries Carry oxygenated blood away from your heart

Capillaries are tiny blood vessels Responsible for transfer of oxygen and nutrients into the body cells and collecting wastefrom the cells.

Veins Blood containing wasteproducts returning to the heart.

See pages 85 - 86


The Circulatory System

• Starting with the right atrium, try placing the following structures in the correct order that blood flows through the body. Left ventricle Body Right atrium Left atrium Lungs Right ventricle

See pages 87 - 88


The Components of Blood

See pages 88 -89

• About 55% of blood is a liquid called plasma. Contains proteins, minerals, and other substances.

• Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells.

• White blood cells fight infection.

• Platelets are important for clotting blood.


The Respiratory System

See page 90

• The respiratory system moves oxygen into your body and carbon dioxide out of your body.

• When you inhale, air is filtered by tiny hairs called cilia.

• Air passes through your larynx and continues down your trachea towards your lungs.

• At the base of the trachea are two tubes called bronchi.

• Bronchi branch into smaller air tubes called bronchioles.


Gas Exchange in the Alveoli

See page 91

• There are millions of alveoli at the ends of the bronchioles, and this is where gas exchange takes place.

• Oxygen and carbon dioxide move back and forth between the alveoli and the surrounding blood vessels.


Smoking

• Smoking may cause both respiratory disease and heart disease.• Respiratory diseases could include emphysema and lung cancer.

Emphysema causes the alveoli walls to lose their elasticity. This may make breathing very difficult.

• Smoking also destroys the cilia lining your respiratory system.



3.1 The Immune System

• Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens. Pathogens are “germs” or disease-causing invaders that enter the body.

• The immune system attacks and destroys these disease-causing invaders.

See pages 100 - 101


First Line of Immune Defense

There are two lines of immune defense.

First line of Defense• The skin is a physical barrier that stops most pathogens from entering the body.

• The sweat and oils on skin are slightly acidic.

• Gastric juices in your stomach can destroy some pathogens.

• Mucus and cilia in your nose prevent pathogens from entering your respiratory system.

See page 102

Mucus cells


Second Line of Immune Defense

If a pathogen makes it past the first line of defense.

Second line of Defense• The second line of defense includes two types of immune response: Innate Immune Response

A response you are born with. Acquired Immune Response

A highly specific attack on a pathogen.

See page 102


Innate Immune Response

• The response is quick and general, or non-specific. Response is the same for any type of invader.

• First action is a flow of fluid into site of infection. Causes fever, swelling, and redness in area.

The swelling and redness is called inflammation.

• Increase in the types of white blood cells called phagocytes. Phagocytes destroy pathogens.

See page 103

Inflammation of an

infected toe.


Acquired Immune Response

• Highly specific attack on a specific pathogen or antigen. An antigen is a non-living particle or substance that body cannot recognize.

• All acquired immune responses help give you active immunity. This means your body remembers how to fight a pathogen that has infected it before.

This is why you get diseases such as chicken pox only once.

See page 104 - 105

Chicken Pox



B cells in action• First process in the acquired immune response:

B cells recognize antigens present in the body. Produce particles, called antibodies, used to fight antigens.

See page 104



T cells in action• Second process in the acquired immune response:

• Two types of T cells: Helper T cells

Recognize antigen or pathogen and activate B cells

Killer T cells Recognize and destroy antigen or pathogen without B cells.

See page 104


Immune Response (4 Steps)

The response of your immune system to disease-causing organisms can be divided into four steps: recognition, mobilization, disposal, and immunity.

See page 105



3.2 Factors Affecting the Immune System

• Vaccines are weakened versions of a disease pathogen that are given to people to protect them from getting the disease later.

• Vaccines allow your body to create antibodies against the disease.

• Boosters are needed for some vaccines to extend the immune system’s memory.

See pages 110 - 111


Disorders of the Immune System

Allergies• An allergy is an unusually high sensitivity to some substance.

• Any substance that causes an allergic reaction is called an allergen. Common allergens are: milk, pollen, and dust.

• Body releases chemical called histamine to fight allergen. Common symptoms include a runny nose and watery eyes.

• Severe allergies can cause an anaphylactic shock. See pages 112 - 113

Dust Mite


Disorders of the Immune System

AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

• AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV

• HIV attacks the immune system by infecting Helper T Cells. When other pathogens or antigens enter the body the immune system can’t activiate Killer T cells or B cells.

• AIDS is transmitted by blood and semen.

See pages 113 - 114

Illustration of HIV


Taking Care of Your Immune System

Important steps you can take to help your immune system stay healthy.


1.1 observing living things

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