1.1 concept of rural growth centre -...
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1.1 Concept of Rural Growth Centre
Growth centre may be defined as service centre (rural or urban) which has a
potential for further development and hence need to be supported by further public
and private sector investment1. It has been conceived as points of attraction for the
people who otherwise would go to large congested urban areas. Rural Growth Centre
is a centre which provides goods and services to its own population as well as its
surroundings population creating balanced socio-economic development of an area. It
is a powerful strategy for microlevel planning for rural as well as for urban areas.
Mostly it is seen that urban areas have large number of facilities and amenities for the
betterment of the people while rural population have to travel large distance to avail
these socio-economic facilities. Therefore, there is a need to identify existing rural
growth centres in rural areas and accordingly propose new growth centres so that the
rural areas become self-sufficient in its basic socio-economic facilities and amenities.
For the developing country like India where nearly 70 per cent of the population lives
in the rural areas, therefore it is necessary to revitalize the tempo of economic
activities. Thus the growth centre strategies have been adopted in the present analysis
to reduce the regional inequalities and usher balanced development of the region.
Some of the models pertaining to rural growth centres has been discussed in sequent
manner.
1.2 Growth Pole Model
The main theoretical base of the growth centre concept is the ‘growth pole’
model. The model originates from the work of Francois Perroux who started from the
view that economic growth does not occur everywhere all at once, but starts at a few
1 Wekwete, K.H., ‘Rural Growth Points in Zimbabwe- prospects for the future’, Journal of Social Development in Africa, Vol.3, No. 2, 1988, pp.5-16.
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specific growth poles and spreads through various channels at varying intensities and
with varying effects. Perroux’s original conception had little to do with geographical
space. Rather, he conceived of an abstract economic space in which a growth pole is a
large, leading or innovative, industrial firm which, through backward and forward
linkages, is capable of spreading development impulses to other organizations2.
During 1960s, practical strategies based on the growth pole concepts, named
"growth pole strategies", had been intensely considered and implemented in
developed and developing countries. By the late 1970’s, the growth pole strategies
had been "implemented, provided for, or seriously discussed" in at least 28 developed
and developing countries. They were Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria,
Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, France, Ghana, Great Britain, India, Ireland, Italy,
Kenya, Libya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Peru, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Tanzania, the
United States, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia3. The growth pole theory was largely
abandoned in the 1980’s due to growing dissatisfaction with the perceived lack of
coherence between traditional notions of growth poles and empirical reality. Many
growth pole policies were shown to fail in their intended objectives of inducing new
economic growth in lagging regions4.
It has been observed that inspite creating balanced regional development
growth poles had created regional inequalities. Stohr and Todtling (1977) synthesised
the case studies and found that growth pole strategies could not bring development to
the hinter land. They concluded that the growth pole strategies may have been
successful in reducing inter-regional disparities, but as local spread effects were weak,
2 Improving Rural Regional Settlement Systems in Africa: with special reference to rural service centres, UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, 1993, P.4.
3 Gail, G.L., ‘The Concept of Growth Centres’ unpublished report, storrs, conn., Department of Geography, University of Connecticut, 1978, p.101.
4 Dawkins, C.J., ‘Regional Development Theory: Conceptual Foundations, Classic Works, and Recent Developments’, Journal of Planning Literature, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2003, p.131-172.
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moreover, they had at the same time caused intra-regional, in particular rural-urban,
disparities5.For the development of rural areas in the developing country like India,
bottom-up approach should be adopted. But growth pole model emphasized on top-
down approach by establishing industries in urban areas. Therefore, through this
model rural development could not be achieved. For balanced socio-economic
development of any region (rural or urban) Christaller’s Central Place Theory has
been proved much satisfactory than the growth pole model which has been discussed
below.
1.3 Central Place Theory
For analyzing facts and views which is one of the most important objectives of
research, one has to at the beginning provide for a definite framework on which the
total study is dependent. In this study theoretical frame of reference is based on
central place theory which was introduced by Walter Christaller in 1930’s and
modified by others6. Christaller viewed his theory as a “general deductive theory” to
explain the “size, number and distribution of towns” in the belief that “there is some
ordering principle governing the distribution”7. Apart from its importance in
theoretical geography, Christaller’s theory is also being used as a practical planning
tool. This theory is considered as most relevant for the identification of rural growth
centre and for socio-economic planning and development. This theory was based on
the two principles that work simultaneously to sustain the central place, i.e. threshold
population and range of goods. Christaller’s concept is based on certain assumptions-
5 Stohr, W. B. and Todtling, F., "An evaluation of regional policies experiences in market and mixed economies." in Hansen, N. M. (ed.), (1978) Human Settlement Systems: International Perspectives on Structure, Change and Public Policy. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1977.
6 Christaller, W., (1933), The Central Places in Southern Germany, Translated by Baskin, C.W., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1966.
7 Berry, B.J.L., and Pred, A., ‘Central Place Studies: a bibliography of theory and applications’, Regional Science Research Institute, Bibliography Series 1, 1961, p.15.
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the region should be isotropic surface, i.e. under condition of uniform distribution of
population, purchasing power, resources, and transport facilities over a uniform
terrain.8 But it is difficult to find such an isotropic surface and Aligarh district is not
an exception. In the present study, some of the philosophical outlooks of Christaller’s
model have been considered to carry out the different steps of planning procedure.
The central place model explains that there exists hierarchy of central places
in the settlement pattern. The higher order central places provide functions, which are
not available in the lower order places. However, lower order central places offers the
facilities, are equally found in the higher order central places. The higher order central
places are few in numbers and more widely spaced than the lower order central
places. Another important thing is that the higher order central places have large area
of coverage in contrary to lower order central places. The degree of influence on the
surrounding settlements depends on the number and types of facilities available at the
central places. Here an assumption is that people avail the goods and services from
the nearest place.
Basic Concepts of Central Place Theory
There are six basic concepts that form the core of the classical central place
theory. They are: (i) Centralisation as an ordering principle, (ii) the central place, (iii)
Importance and centrality of a place, (iv) the central functions, (v) the complimentary
region, and (vi) the economic distance and the range of a good.
(i).Centralisation as an ordering principle:
Central place theory rests on the notion that centralization is a natural principle
of order and that human settlements follow it. This centralistic order exists in all
8 Sharma, R.C., ‘Settlement Geography of Indian Desert’ Kumar Brothers, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-16, 1972, p.171.
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patterns of matters, whether inorganic or organic in nature. Christaller believes that
services will concentrate in and around certain points which are more important than
others. More important places will be less in number and less important places will be
more in number.
(ii). The central place:
The central place is the most important aspect of the Christaller’s theory. It is
the centre of a region which provides one or more services to an area larger than
itself. The services may be extensive or limited, but the service function is common to
all central places.9A central place could be a city or a town or even a community
which provides one or more services for the population living around it. V.L.S.
Prakasa Rao10 explained the concept of central place as the crystallization of mass
around a nucleus, which may be a town and is the focal point for its surrounding area.
The town may be the service centre and its hinterland is complementary and not
competitive.
Christaller states that importance of central place depends upon the central
functions performed and the size of the population served by it. On the basis of
functions and the size of the population served central places can be categorized into
high order central places and low order central places. High order central places have
large size of population served by it with greater functional specialization, whereas
low order central places have small size of population served by it with smaller range
of goods and services.
9 Wanmali, S. and Khan, W., ‘ Conceptual and Methodological Dimensions of Central Place Theory’ in Sen, L. K. (ed.), Readings on Micro- Level Planning and Rural Growth Centres, National Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad, 1972, p.177.
10 Rao, V.L.S., ‘Central Place Theory’ in Sen, L. K., (ed.), Ibid., p.174.
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(iii). Importance and the centrality of the place:
Importance and centrality are related concepts that identify respectively the
aggregate and relative importance of settlements as central places. Centrality defined
in a dynamic sense has to take note of not only the existing services and functions
located in a settlement and their importance but also the potentialities. Clustering of
central functions at a place reinforces the centrality as it generates the economies of
agglomeration and induces the complementary services and facilities to get located at
that place11. The theory says that the importance of a settlement is not the sum total of
its inhabitants but rather of their combined economic efforts.
(iv). The central functions:
The central functions are defined as those that are non-ubiquitous in nature
because of technological, economic or institutional consideration and their occurrence
in certain localities helps in creating a hinterland and /or a chain of spatial
interrelations thereby increasing the relative importance of that place12. Central
functions are classified as higher order functions and lower order functions. Higher
order central place will provide higher order functions and lower order central place
will provide lower order functions. The central functions considered by christaller are
trade, banking, administrative, education, commerce and transportation.
(v). The complementary region:
The region for which a central place is the centre will be called the
complementary region. If the centrality of a place is high then it means that its
complementary region would also be high. It is not easy to delineate a complementary
11 Bhat, L.S., et al., Micro Level Planning: A Case Study of Karnal Area, Haryana- India, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi, 2003, p. 45.
12 Ibid.
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region because it involves the demarcation of the variable ranges of many functions
performed by a central place. If the deficit of the functions in the complementary
region is counter balanced by the surplus functions of a central place, they will fall
under the surrounding area of the central place and thus forms the complementary
region.
(vi). The economic distance and the range of good:
In the classical theory, spatial supply of and demand for goods and services
are determined by freight, insurance and storage costs, loss of weight of the good, and
the time factor; and, in the case of passenger movement, by travel cost, travel time
and discomfort perceived by the consumer. Two notions are employed to describe the
spatial movement of goods and services, one representing the maximum distance over
which the demand for a good is positive, and the other, representing the minimum
distance within which the minimum volume of demand for the good which ensures
normal profits to the seller is located. The former is referred to as the range of a good
or upper limit, and the latter as the threshold or lower limit13. Both the threshold and
the range of goods differ from function to function. Larger threshold and range of
central functions are seen in the central places of higher order while smaller threshold
and range of central functions are observed in the central places of lower order. For
example the threshold and the range will be small for the lower order function like
primary school whereas for the higher order function like college will have large
threshold and range of goods.
1.4 Relevance of Central Place Theory in Regional Planning
Although central place theory is criticized on many grounds, yet its
13 Sen, L.K., et al., ‘Planning Rural Growth Centres for Integrated Area Development: A Study in MiryalgudaTaluka, National Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad, 1971, p.25.
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importance cannot be underestimated. With the emergence of central place theory, a
new dimension was introduced in development of geography without which
geography could not have survived till date. Central place theory is the first attempt
made to develop a systematic geographical theory of location. In regional planning,
central place theory provides an understanding of the functional linkages between
different settlements of the region. To carry out comprehensive regional planning it is
necessary for the planners to know the functional interdependence of various
settlements with in the region. The central places and central functions while planning
regional plan gives ideas about functional capacity of individual settlements and their
influence on its hinterland. Thus intra regional disparity can be easily identified by
demarcating poorly served areas. It is useful in considering the location of trade and
service activity and the location of the provision of distinctive goods and services for
balanced regional development.
1.5 Concept of Planning
Planning has been defined as the process of thinking through and
implementing a set of appropriate actions to achieve some goals14. Planning generally
includes actions and designed to solve problems in the future. Oxford dictionary of
geography defines it “Planning presupposes an ability to foresee events and a
capability for analyzing situation and solving problems”15. For the overall
development of any region planning is an important requirement. The basic purpose
of planning is to achieve definite targets and objectives within specified period of
time.
The economist and other social scientist as well as researches perceived the
process of planning in different ways so they suggest a set of prerequisite of
14 Johnston, R.J., et al., ‘The Dictionary of Human Geography’, Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited, Oxford, U.K., 1983, p.255.
15 Mathew, S., ‘A Dictionary of Geography’, Oxford University Press, London, 2004.
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successful planning, like existence of central planning authority, strong and efficient
government, honest and sound administration, fixation of objectives and targets,
adequate statistical data, well formulated and integrated plan, socialistic economic
organization, mobilization of financial resources, flexibility in planning, public
cooperation, economic control, maintenance of power balance, proper development
policy, economy in administration, proper education, and the theory of consumption16.
Planning is primarily a way of thinking about social and economic problems,
planning is oriented predominantly toward the future, is deeply concerned with the
relation of goals to collective decisions and strives for comprehensiveness in policy
and programmes wherever these modes of thought are applied, there is a presumption
that planning is being done17.
Planning is a continues movement towards desired goals and, because of this
all major decisions has to be made by agencies informed of those goals and the social
purpose behind them. Even in considering a five-year period, forward and long term
planning has always to be kept in view. Indeed, perspective planning is the essence of
the planning process. As this process develops, there is a certain rhythm of expansion
in the development of the people, and a sense of enterprise and achievement comes to
them. They are conscious of a purpose of life and have a feeling of being participants
in the making of history18.
1.6 Types of Planning
Planning can be classified on the basis of different criteria as discussed below:
16 Ghose, B.N., ‘Economic Development and Planning’ National Publishing House, New Delhi, 1977, p.271.
17 Friedman, J., ‘ Regional planning as a field of study’ in Friedman, J. and Alonso, W. (ed.), Regional Development and Planning, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1964, p.61.
18 Misra, R.P., Sundaram, K.V. and Prakash Rao, V.L.S., ‘Regional Development planning in India- A New Strategy’, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1976 (reprinted) p.11.
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Non Spatial and Spatial Planning- Non spatial planning includes those in which the
spatial dimensions are not explicit such as national economic planning, family
planning, energy and social planning. However all of them when applied uniformly in
all parts of a country can generate geographical effects. Spatial planning is defined as
the one in which geographical dimension is explicit.
Sectoral planning is essentially a non-spatial planning concerted with the
development of various sectors of the economy such as agriculture, industry, etc. This
kind of planning lacks an integrated structure and may thus lead to social and human
problems like environmental pollution, increasing inequality and mass poverty
resulting in spatial imbalances. Sectoral developments can be implemented with in a
spatial framework according to the specific requirement of the different spatial units
which may differ from each other in terms of physical, economic, social and cultural
conditions. Sectoral development may not be achievable if due attention is not given
to the regional characteristics and specialization.
Physical and Economic Planning -Physical planning involves the planning of an
area’s physical structure i.e. landuse, communication, utilities etc. Economic planning
is concerned more with the economic structure of an area and its overall prosperity
mainly in terms of production, income, purchasing power etc.
Imperative and Indicative planning- Imperative planning is a type of planning
where all economic activities and resources of the economy operate under the
direction of state. On the other when the mainspring of economic growth is left to the
private sector it may be called indicative planning.
Centralized and Decentralized Planning- Centralized planning is based on the top
down approach where a central authority is the supreme decision making body. The
entire planning process is based on bureaucratic control and regulation. Whereas,
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decentralized planning is based upon the bottom up approach. Under it, a plan is
formulated by the central planning authority in consultation with the different
administrative units of the country. The state plans incorporate district and village
level plans which are formulated at the respective levels.
Single and Multi-level Planning- Planning done at the national level alone is termed
as single level plan, but its formulation at several hierarchical stages is called multi-
level planning.
Allocative and Innovative Planning- Allocative planning is concerned with
coordination, the resolution of conflicts ensuring that the existing system is ticking
over efficiency through time in accordance with involving policies. Innovative
planning is concerned with improving, developing the systems as a whole. It is known
as development planning.
Short-term and Long-term Planning–Short-term of planning is designed to solve
certain pressing problems which do not require large-scale change in the social and
economic order. It may be used to increase production and employment opportunities;
to adjust production to market demand and supply, and to meet the targets set by long
term plans. Long-term planning some times erroneously called perspective planning,
aims at the institutional and structural changes necessary for achieving the long-term
social and economic goals of the society19.
1.7 Concept of Regional Planning
Regional planning is a process of orderly and systematic anticipation of the
future of a region, involving recommendations of the necessary remedial and
constructive actions by public and private agencies to achieve the objectives of the
plan/regional community. Regional planning may involve extensive areas that include
19 Hermansen, T., ‘Spatial Organisation and Economic Development’, Institute of Development Studies, University of Mysore, 1971, p.1.
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one or more regions or more limited areas such as drainage basins20. Regional
planning is a branch of land use planning and deals with the efficient placement of
land use activities, infrastructure and settlement growth across a significantly larger
area of land than an individual city or town. Regional planning addresses problems of
economic, social and political transformations at geographical scales. Since the
independence, the need for regional planning has arisen from changing social and
economic phenomena affecting local communities and regions throughout the
country21.
Regional planning is spatial development planning, which tends to utilize the
natural and human resources to the fullest extent for the enrichment of the quality of
life of its population and to distribute the gain of development among the regions and
groups within the regions, thereby minimizing socio-economic imbalance and
improving living condition of the masses.
1.8 Regional Planning in India
Indian planning is essentially normative single-level economic planning, with
a heavy reliance on the sectoral approach. Sectoral plans integrated into a single
whole and fitted into framework of national goals and objectives, have been proposed
and implemented since 1951, the year when the first five plan was launched22. There
has been greater emphasis on plan formulation than implementation. Indian planning
is also marked to be centralized at the national level. Until very recently, no serious
attempt has been made to prepare plans at lower territorial level such as the state,
district, development block or region with the same competence and seriousness as at
20 Rangasamy, S., ‘Regional Planning and Development Part III Strategies for Balanced Regional Development, Madurai Institute of Social Sciences, UNCRD, pp. 17-18.
21 Introduction to Regional Planning, A seminar/report on introduction to regional planning, published by er_vish, p.1.
22 Misra, R.P., et al., ‘Regional Development Planning in India-A New Strategy’, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1976 (reprinted), p.10.
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the national level.23In the initial stage of its development in the 1930’s regional
planning was generally understood as natural resource planning, and thus its role was
confined to determine the ways and means of developing the natural resources of a
region. However, with the passage of time, the emphasis on natural resources
planning was reduced considerably as new dimensions of urban and metropolitan
planning, environmental planning, human resource and community planning,
planning for problem areas, etc., considerably emerged the scope and content of
regional planning. In the beginning of planning era, it was exclusively at national
level formulated at the centre. This sectoral macro level approach failed to attain
success in reducing the poverty, unemployment and inter and intra regional
inequalities in the region to attain balanced development. Consequently the planning
process got decentralized to state level planning and new emphasis is laid on planning
for regional development.
The first event which proved to be forebear of regional or micro level planning
in India is the setting up of planning commission in 1950 and subsequent setup of
national development council in 1952 to ensure the balanced and rapid development
of all parts of the country. First Five year Plan (1951-56) had a two fold objective,
firstly it aimed correcting the disequilibrium in the economy caused by the war and
partition of the country ,secondly it proposed to initiate simultaneously a process of
all round balanced development which would ensure a rising national income and a
steady improvements in living standards over a period.24In the Second Five Year
Plan (1956-61), two surveys were conducted in context with regional planning,
namely pilot regional survey of the Mysore state during 1956-58, and a diagnostic
survey of Damodar valley region in 1957, for making an appraisal of existing
23 Misra, R.P., et al., ‘Regional Development Planning in India-A New Strategy’, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1976 (reprinted), p.10.
24 Government of India, Planning Commission, First Five Year Plan, 1956, p.32.
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resources and suggesting strategies for regional development. During this time
“Intensive Area Development Programme” (IADP) was launched in 1960 in seven
selected district of seven states. In 1956, Elwin committee recommended the approach
for tribal areas. Consequently in 1957, “tribal development block” (TDB) approach
was adopted. Due to wide regional disparities in India, the planners emphasized on
the balanced regional development ever since the initiation of the planning process in
India and perceived that the pattern of investment must be devised as to lead balanced
regional development.25In the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) for the first time
some serious concern has been expressed to the problem of balanced regional
development. This plan devoted a separate (chapter IX) 26 to “Balanced Regional
Development”. It was once again emphasized that balanced development of different
parts of the country, extension of the benefits of economic progress to the less
developed regions and widespread diffusions of industry are among the major aims of
planned development. The approach in this plan was to (i) help the states in reducing
intra state disparities (disparities among different regions of the same state) and (ii)
initiate new programme and extend programme adopted in the previous plans to
reduce inter-state inequalities (i.e. inequalities between different states). The three tier
administration was developed during this plan, such as panchayat at village level,
panchayat samities at the block level (group of about 100 or less number of villages)
and zila parishad at the district level were actually meant to be associated with plan
formulation and implementation. But their association with the plan was more formal
than operational. Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) witnessed, an introduction of a
number of schemes for the benefits of the rural poor such as, small farmer’s
development agency, marginal farmer and agricultural laborer’s development agency,
25 Government of India, Planning Commission, Second Five Year Plan, 1956, p.36. 26 Government of India, Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan, 1961, p.14.
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drought prone area programme, cash scheme for rural employment, pilot intensive
rural employment project, integrated tribal developmental programme. Since large
numbers of rural poor live in relatively less developed regions, all these programmes
were expected to benefit the less developed regions in comparison with the developed
regions for the purpose of granting concession and financial assistance to industries
established in such areas and weightage to backward states in the allocation of central
assistance. In this plan the multi-level planning was started stressing the formulation
of plans at district and lower level to provide adequate infrastructure facilities.27Fifth
Five Year Plan (1974-79), aimed that the strategy of the removal of regional
imbalances of fourth plan would be kept continue in the fifth plan also on treatment to
the approach of concepts of “Growth Centre” and “Central Places” strategies28. The
various areas development programme undertaken during this plan period are,
drought prone area programme, the command area development programme, hill area
development, the desert development programme, SFDA programme, the tribal
development agency project and sub-plan for the hills and tribal areas. Sixth Five
Year Plan (1980-85), placed great emphasis to provide an integrated approach to the
problems of regional inequalities, the mechanism of area planning was adopted. In
this plan special importance was given to follow the decentralized planning for
eliminating inter and intra district socio-economic imbalances.29Seventh Five Year
Plan (1985-90) correctly recognized that two criteria determinants of a region’s
economic status were agricultural productivity, and human resource potential and
reduction in inter-regional disparities in these two elements would help greatly in the
27 Misra, R.P., et al., ‘Regional Development Planning in India-A New Strategy’, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1976 (reprinted), p.39.
28 Government of India, Planning Commission, Fifth Five Year Plan, 1974, pp.31-40. 29 Government of India, Planning Commission, Sixth Five Year Plan, 1980, pp.33.
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task of reducing regional imbalances.30Eight Five Year Plan (1992-97), has not
placed any improvement over the earlier policies to remove regional disparity. Ninth
Five Year Plan (1997-2002), advocated the continuation of earlier policies in
achieving the regional balance. Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007), emphasized the
development of regions by ensuring the socio-economic development in order to
ensuring the harmony with the environment for developing an optimal spatial
organization of the society. 31Eleventh Five year Plan (2007-2012) stressed on
‘Inclusive Growth’ which implies an equitable allocation of resources with benefits
incurred to every section of the society. This plan emphasized on the development of
hill areas through Hill Area Development Programme and Western Ghats
Development Programme. In this plan district plan has been taken as the integral part
of state plan.32Twelfth Five year Plan (2012-2017) seeks to fulfill ‘Faster,
Sustainable, and More Inclusive Growth’. It emphasizes on the inclusiveness of
poverty reduction, inclusiveness of group equality, inclusiveness of regional balance,
inclusiveness and inequality, inclusiveness as empowerment, and Inclusiveness
through employment programmes. It also states that the inter-State and intra-State
disparities are a major source of concern for faster and more inclusive development at
national level33.
1.9 Concept of Development
Development is defined as the gradual advancement or growth through a
series of progressive changes. It is a process to achieve certain goals. Development is
not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process involving
30 Government of India, Planning Commission, Seventh Five Year Plan, 1985, pp.44. 31 Government of India, Planning Commission, Tenth Five Year Plan, 2002, p.37. 32 Government of India, Planning Commission, Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007. 33 Government of India, Planning Commission, Twelfth Five Year Plan, (2012-2017).
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reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social system. It helps in
improving the quality of human lives.
The planning process and developmental activities in the country have covered
more than 50 years. The impact of developmental activities cannot be evaluated fully
by any single indicator because it is a multidimensional process. Moreover, a number
of indicators when analyzed individually do not provide an integrated and easily
comprehensible picture of reality.34
Development may either be natural or planned. When development is
achieved with normal ongoing activities of the region, it is termed as normal or
natural state of development. While, desired level of change attained due to planned
efforts may be termed as regional development planning. Development is the function
of planned efforts for the improvement of the region. In common usage
‘development’ has the implication of economic growth, modernization, improvement
in the levels of material production and consumption and change in social, cultural
and political structure to resemble more nearly those displayed in countries of
economic demand developed.35
According to Jan Drewnowski, ‘Development is a process of qualitative and
quantitative growth of the social and economic reality which we can call either
society or economy. Because of the close inter-relation of economic and social
elements no ‘purely social or purely economic development is possible. Consequently
it is better not to speak of social development separately .It is a single process which
is best called simply development.36Development refers to improvement of all the
34 Bhatia, V.K. and Rai, S.C., ‘Evaluation of Socio-Economic Development in Small Areas’, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi 2003-2004 p.17
35 Hussain, M., ‘Human Geography’,2nd Rawat Publications, Jaipur,1999,p.223. 36 Drewnowski, J., ‘Social and Economic Factors in Development’, UNRISD, Report
no.3,Geneva,1966,p.7
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sectors in the economy, i.e. agriculture, industry, transport, communication and so on.
Therefore in order to make a meaningful study of differences in inter-regional level of
development one should take into consideration various physical indicators reflecting
or measuring various sectoral level of development and combining all the sectoral
indices together one can measure the overall level of development.
1.10 Socio-economic Development
Socio-economic development refers to the ability to produce an adequate and
growing supply of goods and services productively and efficiently, to accumulate
capital, and to distribute the fruits of production in a relatively equitable and
accessible manner37. In other words it is defined as social and economic
transformations, planned or otherwise, that tend to increase social welfare or well
being, material or spiritual, enjoyed by the citizens of that country. Social
development refers to the complexity of social dynamics (the interplay of social
structures, process and relationship) and focuses on the social concerns of the people
as objective of development and people-centred participatory approaches to
development. Economic development is the process of raising the level of prosperity
through increased production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
The purpose of economic development is to improve the social and material well-
being of all individuals and social institutions with the goal of achieving the highest
possible level of human development. Socio-economic development therefore,
requires the integration of both economic and social development38. The indicators to
measure socio-economic development are GDP per capita, life expectancy, literacy
rates, measures of poverty, demographic indicators, disease indicator, safe drinking
37 Jaffee, D., ‘Level of Socio-Economic Theory’, second edition, Praeger Publishers, p.3. 38 Fritz, J. M., ‘Socio economic Development Social Work’, Social and Economic Development,
Vol.1.
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water, electricity facility, employment rate etc. To achieve socio-economic
development, government of India has provided with certain policies and schemes for
the betterment of the people. The policies and schemes related to the socio-economic
indicators that have been taken for the present study are discussed in sequent manner.
EDUCATION
Education has always been given an honoured place in Indian society. The
role of education in facilitating social and economic progress is well recognized. In
the post-independence period, a major concern of the Government of India and of the
States has been to give increasing attention to education as a factor vital to national
progress and security. Problems of educational reconstruction were reviewed by
several commissions and committees, notably the University Education Commission
(1948-49) and the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53).
Educational Policies in India:
The National Policy on Education (NEP) is a policy formulated by the
Government of India to promote education amongst India's people. The policy covers
elementary education to colleges in both rural and urban India. The first NEP was
promulgated in 1968 and the second in 1986 by the government of India. It
emphasizes three aspects in relation to elementary education:
� universal access and enrolment,
� universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and
� a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to
achieve
National Policy on Education (1968)-Based on the report and recommendations of
the Education Commission (1964–1966), the government of Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi announced the first National Policy on Education in 1968, which called for a
48
"radical restructuring" and equalize educational opportunities in order to achieve
national integration and greater cultural and economic development. The policy called
for fulfilling compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as stipulated
by the Constitution of India, and the better training and qualification of teachers. The
policy called for focus on learning of regional languages, outlining the "three
language formula" to be implemented in secondary education - the instruction of
the English language, the official language of the state where the school was based,
and Hindi, the national language . The policy also encouraged the teaching of the
ancient Sanskrit language, which was considered an essential part of India's culture
and heritage. The NPE of 1968 called for education spending to increase to six
percent of the national income39.
National Policy on Education (1986) - The new policy called for "special emphasis
on the removal of disparities and to equalize educational opportunity," especially for
Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Scheduled Caste (SC) communities. To
achieve these, the policy called for expanding scholarships, adult education, recruiting
more teachers from the SCs, incentives for poor families to send their children to
school regularly, development of new institutions and providing housing and services.
The NPE called for a "child-centred approach" in primary education, and launched
"Operation Blackboard" to improve primary schools nationwide. The policy expanded
the Open University system with the Indira Gandhi National Open University, which
had been created in 1985.The policy also called for the creation of the "rural
university" to promote economic and social development at the grassroots level in
rural India40.
39 National Policy on Education 1968, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, pp.38-45, retrieved from: mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP-1968.pdf.
40 National Policy on Education 1986, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, retrieved from: mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP86-mod92.pdf.
49
National Policy of Education (1992) -The 1986 National Policy on Education was
modified in 1992. Programme of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National Policy on
Education (NPE), 1986 envisaged conduct of a common entrance examination on all
India basis for admission to professional and technical programmes in the country.
For admission to Engineering and Architecture/Planning programmes. This takes care
of varying admission standards in these programmes and helps in maintenance of
professional standards. This also solves problems of overlaps and reduces physical,
mental and financial burden on students and their parents due to multiplicity of
entrance examinations41.
� After this in 2004 National Common Minimum Programme42 was introduced
by the government of India for further enhancement in educational development.
� Right of children to free and compulsory Education Act 200943
This Act explains that every child between the ages of 6 to 14 years has
the right to free and compulsory education. This is stated as per the 86th
Constitution Amendment Act added Article 21A. The government schools shall
provide free education to all the children and the schools will be managed by
school management committees (SMC). Private schools shall admit at least 25%
of the children in their schools without any fee. The National Commission for
Elementary Education shall be constituted to monitor all aspects of elementary
education including quality.
41 National Policy on Education, 1986 (As modified in 1992), Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi, 1998, pp.2-37, retrieved from mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NPE86-mod92.pdf.
42 National Common Minimum Programme, Government of India, May 2004, retrieved from: pmindia.nic.in/cmp.pdf.
43 The Right to Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, retrieved from: mhrd.gov.in/rte.
50
Educational Schemes to promote Education.
Education in rural India gets major boost under various schemes by the
government. The Government of India in association with the state government has
initiated a lot of programmes to provide the children of remote areas to primary
education. Deprived of basic education, children of rural areas are encouraged to
attend schools. The schemes provide those stipends, mid-day meals, free education,
etc with special attention to girl child education. The mid-day meal scheme help
attracts students to educational institutions.
Mid day Meal44- With a view to enhancing enrollment, retention and attendance and
simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children, the National Programme
of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) was launched as a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995, initially in 2,408 blocks in the country. By
the year 1997-98 the NP-NSPE was introduced in all blocks of the country. It was
further extended in 2002 to cover not only children in classes I-V of government,
government aided and local body schools, but also children studying in EGS
(Education Guarantee Centre) and AIE (Alternate and Innovative Education centres).
Central Assistance under the scheme consisted of free supply of food grains @ 100
grams per child per school day, and subsidy for transportation of food grains up to a
maximum of Rs. 50 per quintal.
� In September 2004 the scheme was revised to provide cooked mid day meal
with 300 calories and 8-12 grams of protein to all children studying in classes
I-V in Government and aided schools and EGS/AIE centers.
� In July 2006 the scheme was further revised.
44 Mid Day Meal Scheme, Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, retrieved from mhrd.gov.in/middaymeal.
51
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)45 is being implemented in all districts of the
country as a flagship scheme for education. The aim of SSA is to provide useful and
relevant elementary education for all children in the 6-14 age groups by 2010. The
programme covers the entire country with special focus on educational needs of girls,
SCs/STs and other children in difficult circumstances. The programme seeks to open
new schools in those places which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen
existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets,
drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grant. The SSA has a
special focus on girls and children of weaker sections. A number of initiatives,
including distribution of free textbooks has been initiated under this programme.
The SSA also seeks to provide computer education even in the rural areas.
Kanya Vidhya Dhan Scheme
The Kanya Vidya Dhan scheme encourages girl students from economically
backward families to pursue higher studies after their Intermediate. Under this scheme
girls are provided with a one time amount of Rs.30, 000 to pursue education after
Intermediate. The scheme is however applicable only to those whose annual family
income lies within a said range. The girls are through this scheme encouraged to take
up higher studies and are thus provided with means of doing so. The one-time
financial assistance is given for the sole purpose of higher education.
Though the government is providing many programmes and schemes for the
development of education among urban as well as rural areas. But the significant
increase in the educational development is seen in urban areas than rural areas. In
rural areas a wide functional gap is seen between the availability of educational
45 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, retrieved from ssa.nic.in.
52
facilities and the population served by these facilities. So the main aim is to provide
educational facilities at optimum location taking under consideration of accessibility,
social security, political unbaisness, etc. In the study area (Aligarh district) out of
1180 inhabited villages in the district, 1030 villages or 87.3 per cent have been
provided with the education facilities of one type or the other. Similarly out of total
rural population of 21,27,592 persons in the district, 20,24,058 or 95.1 per cent have
educational facility of one or the other type. 152 villages do not have primary school
in their villages and out of these villages, children of 142villages have to travel less
than 5 kms. for schooling. Out of total inhabited villages as many as 815 are deprived
of middle school and 1,175 of Degree College. Of these 635 avail the facility of
middle school at a distance of less than 5 kms., 163 at a distance 5-10 kms. and the
remaining 17 at a distance of more than 10kms. In respect of degree college 190 avail
this facility at a distance of less than 5 kms., 367 between 5 – 10kms. and rest 618
villages at a distance of more than 10kms.
HEALTH
The health of a nation is an essential component of development, vital to the
nation’s economic growth and internal stability. It has been declared a fundamental
human right. This implies that the State has a responsibility for the health of its
people. National governments all over the world are striving to expand and improve
their health care services. It may be noted that as many as nearly 30 different
major health programmes have been introduced ever since independence in India.
These programmes are sometimes generic in nature and applicable to the entire
population; at times they aim at controlling specific mass diseases; sometimes they
target women and children, and a few programmes are meant exclusively for children.
These programmes are National Family Planning Programme (1952), National
53
Malaria Control Programme (1953), National Filaria Control Programme (1955),
National Leprosy Control Programme (1955), National Malaria Eradication
Programme (1958), Primary Health Centres Programme (1958), National Goitre
Control Programme (1962), National Small Pox Eradication Programme (1962),
National Tuberculosis Programme (1962), School Health Programme (1962), Applied
Nutrition Programme (1963), Mid-day meals Programme (1963), Maternal and Child
Health Programme (1964), Iron and Folic Acid Supplementary Programme (1970),
Special Nutrition Programme (1970), Anemia Control Programme (1971), Vitamin A
Prophylaxis Programme (1971), Minimum Needs Programme (1974), ICDS
Programme (1975), Integrated Health Scheme (1975), National Programme for
Prevention of Blindness (1976), Expanded Programme of Immunization (1978),
National Diarrhea Control Programme (1980), National Leprosy Eradication
Programme (1983), Universal Immunization Programme (1985), ARI Control
Programme (1990), CSSM Programme (1992), Pulse Polio Eradication Programme
(1995), Reproductive and Child Health Programme (1996) etc. In India, however,
health has traditionally received low priority in the central and state budgets.
Expenditure on the health sector comprised, for instance, less than 1% of the gross
domestic product (GDP) in 1999 – one of the lowest in the world. Further, there was a
considerable urban bias characterizing health policies and investment strategies –
about 75% of the resources and infrastructure were concentrated in urban India46. The
resultant increase in the incidence of both communicable and non-communicable
diseases, coupled with poor health facilities in rural areas resulted in high infant, child
and maternal mortality rates. In Rural areas a major step taken by the government for
the health of the people is with the introduction of National Rural Health Mission.
46 Patil, A. V., Somasundaram, K.V. and Goyal, R. C., “Current Health Scenario in Rural India”, Australian Journal of Rural Health, 10(2): 2002, pp.129-35.
54
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)47 is an Indian health program for
improving health care delivery across rural India. The mission, initially mooted for 7
years (2005-2012), is run by the Ministry of Health. The scheme proposes a number
of new mechanism for healthcare delivery including training local residents
as Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA), and the Janani Surakshay
Yojana (motherhood protection program). It also aims at improving hygiene and
sanitation infrastructure. The mission has a special focus on 18 states Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Jammu and
Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
The major objectives of the National Rural Health Mission are decrease the
infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate, provide access to public health
services for every citizen, prevent and control communicable and non-communicable
diseases, control population as well as ensure gender and demographic balance, and
encourage a healthy life style and alternative system of medicine through AYUSH48.
But the objectives of NHRM could not be achieved as it was expected.
To achieve better health care services it is important to have proper health
facilities like sub-centres (SCS), primary health cenres (PHC), community health
cenres (CHCS) where health care can be delivered. As per NRHM report it is seen
that there is lack of rural health care facilities inspite of a better planning. There is
lack of diagnostic centres in rural areas due to which patients have to travel long
distances that result in their deteriorating condition and even death.
47 National Rural Health Mission, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, retrieved from nrhm.gov.in.
48 www.archieve.india.gov.in/citizen/health/health.php?id=48.
55
As per 2001 population the existing number of Sub-centres, Primary health
centres and Community health centres were 144,998, 22,669, and 3,910 respectively.
While the required number of Sub-centres, PHCs, and CHCs were 158,792, 26,022,
and 6,491 respectively. The per cent shortfall of Sub-centres, PHCs, and CHCs were
13.16, 18.46, and 40.87 respectively. The maximum shortage at the Community
Health Centres level is adversely affecting the secondary health care and linkages.
The public health system in our country has various drawbacks. They are:
i. The conceptualization and planning of all programmes is centralized instead of
decentralized using locally relevant strategies.
ii. The provision of infrastructure is based on population norms rather than
habitations leading to issues of accessibility, acceptability and utilization.
iii. The gap between the requirement and availability of human resources at various
levels of health care is wide and where they are available, the patient-provider
interactions are beset with many problems, in addition to waiting time for
consultation/treatment.
iv. There is no incentive for those who work well and check on those who do not.
v. Quality assurance at all levels is not adhered to due to lacunae in
implementation. This results in semi-used or dysfunctional health infrastructure.
Despite a steady increase in public health care infrastructure, utilization of
public health facilities by population for outpatient and inpatient care has not
improved. The data obtained from NSSO show a major decline in utilization of the
public health facilities for inpatient care and a corresponding increase in utilization of
the same from private health care providers in both rural and urban areas. With the
exception of a few states, there has been very low utilization for outpatient care as
56
well. Critical shortage of health personnel, inadequate incentives, poor working
conditions, lack of transparency in posting of doctors in rural areas, absenteeism, long
wait, inconvenient clinic hours, poor outreach, time of service, insensitivity to local
needs, inadequate planning, management, and monitoring of service/facilities appear
to be the main reasons for low utilization.
In the study area, out of 1180 inhabited villages 512 villages (43.4 per cent)
have medical facilities of one type or the other. Out of total population 57.4 per cent
of the population has medical facilities. There are 1,151 villages in the district which
are devoid of Hospital facility and 1,160 villages which are deprived of PHC
facilities. Of these 343 villages have the facility of Hospital available within 5 kms.
while in respect of 470 villages the inhabitants have to cover a distance of 5-10 kms.
in order to avail this facility. Similarly 338 villages have this facility at a distance of
more than10 kms. As regards PHC 291 avail this facility at a distance of less than 5
kms., 450 at a distance of 5-10 kms. and the remaining 419 have to travel a distance
of more than10 kms. to avail this facility.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
Rural roads are the basic infrastructure requirement and play a vital role in
socio-economic upliftment of rural community. They contribute significantly in rural
development by creating opportunities to access goods and services located in nearby
villages or major town/market centres. Provision of rural roads increases mobility of
men and materials thus facilitating economic growth. These, in turn, assist in reducing
poverty and leads over all socio-economic development. Rural roads are the tertiary
road system in total road network which provides accessibility for the rural
habitations to market and other facility centres. Since 1940’s the Government of
India and the State Government had drawn several policies, programmes and
57
conceived various schemes for the development of rural roads in India. Since Fifth
Five Year Plan, funds are allocated under various rural development programme such
as Minimum Needs Programme (MNP), National Rural Employment Programme
(NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana (JRY), etc for the development of rural roads. During the Fifth Five
Year Plan period (1974-1979) rural roads were included as a part of Minimum Needs
Programme (MNP) of the Central Government and received importance for
development. The programme envisaged connectivity of all villages with population
of 1,500 and above, as per 1971 census, with an all weather road by the end of the
Fifth Five Year Plan. It also proposed a cluster approach for connectivity in respect
of hilly, coastal, tribal and desert areas, where the villages are smaller in population
size. The criteria for connectivity under MNP were periodically revised. During the
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) the criteria for linkage of villages to a road were
modified. Priorities were accorded to link all villages with a population of 1000 and
above on the basis of 1981 census and special efforts to accelerate village
connectivity in respect of backward regions and tribal areas. The connectivity criteria
under MNP were once again revised for the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). The
criteria for the plain areas is that 100 % of all villages with population above 1,000
and 75 % of all villages with population between 500-1,000 and for hilly areas 100 %
of all villages with population above 500 and 75 % of villages with population
between 200-500. For tribal, coastal, riverine and desert areas 100 % of villages with
population above 500 and 75 % of villages with population ranging 200-500 should
have connectivity of road49.
49 Rural Roads (in the 11th five year plan), Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Planning Commission, November 2006, pp. 16-23.
58
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
On the recommendations of the National Rural Road Development
Committee, Government of India has launched a nationwide programme called
‘Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana’ (PMGSY) on the 25th December 2000. For the
first time the focus is directly on the rural connectivity under dedicated road fund. The
objective of the program is to provide road connectivity, through good all weather
roads to all rural habitations of targeted population. The programme aimed to provide
connectivity to all habitations up to 500 and above population in plain and in respect
of hilly, desert and tribal areas the habitations with 250 and above population is
targeted. The connectivity status under PMGSY was that the total number of eligible
habitations was 172,772 out of which 56,638 number of habitations was approved to
cover under this project and finally the number of habitation connected were 27,30350.
Bharat Nirman
It is a flagship programme of the Government of India conceived as time
bound business plan to provide rural infrastructure during 2005-06 to 2008-09. Six
major rural infrastructures namely, rural roads, telephone connection, irrigation, water
supply, housing and electrification are identified. The programme was initiated during
the year 2005-06, under rural road component, it targeted to provide all weather
connectivity to all habitations having population of 1,000 or more (500 or more in
hill, tribal and desert areas) by 200951.
Currently, the Road Development Plan Vision-2021 has been brought out to
guide the Central and State Governments in developing the road infrastructure of
adequate standards in the country. The strategy proposed in the vision document for
50 Rural Roads (in the 11th five year plan), Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Planning Commission, November 2006, pp. 24-27.
51 Ibid., pp. 27-29.
59
planning rural roads emphasized the need for preparation of master plans for rural
road network in each district. The planning of network for the district may cover all
habitations with minimum population of 100 and above to be served by all-weather
roads. It also suggested for providing connectivity to all the habitations by the end of
this decade (2010)52.
In the study area there are 919 or 77.9 per cent villages which have been linked
with the pucca road. Out of total rural population of 21, 27,592 persons in the district,
1,82,2623 or 85.7 per cent have been provided with the facility of approach by pucca
road. It is seen from the above data that a good number of villages as well as
population is served by the availability of pucca road facility but people have to face
the problem because of poor maintenance of these roads which leads to progressive
deterioration of the road network. These roads get destructed especially during the
rainy seasons because of bad quality of material to be used by the constructer.
Another problem faced by the people of the study area is that even though the
government is providing the facility of pucca road to each and every village but the
availability of public transport system is lacking. Due to which they have to travel
long distance to avail the facility of buses.
Post Offices in India constitute the largest network in the country offering
financial, communication and other retail services. Department of Posts has been
involved in rural development for the last 150 years. With its more than 139,000 Post
Offices in rural areas, it provides support in various critical functions through
communication, financial services, life insurance products and other retail services.
Till March 2011, 4,271 Panchayat Sanchar Seva Kendras have been functioning in
the country. Panchayat Sanchar Seva Kendras are opened at Gram Panchayat
52 IRC (2001): Road Development Plan Vision 2021.
60
headquarters where Post Offices do not exist. This scheme is implemented by
Gram Panchayats through an agent appointed by them. Post Office Savings Bank is
the oldest and the largest banking institution in the country. The money collected
through Post Office Saving is also utilized as investment towards nation-building by
the Government and various State Governments. Small Savings Schemes operated at
Post Offices in the rural areas contributing to the cause of rural development include
Post Office Saving Account, Post Office Recurring Deposit Account, Post Office
One, Two, Three, and Five Years Time Deposit, Monthly Income Scheme, Public
Provident Fund, Senior Citizen Savings Scheme and National Savings Certificate.
Department of Posts introduced Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) in 1995 for the
benefit of rural population with special focus on weaker sections. It aims to ensure
access to substantial cash at periodic intervals to meet life cycle expenses on
education, marriage and old age. RPLI offers various policies like Whole Life
Assurance (Gram Suraksha), Convertible Whole Life Assurance (Gram Suvidha),
Endowment Assurance (Gram Santosh), Anticipated Endowment Assurance for 15
and 20 years (Gram Sumangal), 10 years RPLI (Gram Priya) and Children Policy
(Bal Jiwan Bima). The Government enacted the MGNREGA in September 2005 and
the scheme came into force in all districts in the country with effect from 1st April
2008. Department of Posts has taken the responsibility to disburse the wages through
Post Offices by opening savings bank accounts in the names of MGNREGA
beneficiaries. Starting with Andhra Pradesh Postal Circle in 2005, the Scheme of
disbursement of MGNREGA wages through Post Offices accounts is currently
operational in the entire country excepting Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir and Tamil Nadu
Postal Circles (Tamil Nadu and Puducherry). The Scheme is operational through
98,168 post offices. The Department is also contributing to the efforts in financial
61
inclusion by payment of benefits under various social security pension schemes viz.
IGNOAPS (Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme), IGNWPS (Indira
Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme) and Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog
Yojana (IGMSY Scheme), a Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) Maternity Benefit
Scheme. Such payments are being effected either through money orders or Post
Office Saving Bank accounts. Thus encouraging Post Offices to remain involved in
the activities of rural financial inclusion will ensure sustainable all round development
of the rural population. The above features make postal network the most effective
vehicle of rural development53. In the study area, post office facility which includes
facilities like telegraph office and post & telegraph, 306 villages constituting 25.9 per
cent of villages have been provided with this facility within the village. Out of total
population in the district, 45.1 per cent population has post office facility. 874 villages
do not have this facility in the village itself. Of these majority i.e. 773 have this
facility at a distance of less than5 kms., another 124 villages avail it at a distance of
5-10 kms. In the remaining 17 villages habitants have to travel a distance of more than
10 kms.
Rural telecommunication has been an important area on which the government
has been giving sustained emphasis since seventies. Lots of incentives have been
made available to the rural areas to bridge the gap between urban and rural areas in
terms of access to telephones. It is believed that as telephones gets cheaper and
accessible to rural areas, it would definitely initiate tremendous transformation in
various aspects of rural society, particularly in the rural economy. The Telecom
Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has expressed concern over the low telephone
penetration in the rural area. The Authority noted that despite several attempts over
53 Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 25 November 2012.
62
the last more than 10 years, the gap between penetration of telephony in rural (1.7 per
cent) and urban (19.7per cent) areas is widening and measures need to be taken to
reduce this gap54.
In the past decade, India has seen a veritable telecommunications revolution
which is the result of effective regulatory and policy environment coupled with an
enterprising telecommunications sector made of both public and private service
providers. The growth of rural teledensity is remarkable as it has risen to 36% as on
30thaugust 2011 from a mere 1.7% in 2004. In fact, today rural teledensity is growing
at a much faster rate than urban teledensity. At the beginning of 2011, there were
282.29 million rural connections (most of which are wireless), as compared to a mere
4.84 million (only landline) phones in the year 2000. Practically all growth has come
from mobile telephony and the private sector has played a huge role in this expansion.
With an average family size of five, it may be assumed that almost every rural
household owns a mobile phone. If not, then there are public Calling offices and
universal service obligation fund sponsored village public Telephones in almost every
inhabited census village in the country. Telecom connectivity constitutes an important
part of the effort to upgrade the rural infrastructure. Under the Bharat nirman
programme (Bnp), Rural Teledensity of at least 40% by 2014, Broadband Coverage of
all 2, 50,000 village panchayats and setting up Common service Centers at panchayat
level by 2012 are proposed to be achieved55. Under this programme it will be ensured
that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with a
Village Public Telephone (VPT), should be covered. Out of the above villages,
connectivity in 14,183 remote and far flung villages will be provided through digital
54 Rao, J.S.G. and Pattnaik, S.N., ‘Technology for Rural Development, Role of Telecommunication Media in India’, Indian Media Studies Journal, Vol.1, No.1, July-Dec 2006.
55 Kurukshetra, A journal on rural development vol.60, no.3, jan 2011.
63
satellite phone terminals. Assistance for both capital as well as operational
expenditure for these VPTs will be met out of the Universal Services Obligation Fund
(USOF)56.
Ever since the government has opened the telecom market for private players,
rural India has been on the private operator’s radars. Most private telecom operators
claim that they are providing rural connectivity at its best, but they have not done
enough. Service providers, though claiming to provide rural telephony in adjoining
villages, have installed towers on highways and only those villages that come in the
periphery are connected. That’s the definition of rural telephony for private operators.
The major constraints for the low rural teledensity have been lack of investible
resources, non availability of appropriate technology combined with difficult
geographical terrain and continental size of the country. In the study area 409 or
34.7per cent villages have been provided with the telephone facility. Out of the total
rural population, 9, 53,591or 44.8 percent have telephone facility. There are 771
villages in the district which are without telephone facility. Of these 268 avail this
facility at a distance of less than 5 kms., 286 at a distance of 5-10 kms. and remaining
217 have to travel a distance of more than 10 kms.
DRINKING WATER
Historically, drinking water supply in the rural areas in India has been outside
the government’s sphere of influence. Community-managed open wells, private wells,
ponds and small-scale irrigation reservoirs have often been the main traditional
sources of rural drinking water. The first government-installed rural water supply
schemes were implemented in the 1950s as part of the Government policy to provide
basic drinking water supply facilities to the rural population. Since then, the
56 www.archive.india.gov.in/sectors/rural/index.php?id=7
64
involvement of Government has increased with corresponding decrease in the role of
communities in the rural water supply sector. The Government of India’s role in the
rural drinking water supply sector started in 1972-73 with the launch of Accelerated
Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) to assist the States/ Union Territories for
providing potable water to the rural population. Earlier (1972-1986,) the major thrust
of the RWS sector development was to ensure provision of adequate drinking water
supply to the rural community through a centralized Public Health Engineering
System. The second generation programme started with the launching of Technology
Mission (1986-87), later renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
in 1991-92. The importance of water quality, appropriate technology intervention,
human resource development support and other related activities were introduced in
the Rural Water Supply (RWS) sector. The third generation programme started in
1999-2000 when new initiatives through Sector Reform Projects was introduced to
involve community in planning, implementation and management of RWS schemes,
later scaled up as Swajal dhara in 2002. Inspite of collective effort of the State and
Central Governments and huge investment of about Rs 72,600 crore in the rural water
supply sector, under both State and Central Plans upto 2009 since the beginning of the
planned era of development, the objective of providing adequate potable drinking
water to the rural community at a convenient location is yet to be achieved57. In the
study area drinking water facility is available in1178 or 99.8 per cent villages. Out of
total population 99.99 per cent have got drinking water facility. Out of total
households 473,975 of the district 87.7 per cent of the households have improved
drinking water facility. The proportion of rural and urban area drinking water facility
is 85.6 and 93.3 per cent.
57 Movement towards ensuring people’s drinking water security in rural India, Framework for implementation 2009-2012, Department of Drinking Water Supply, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.
65
ELECTRICITY
Rural electrification is the backbone of rural economy and a basic input for
rapid rural development. It is also the main infrastructure for ensuring speedy growth
of the agriculture sector and agro based industrial structure in rural areas58.India is
home to 35% of the global population without access to electricity (IEA, 2002) and
only 44% of all rural Indian households are electrified. As per 2001 Census, 6.02
crore households use electricity as the primary source of lighting out of a total of 13.8
crore households in the country59.Government of India from time to time has
launched a number of schemes for electrification of rural areas in the country. These
include: -
Minimum Needs Programme: It was started in the Fifth Five Year Plan and rural
electrification was one of the components of the programme. Under this programme,
funds were provided as central assistance to the states in the form of grants and loans.
The areas covered under MNP for the purposes of rural electrification were remote,
far flung and difficult villages with low load potential. From 2004-05 onwards the
scheme was being merged with the new scheme Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran
Yojana (RGGVY).
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) : This scheme was launched in 2000-
01 but rural electrification component was added only in the next year i.e. 2001-02. It
was being implemented by State Electricity Boards/Electricity Departments/Power
Utilities which were designated as implementing agencies. Difficulties were faced
under this scheme on account of no clear cut earmarking of percentage of funds for
58 Bilolikar, R. and Deshmukh, R., ‘Rural Electrification in India- an overview’, National Power Training Institute, Faridabad, p.8.
59 Modi, V., ‘Improving Electricity Services in Rural India’, CGSD Working Paper No. 30, December 2005, p.11.
66
rural electrification. The states had discretion of utilizing the funds for different
components as per their own priorities. At least one dalit/tribal basti was to be
included in each un-electrified village being taken up for electrification. This
condition was relaxed if there were no dalit/tribal basti left to be electrified in that
village. In the states where 100% villages were already electrified, the implementation
agencies could take up dalit/tribal bastis and if all the dalit/tribal bastis had also been
electrified, they could take up electrification of hamlets or load intensification.
Kutir Jyoti Scheme: This programme was launched in 1988-89 for extending single
point light connections to households of rural poor families below the poverty line
including harijans and adivasi families. However, it was merged into programme for
"Accelerated Electrification of One Lakh villages and One Crore households" in May,
2004. In the Kutir Jyoti Yojana, the outlay used to be allocated amongst the states
based on two indicators i.e. size of rural population below the poverty line and level
of village electrification obtained in the state in a manner that higher weightage is
given to states with larger population of rural poor and with low electrification level.
According to an evaluation study set up by Ministry of Power, one of the reasons for
low willingness on the part of beneficiaries to go for this programme was un-reliable
and poor quality of supply in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It has been found
that because of these reasons beneficiary did not pay the bills as there was no use of
the connection.
Accelerated Rural Electrification Programme (AREP): The scheme was
introduced in the year 2003-04 under which interest subsidy of 4% was to be provided
on loans availed by state governments/power utilities from financial institutions like
Rural Electrification Corporation (REC), Power Finance Corporation (PFC), Rural
Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), National Agricultural Bank and Rural
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Development (NABARD) etc. for carrying out rural electrification programme. The
assistance was limited to electrification of un-electrified villages, electrification of
hamlets/dalit bastis/tribal villages and electrification of households in villages
through both conventional and non-conventional sources of energy.
Accelerated Electrification of One lakh villages and One crore households: In
2004-05, Government of India launched a scheme "Accelerated Electrification of One
lakh villages and One crore households" by merging interest subsidy scheme AREP
(Accelerated Rural Electrification Programme) and Kutir Jyoti Programme. Under
this scheme, there was a provision for providing 40% capital subsidy for rural
electrification projects and the balance as loan assistance on soft terms from REC.
Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) 2005: Government of
India under the National Electricity Policy has taken a decision to electrify all villages
and provide accessibility to all households in rural areas over a period of four years.
To ensure that electricity reaches all villages and rural households, the provision has
been made to create Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone (REQB) at the block
level besides covering BPL households in rural areas. Since this programme
envisaged to cover un-electrified villages and households, all villages, including
bordering villages were expected to be covered. In order to achieve the above
objective, Government of India conceived and launched "Rajiv Gandhi Grameen
Vidyutikaran Yojana" with the requirement of Rs 160 billion of which Rs 50 billion
has been provided for Tenth Plan to cover 50,000 villages. The scheme will be
implemented through the Rural Electrification Corporation (REC). This scheme
merges the Minimum Needs Programme for rural electrification, and scheme of
"Accelerated Electrification of One lakh villages and one crore households".
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In Aligarh district, 92.6 per cent villages have electricity facility, in which
highest per cent has been observed in Chandaus and Lodha C.D. blocks. The
condition of electricity in the rural areas of study area is found to be highly erratic.
FINANCE
Agriculture and rural sectors play an important role in India’s overall
development strategy in terms of income, employment generation and poverty
alleviation. Great significance has, therefore, been accorded to developing appropriate
institutions and mechanisms for catering to the credit requirements of these sectors.
Government of India promoted Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) through the RRBs Act
of 1976 to bridge the gap in the flow of credit to the rural poor. The RRBs have a
special place in the multi-agency approach adopted to provide agricultural and rural
credit in India. These banks are state-sponsored, regionally-based and rural-oriented.
Besides the RRBs, commercial and co-operative banks have been catering to the
credit requirements of the rural sector60. In 1982, to consolidate the various
arrangements made by the RBI to promote/supervise institutions and channel credit to
rural areas, the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD)
was established. Rural areas suffer from insufficient access to financial services. This
is mainly due to the requirement of asset deeds, identity and income proofs among
other documents by banks and financial institutions and absence of enough branches
in these areas. Out of 1180 inhabited villages in the district only 5.2 per cent villages
have been provided with bank facility and 6.1 per cent with agricultural credit
societies. Out of total rural population of 21, 27,592 persons in the district, 2, 84,722
or 13.4 per cent and 2, 84,055 or 13.4 per cent have been provided with the facility of
bank and agricultural credit societies respectively. In the entire district 1,122 villages
60 Rural Banking in India, New Century Publications, January 2011, pp.1-200.
69
are deprived of Commercial Bank and 1,171 of Co-operative Bank. Of these 1,122
villages which are deprived of Commercial Banks, 513 villages avail this facility at a
distance of less than 5 kms., 459 between 5-10 kms. and the remaining 150 at a
distance of more than 10 kms. Regarding Co-operative Banks out of 1,171 villages
231 villages avail this facility at a distance of less than 5 kms., 479 at a distance of 5-
10 kms. and remaining 461 at a distance of more than 10 kms. 1,108 villages do not
have agricultural credit societies. This facility to 491 villages is available at a distance
of less than 5 kms., 466 at a distance of 5-10 kms. and the remaining 151 at a distance
of more than 10 kms. In Aligarh district out of a total 1180 inhabited villages,
overwhelming 423 have a population of 1000-1999 persons. Of these, 6 villages (1.4
per cent) have Bank facility and 22 villages (5.2 per cent) have been provided with the
agricultural credit societies. Out of 312 villages, which fall in the population range of
500-999 persons, 3 villages (1.0 per cent) have been provided with bank facility and
none of the village has agricultural credit society. 290 villages fall in population range
of 2,000-4,999 persons. Of these 33 villages (11.4 per cent) have bank facilities, 33
villages (11.4 per cent) have agricultural credit societies. There are 46 villages in the
district which are covered under 5,000-9,999 population range. In this range 14
villages (30.4 per cent) have bank facility, 13 villages (28.3 per cent) are having
agricultural credit societies.
MARKET
Marketing is the pivot of economic development in rural areas. It is an
essential component in income and employment generation in farm and non-farm
sectors. Village economy can not be developed without effective and efficient rural
marketing. Very little attention has been paid in the planning era towards the
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development of rural marketing. Some of the market facilities provided by the
government for the rural population have been discussed one by one.
Public Distribution Shop or Fair Price Shop
A public distribution shop also known as Fair Price Shop (FPS), established
by Government of India, is a kind of shop in India which is used to distribute rations
at a subsidized price to the poor. Locally these are known as "ration shop" and chiefly
sell wheat, rice, kerosene and sugar at a price lower than the market price. For buying
items from this shop one must have a ration card. These shops are operated
throughout the country by joint assistance of central and state government. In the
study area there is almost uniform spatial distribution of fair price shop and the poor
people get wheat, rice, kerosene, and sugar at lower price but there is poor supervision
of fair price shop and lack of accountability have spurred a number
of middlemen who consume a good proportion of the stock meant for the poor. There
is also no clarity as to which families should be included in the BPL list and which
excluded. This results in the genuinely poor being excluded whilst the ineligible get
several cards.
Local Market or Haat
Marketing has a crucial role in development of rural non-farm sector and rural
haats are an integral part of the rural market system. Rural Haat enables small farmers
/rural artisans / producers / traders to sell their agri-produces, handicrafts and other
products. Haat encourages face to face contact between sellers and buyers, there by
eliminating the middleman. Rural artisans do not have wherewithal to connect
themselves to the market as they lack adequate capacity, market intelligence and
negotiation skills. Provision of permanent marketing centres at Village level would
71
help them to bridge these inadequacies. Permanent marketing Centers will help them
to promote marketing of products and will give boost socio-economic development.
For strengthening rural haat, NABARD has decided to provide grant assistance to the
gram panchayats for developmental construction of Rural Haats. The amount of grant
assistance will be up to 90% of the construction cost or Rs.5.00 lakh whichever is
lower. Similarly Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGYS) has taken step for
setting up of haats for promotion of rural products at village level61.
61 Guidelines for setting up haats for promotion of rural products at village, district and state levels under Swarnjayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2009.