10320140501003

International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976

– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)

22

THE INTERNAL DYNAMICS OF MIGRATION

Dr. B. Chandra Mohan Patnaik

Associate Professor, School of Management, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Dr. Ipseeta Satpathy, D.Litt.

Professor, School of Management, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar; Odisha

Mr. Anirban Mandal

Research Scholar, School of Management, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

ABSTRACT

The concept of migration is not new to the society. However, in the present paper we

tried to revisit the same with the changing scenario of socio economic development. In the

present paper we tried to focus on the selected rural and semi-urban areas of eastern part of

India and also we tried to ensure that respondents are basically poorest of the poor in that

area. Collection of data was very challenging for this paper. We tried to communicate the

questions with local language. For the purpose of collecting data we had distributed 219

questionnaires and finally 108 responses were received. The analysis of data was made with

the help of likert scale method. It is found that most of the migrants are economically

backward and the core interest of migration is to survive. No doubt there are number of other

factors for the migration but because of better opportunity to earn income in the urban area

people forced to migrate. This is more specially in the un-organized sectors. It is also realized

during the data collection, the people who migrated to the urban area they are missing their

home land only their physical presence is in the urban area for the sake of better livelihood.

Key words- Migration, Rural area, Semi-urban area & Perception.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MARKETING AND HUMAN

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (IJMHRM)

ISSN 0976 – 6421 (Print)

ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online)

Volume 5, Issue 1, January – February (2014), pp. 22-32

© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/ijmhrm.asp

Journal Impact Factor (2013): 4.6901 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com

IJMHRM

© I A E M E



23

AN OVERVIEW

Migrants involve in different types of migration streams and they are characterized by

large number of socio economic variables like caste, landholding size, age, gender, education,

family size, consumption levels etc. The National Commission for Rural Labour Report,

1991, suggests that a large number of migrants are basically those who have less landholding.

For them seasonal migration is the best option as they are not in a position to arrange moving

cost and subsequently staying cost in urban location during initial stage of migration. In terms

of education, it is observed that rate of migration is high among highly educated as well as

least educated individuals. But for these two extreme groups, nature of job is different after

migration. Those who are highly educated normally get into well paid formal sector job, thus

improves the standard of living. But for least educated the reverse is the truth. This group of

migrants landed up in urban informal sector job, where neither the working condition is good

nor do they have the job security. Not only that, most of the time they suffer from lack of

access to basic amenities and labour market discrimination. The poor migrants once enter in

the urban job markets face large uncertainties in the potential job market. They also incur the

risk of high job search cost. This risk is increased if the distance of place of destination

increases from place of origin.

Jobs in the urban informal sector are highly segmented and based around people of

same caste, religion and kinship. This social network provides initial income support,

information, accommodation and access to jobs.

Table 1.1: Rural Urban Population Distribution in India (1901, 1951, 2011)

Census Year % of Population in Rural

Areas

% of Population in Urban

Areas

1901 89.2 10.8

1951 82.7 17.3

2011 68.8 31.2

Source: Census 2011 – Provisional Population Totals – India

Migration has created diverse impact in both sources as well as destination areas.

These impacts are complex in nature and a thorough understanding is required to know the

real impact of labour migration. It has created an impact on the lives of migrants as well as

their households, social and political lives in both source as well as destination areas.

Remittances and savings are a primary channel through which migrant workers are able to

stabilize or improve their conditions of living. Remittances also impact on intra – and – inter

household relations and the pattern of growth and development in source areas. The other

important channels through which migration affects workers and impacts on the source and

destination areas are the nature of their involvement in labour markets and changes in

workers’ tastes, perceptions and attitudes. The latter are less tangible but nonetheless of great

significance.

India’s economic growth pattern shows a mixed outcome in terms of migration. Due

to industrial growth demand for both skilled and unskilled labour is on the rise. The

concentrated growth in urban areas attracted lots of migrant workers because of greater job

opportunities. On the other hand, low industrial growth and low job opportunities in the rural

sector created a push factor which influences the migration decision.



24

The other main feature influencing the pace and pattern is the emerging characteristics

of the labour market in India. There has been a shift in labour regimes towards greater in

formalization and flexibilization. It is believed that employment related migration has

definitely increased. Further, while documented migration flows, it shows that migration

propensity is higher among the better off and the more skilled but there is an increase in

labour circulation and seasonal labour migration, partly dictated by the emerging labour

regimes and partly by the growth in sectors such as construction, which mainly depend upon

migrant labour.

The impact of migration on growth is not only confined to the industrial and services

sector, but increasingly agricultural development, too, is coming to depend more on labour

migration, because young people move out of cultivation in more developed areas, and

agricultural employers become more and more unwilling to deal with local sources of labour.

Table 1.2: Urbanization & Decadal Growth

Source: Planning Commission Report on Urban Development for 11th

Five Year Plan

(2007 – 2012)

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

� To visualize the various determinants of migration from rural and semi-urban areas to

urban area

� To provide various remedial measures to overcome migration problem.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

� The present study is restricted to selected rural and semi-urban areas of eastern part of

India, i.e. West Bengal and Odisha

� The sample size is limited to 108 only and this may not represent the views of others.

� The period of study is for 4 months, i.e. October 2013 and January 2014.

Year Total

population

No. of

Towns

and

UAs

Urban

Population

Share of Urban

Population to

Total Population

(%)

Decadal

Growth of

Urban

Population

(%)

Index of

Urban

Population

(Base

1951 = 100)

1951 36.11 2843 6.24 17.3 41.4 100

1961 43.92 2365 7.89 18.0 26.4 126

1971 54.81 2590 10.91 19.9 38.2 175

1981 68.33 3378 15.95 23.3 46.1 256

1991 84.63 3768 21.76 25.7 36.4 349

2001 102.86 5161 28.61 27.8 31.3 458



25

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

For the purpose of collection of data initially pilot study was conducted by taking 26

various variables and after the pilot study the variables were restricted to 18 only. Stratified

random sampling method used covering the selected rural and semi-urban areas of West

Bengal and Odisha. Total 219 questionnaires were distributed and out of which only 108

responses were received. This includes 28 respondents belongs to male in rural area and 24

belongs to female in the rural area. Similarly, in case of semi-urban area 29 were male and 27

were female respondents. Likert Scale method used with close end option in the

questionnaire. The rate of response was 49.32%.

Respondents’ perception with regard to the determinants of migration To measure the perception level of the respondents of rural and semi-urban areas, the

various variables identified are economic reasons and improved standard of living, better

health care facility and entertainment, better employment opportunity, existence of surplus

work force in rural areas, nature of employment (sometimes temporary or seasonal), reduce

the risk of income loss, individual migration because of less land holding, pursuing higher

education and better training facility, to get the social protection, women migration for social

conditions (marriage), migration because of geographic proximity, climate change factors

like low rainfall and change in temperature or weather condition, business motive, due to

violence, fear of famine/ flood, strict repayment of loan to the micro-credit organizations

during the lean period, socio economic disparities between rural & urban areas and limited

income opportunities in rural areas. In this regard we have been assigned as +4,+3,+2,+1 and

0 for the responses of the respondents “ Completely agree”, “ Agree”, “ Neutral, “ Disagree”

and “ Completely disagree” respectively. Final scores for each feature are calculated by

multiplying the number of response by the weights of the corresponding response.

Calculation of respondents’ perception: Ideal and Least scores Ideal scores are calculated by multiplying the number of respondents in each category

with (+4) and product with total number of attributes. Least scores calculated by multiplying

the number of respondents in each category with (0) and the product with number of

attributes in the questionnaires.

Table-1.3: Ideal and Least scores

Category Equation Ideal score Equation Least score

Male in Rural area 28X4X18 2016 28X0X18 0

Female in Rural area 24X4X18 1728 24X0X18 0

Male in Semi-urban area 29X4X18 2088 29X0X18 0

Female in Semi-urban area 27X4X18 1944 27X0X18 0



26

Analysis of Data

Variables Aggregate Score

RURAL AREA SEMI-URBAN

AREA

Male Female Male Female

Economic reasons and improved standard of

living

94 83 109 100

Better health care facility and entertainment 96 87 97 95

Better employment opportunity 103 87 99 88

Existence of surplus work force in rural areas 97 89 102 95

Nature of employment (sometimes temporary

or seasonal)

97 92 107 95

Reduce the risk of income loss, 97 82 97 84

Individual migration because of less land

holding

102 82 93 84

Pursuing higher education and better training

facility

102 81 106 85

To get the social protection 101 81 97 91

Women migration for social conditions

(marriage)

101 87 105 93

Migration because of geographic proximity 92 76 94 102

Climate change factors like low rainfall and

change in temperature or weather condition,

92 86 108 94

Business motive 91 86 98 91

Due to violence 94 84 95 95

Fear of famine/ flood 100 79 87 96

Strict repayment of loan to the micro-credit

organizations during the lean period,

96 79 101 89

Socio economic disparities between rural &

urban areas

88 85 97 99

Limited income opportunities in rural areas. 93 82 98 95

Total Scores 1736 1508 1790 1671

Ideal Scores 2016 1728 2088 1944

Least Scores 0 0 0 0

% of total score to Ideal score 86.11 87.27 85.73 85.96

No of respondents 28 24 29 27

Source: Annexure A, B, C & D

International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), IS

– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January

Interpretation- In the above table it shows that the total score for various male and female in

rural areas are 1736 and 1508 and similarly the same for the semi

1671 respectively. In no case the total score touches the least score. The percent

score to ideal score are for the semi

respectively. Also in case of semi

in the rural area are 87.27% and 86.11%. This indicates

the study seems to have better support from the respondents.

Remedial measure There are number of issues that needs to be taken care in the area, however in this

direction following are important ones

� Infrastructure development needs to be improved in the rural and semi

� Better health care facility needs to be improved in the area

� Better education facility in the rural and semi

� Scope for employment generation should be created in the rural and se

� Training facility for the self employment should be created in the area

� Population control should be made in the area

� Child marriage should be stopped

CONCLUDING OBSERVATION

We also strongly feel that the inherent problems in rural area spe

changed in overnight. It is very unfortunate that even after 66 years of independence we are

not able to provide basic needs to the rural masses. The major problem in the area is lack of

infrastructure and adequate education facility, basi

and child marriage etc. Since independence lot of schemes were implemented in the name of

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Rural male Rural female

International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), IS

643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)

27

In the above table it shows that the total score for various male and female in

rural areas are 1736 and 1508 and similarly the same for the semi-urban areas are 1790 and

1671 respectively. In no case the total score touches the least score. The percent

score to ideal score are for the semi-urban area for male and female are 85.73% and 85.96%

respectively. Also in case of semi-urban area the percentage of total score of female and male

in the rural area are 87.27% and 86.11%. This indicates that all the variables considered for

the study seems to have better support from the respondents.

There are number of issues that needs to be taken care in the area, however in this

direction following are important ones

development needs to be improved in the rural and semi-urban area

Better health care facility needs to be improved in the area

Better education facility in the rural and semi-urban area

Scope for employment generation should be created in the rural and semi

Training facility for the self employment should be created in the area

Population control should be made in the area

Child marriage should be stopped

CONCLUDING OBSERVATION

We also strongly feel that the inherent problems in rural area specially cannot be



infrastructure and adequate education facility, basic health care facility, increased population


Rural female Semi-urban

male

Semi-urban

female


February (2013)

In the above table it shows that the total score for various male and female in

urban areas are 1790 and

1671 respectively. In no case the total score touches the least score. The percentages of total

urban area for male and female are 85.73% and 85.96%

urban area the percentage of total score of female and male

that all the variables considered for

There are number of issues that needs to be taken care in the area, however in this

urban area

mi-urban area

cially cannot be



c health care facility, increased population


Total Scores

Ideal Scores

Least Scores



28

welfare schemes for these rural areas however the benefits were not reached to these people.

Most of the times the schemes are implemented in the paper only. It is very surprise to find

that most of the areas we visited for collecting data do not even the electricity and proper

transportation and so called government sponsored schemes are miles away from these

people. The migration no doubt helps the migrants economically and able to help for the

survival. This migration having effect on urban area also, because of this the urban area

becomes congested and also number of problem arises in the urban area like housing,

drinking water, electricity, theft and other basic sanitary issues. No doubt these migrated

people contribute for the development of urban areas economy but at the same time they also

creates imbalance in the urban sanitary issues. This migration leads to development of slum

in the urban area. So every effort should be made to stop migration to the extent possible by

creating and providing infrastructure, employment, and health care and education facilities in

these rural and semi-urban areas. In this regard we would like to conclude with the vision of

Dr. Achyutanand Samant, the founder of KIIT and KISS and internationally acknowledged

Social entrepreneur, (who is the founder of Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS), a

Tribal School for the 25,000 students who are provided with free education and boarding)- “

Empowering the under privileged through education”. The need of the hour is we need

more people like Dr. Samant, who is living legend for the underprivileged and messiah for

the tribal empowerment in India.

REFERENCES

[1] Kwaku Twumasi Ankrah (1995), Rural Urban Migration & Socioeconomic

Development in Ghana; Journal of Social Development in Africa, Vol. 10, No. 2,

pp. 13 – 22.

[2] Rita Afsar (1999), Rural-urban dichotomy and convergence: emerging realities in

Bangladesh.

[3] John Kennan & James R. Walker (March 2003), The Effect of Expected Income on

Individual Migration Decisions; Working Paper 9585, National Bureau of Economic

Research.

[4] Amaresh Dubey, Richard Palmer – Jones & Kunal Sen (July 2004), Surplus Labour,

Social Structure & Rural to Urban Migration: Evidence from Indian Data; Conference

Paper Presented at the Conference on the 50th

Anniversary of the Lewis Model.

[5] Priya Deshingkar (June 2004), Understanding the Implications of Migration for Pro –

poor Agricultural Growth; Overseas Development Institute, London, Paper prepared

for the DAC POVNET Agriculture Task Group Meeting.

[6] Richard Black, Lyndsay Mclean Hilker & Claire Pooley (November 2004), Migration

and Pro – poor Policy in East Africa; Working Paper C 7, Sussex Centre for Migration

Research.

[7] D. Dhanuraj, “Health Insurance Scheme for Low Income Groups in India with a Focus

on Urban Poor in Cochin”, International Journal of Management (IJM), Volume 2,

Issue 2, 2011, pp. 182 - 197, ISSN Print: 0976-6502, ISSN Online: 0976-6510.

[8] Dr. B .Chandra Mohan Patnaik, Dr. Ipseeta Satpathy and Mr. Chandrabhanu Das,

“Effectiveness of Outsourcing of Internal Audit and Financial Reporting by the

Corporate”, International Journal of Advanced Research in Management (IJARM),

Volume 5, Issue 1, 2013, pp. 53 – 58, ISSN Print: 0976 – 6324, ISSN Online:

0976 – 6332.



29

Annexure-A (28)

VARIABLES

Perception of Male in rural area

CA A N DA CDA SCORE

4 3 2 1 0

Economic reasons and improved

standard of living

19 3 4 1 1 94

Better health care facility and

entertainment

18 5 4 1 0 96

Better employment opportunity 23 2 2 1 0 103

Existence of surplus work force in

rural areas

20 4 2 1 1 97

Nature of employment (sometimes

temporary or seasonal)

17 8 2 1 0 97

Reduce the risk of income loss, 21 2 3 1 1 97

Individual migration because of

less land holding

22 3 2 1 0 102

Pursuing higher education and

better training facility

19 8 1 0 0 102

To get the social protection 23 1 2 2 0 101

Women migration for social

conditions (marriage)

21 4 2 1 0 101

Migration because of geographic

proximity

19 3 3 1 2 92

Climate change factors like low

rainfall and change in temperature

or weather condition,

18 4 3 2 1 92

Business motive 17 5 3 2 1 91

Due to violence 19 4 2 2 1 94

Fear of famine/ flood 20 5 2 1 0 100

Strict repayment of loan to the

micro-credit organizations during

the lean period,

18 6 2 2 0 96

Socio economic disparities

between rural & urban areas

17 4 3 2 2 88

Limited income opportunities in

rural areas.

16 8 2 1 1 93

Source: Compiled from field survey



30

Annexure-B (24)

VARIABLES

Perception of Female in rural area

CA A N DA CDA SCORE

4 3 2 1 0


standard of living

18 2 2 1 1 83


entertainment

17 5 2 0 0 87



rural areas

20 2 1 1 0 89



21 2 1 0 0 92



less land holding

18 2 1 2 1 82



16 4 2 1 1 81




19 2 2 1 0 87


proximity

15 2 4 2 1 76




19 2 1 2 0 86






the lean period,

17 2 2 1 2 79



18 3 1 2 0 85


rural areas.

16 5 1 1 1 82




31

Annexure-C (29)

VARIABLES

Perception of Male in semi-urban area

CA A N DA CDA SCORE

4 3 2 1 0


standard of living

23 4 2 0 0 109


entertainment

20 3 3 2 1 97



rural areas

21 3 4 1 0 102



22 5 2 0 0 107



less land holding

17 5 4 2 1 93



21 6 2 0 0 106




21 5 3 0 0 105


proximity

19 4 2 2 2 94




24 2 3 0 0 108






the lean period,

20 5 2 2 0 101



18 4 6 1 0 97


rural areas.

20 2 5 2 0 98




32

Annexure-D (27)

VARIABLES

Perception of Female in semi-urban area

CA A N DA CDA SCORE

4 3 2 1 0


standard of living

22 2 3 0 0 100


entertainment

21 2 2 1 1 95



rural areas

20 3 2 2 1 95



19 4 3 1 0 95



less land holding

17 3 2 3 2 84



16 5 2 2 2 85




19 4 2 1 1 93


proximity

22 4 1 0 0 102




18 6 2 0 1 94






the lean period,

19 2 2 3 1 89



22 2 2 1 0 99


rural areas.

20 3 2 2 0 95


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