10 recommendations for optimizing smallholder …...2016/04/10 · explains the extra...

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Recommendations for Optimizing SmallholderMore Specialized Systems

Learning Objectives: UnderstandingThe need to adapt recommendations to livestock-keeping strategyThe main causes of animal mortality and low productivity in more specialized livestock keepingRecommendations for stimulating more specialized livestock-keeping systems in eight special areas

Adapt Recommendationsto Local Circumstances

It is important to analyse the type of animalhusbandry used within a family or commu-nity, as well as the local circumstances athand, before embarking on activities in sup-port of the animal husbandry practices.Because of the differences in objectivesbetween systems, as explained in the previ-ous chapters, it is necessary to adapt therecommendations similarly. This will bedone for more specialized animal keepingsystems in this chapter. The improvementsof low-input and diversified systems arediscussed in Chapter 9. The aspects relatedto marketing will be detailed in Chapter 11.

As indicated in the previous chapters,most livestock-dependent limited resourcepeople can be found in the low-input anddiversified smallholder farming and pastoral-ist systems. In addition, the same family maybe employing a more specialized type of ani-mal production of one selected species. Thismore specialized system will have a lower

input level than large-scale commercial farmsor ranches, but the logic of this livestock-keeping system - in terms of productivityfocus - coincides more with the high-inputcommercial livestock keeping than with low-input and diversified farming.

Main Goal: Increased AnimalProductivity and Farm Efficiency

In more specialized production systems, theintensity of inputs, labour and other costsare increased when compared with low-input and diversified livestock-keeping sys-tems. Production per animal is normallyhigher and mortality is generally lower thanin low-input and diversified livestock keep-ing. The more specialized smallholder live-stock-keeping systems can be improved withthe goal of increasing animal productionand farm efficiency within the integratedagricultural system (van't Hooft, 2004).

In Box 10.1, the main reasons for mor-tality in low-input and diversified and more

©K.E. van't Hooft, T.S. Wol len and D.P. Bhandari 2012. Sustainable Livestock Managementfor Poverty Alleviation and Food Security (K. van't Hooft, T. Wol len and D.P. Bhandari) 101

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Box 10.1. Main causes of mortality and loss in low-input and more specialized livestock-keeping systems.

Low-input systems More specialized systems

Nutritional deficiencies, especially during dryperiods

Lack of pastureWater deficienciesInfectious diseasesInternal and external parasitesBreeding deficienciesLack of protectionLack of care in special moments (birth, illness)

Infectious diseases

Acute conditions new to the farmer, such as milk feverBirthing difficulties because of offspring with big sizeAcute udder infections (mastitis)Culling because of infertility, lameness or injury

specialized systems are shown. Because ofdifferent management of the animals, theyshow some remarkable differences.

The ways to support more specializedsystems are shown in Fig. 10.1 and are basedon the recommendations to reduce mortal-ity for supporting low-input and diversifiedsystems, as mentioned in Chapter 9. Theseare the minimal requirements. This chapterexplains the extra recommendations formore specialized livestock-keeping systems.Please note that this is an overview of pos-sibilities of improved management practicesrather than a complete guide.

1: Improved Animal Nutrition

Upon making the change from low-input anddiversified to more specialized animal hus-bandry, the first thing to change, generally, isanimal nutrition; both the quantity and qual-ity of feed needs to be improved to maintainan adequate level of nutrition throughout theyear. Dry and wet seasons make less differ-ence in nutritional support than in low-inputsystems. The aim is to provide an optimallybalanced feed ration from commonly availablenutrient stocks, including grains, silage, hayand supplements. The ingredients are eithergrown on the farm or purchased through areamarkets.

Producers all know that it is very diffi-cult to provide completely adequate nour-ishment throughout the year, especially forfamilies that have recently changed fromdiversified husbandry to more specializedhusbandry. To assure good management of

the animals requires continuous invest-ments of capital and labour, which is notalways easy to guarantee. Moreover, at thebeginning of the process of change from onesystem to the other, families are insecureabout their debts and how to access newmarkets. At this period these families needextra support.

The recommendations for animal nutri-tion in more specialized livestock keepingare divided into two parts: (i) dry seasonnutrition; and (ii) mineral supply.

Dry season nutrition

Good-quality animal nutrition year roundmay well be the most challenging factor formore specialized livestock keeping for allproducers. For low-input systems, the nutri-tional objective during the dry season is toreduce mortality and weight loss. This is doneby taking advantage of available fodder stocks,such as straw from grain crops, leguminoustrees and other agricultural by-products.

These strategies that are described indetail in Chapter 9 can be maintained andimproved in more specialized systems:

Improved straw storage and feeding;Supporting local feeding innovationsand traditions;Improved use of kitchen leftovers;Green forage, such as oats, barley andlucerne;Hay making;Cheap and easy to obtain by-products,such as wheat bran;Use of feeder troughs.

Optimizing More Specialized Livestock Keeping 103

Fig. 10.1. The wheel of animal well-being and production for more specialized livestock keeping, showingthe eight major areas of improved management in more specialized animal keeping. They build on theminimum recommendations for low-input livestock keeping.

Additional feeding strategies in more spe-cialized systems are described below.

Lucerne with irrigation

Lucerne is a high-quality legume that can beused to feed the animals throughout the year.Different varieties of lucerne are useddepending on the climatic and soil condi-tions in each area. Lucerne requires irriga-tion during the dry months, and is thereforea crop that requires relatively high input.

Because of its quality, it is a well acceptedcrop in many regions of the world. It ismostly used in cut-and-carry systems. Insome cases, lucerne is used in controlledgrazing, though the crop does not resistheavy grazing.

Elephant or Napier grass

Fodder crops are often planted in the case ofinitiating a zero-grazing system. In this case(Fig. 10.2), the Napier grass is best planted as

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Table 10.1. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved animal nutrition in smallholderlow-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Animal nutrition Objectives Dry season nutrition Mineral supply

Low-input and Reduced mortality in drydiversified systems season

Reduced weight lossIncreased resistance to

droughtRecommendations

for improvement

More specialized Better nutritional statussystems year round

Improved reproductionrate

Special feeding of youngstock

Recommendationsfor improvement

Agricultural by-productsstorage and feeding

Support local feedinginnovations

Plant leguminous treesImproved use of kitchen

leftoversGreen forageHay makingFeeder troughs

Local productionof balanced feed

Improved straw feedingHay/silage making

Provide ordinary salt

Home-made mineralblocks

Vitamins

Complete mineralsupplements

Vitamins

Fig. 10.2. Feeding with elephant grass in a zero-grazing unit.


close to the zero-grazing facility as possible.This reduces labour in transporting thematerials.

If the fodder grass is planted in rows, ashallow trench in between each row canfacilitate watering. Manure from the penscan also be used in these trenches to fertilizethe grass.

A way to judge the amount of landneeded for one cow is the following. About0.4 ha (1 acre) of Napier grass is enough foreach local dairy cow per year in most areas.If the Napier grass is intercropped withDesmodium or other legumes, 0.3 ha(0.75 acre) is enough for one cow; 0.4 ha ofNapier and Desmodium is enough to feed acow and a calf. Other local grasses can beevaluated as substitutes for Napier andDesmodium (Bhandari, 2009).

Silage

Silage is the storage of green feed in a pitcovered with plastic, so that it fermentsand, as such, maintains its quality. Themost common silage is of maize, but otherforages can be stored. Good feed must con-tain dry stubble to ensure fibre content.Silage is utilized in more specialized dair-ies because it involves greater expense: dig-ging the pit, paying the farmhands, thechopper and the plastic.

Cottonseed

Cottonseed is a by-product of cotton pro-duction and can be purchased relativelycheaply in cotton-producing areas at har-vest time. It is a high-energy feed and,together with bran and mineral salt, pro-vides an almost completely balanced dietfor dairy cattle. Before giving this feed,straw or maize husks must be fed to thecattle to balance their diet with fibre.Purchasing, transporting and storing theseed require a large investment, which isoften done in cooperative groups or spe-cialized dairies. Feeding cottonseeds cancause problems, especially in young ani-mals, because of the insecticides utilized inthe cultivation of cotton. The effects onhumans are unknown.

Urea

Dry fodder crops can be improved in theirfeeding quality by adding urea and molas-ses (sugarcane syrup -a by-product of thesugarcane industry) to increase palatabilityand nitrogen content for cattle. This prac-tice is not without risk, as urea is toxic whenapplied in too large quantities Animalsneed to be accustomed to this product littleby little.

Making balanced feed

It is possible to optimize diets in more spe-cialized husbandry systems, seeking a bal-ance between maximum production andcost optimization using relatively inexpen-sive and easily accessible feed.

Balanced rations can also be made froma basis of maize or sorghum, defatted soy-bean flour, defatted cottonseed flour or sun-flower and mineral salt. Its quality can varywidely depending on its content. Generally,it is of excellent quality, but at a high price.An advantage is that it can be purchased insmall quantities.

Here is an example of a complete yetsimple dairy cow feed formulation con-taining all of the nutrients needed for opti-mum maintenance and production, usinglocally available feed ingredients (Bhandari,2009):

2 parts of rice bran or wheat bran;1 part of maize, millet or sorghum;1 part of mustard/cottonseed/sunflowercake or any bean. Grind all feed ingre-dients together well and feed at the rateof 1-2% of the body weight.

Mineral supply

The strategies for low-input livestock keep-ing that are described in detail in Chapter 9,can be maintained and improved in morespecialized systems:

Provide ordinary (kitchen) salt;Preparation of simple mineral block;Vitamins.

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Additional mineral and vitamin supple-ment strategies in more specialized systemsare shown below.

Provide mineral salt

In more specialized systems, it is necessaryto supplement feeds not only with kitchensalt but also with other minerals to preventweight loss, maintain high milk produc-tion, growth rates and reproductive func-tions. It is necessary to maintain completemineral supplements year round, for exam-ple through commercial or homemade min-eral blocks.

Reducing the amount of mineral salt inthe feed of dairy cattle for a few months is acommon practice to reduce costs in low-input dairy husbandry. Nevertheless, underthe logic of more specialized husbandry, itis more favourable to sell down livestocknumbers in times of stress in order to main-tain the level of nourishment for the remain-der of the herd. The lack of mineral salts indairy cattle, especially higher-producingbreeds, generates problems with reproduc-tion, yielding difficulties at calving, smallerbirth weights or stillbirths, which constitutea loss many times more valuable than thesaved mineral salt.

Mineral supply is essential for all kindsof animal keeping, and even more so inmore-specialized livestock production(Fig. 10.3). The lack of mineral salts indairy cattle, for example, especially higher-producing breeds, generates problems with

diseases resistance, parasites as well asreproduction. Though less tangible, thisconstitutes a loss many times the value ofthe cost of the mineral salt.

Much needs to be understood aboutthe need for different minerals in differentspecies of animals and at different stages ofproduction and reproduction. For example,sheep cannot tolerate as much copper intheir feed as do goats, so using the samecopper supplemented mineral mix for bothspecies requires an educated look at theingredients of the product. Moreover, min-eral deficiencies also depend on the min-eral contents of the soil and forage of theparticular area. For example, if an area isparticularly deficient in selenium, thenreproductive functions and some illnesscan result. Species differences are alsocommon.

Provide vitamins

In more specialized livestock keeping, theseparate provision of vitamins is less neces-sary than in low-input keeping, especiallywhen animals are provided with balancedfeeds and other high-quality products.

2: Improved Pasture and RangelandManagement

Upon making the change from low-inputor more diversified husbandry to morespecialized husbandry, improved pasture

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,Fig. 10.3. Locally made salt block in thestable of a smallholder dairy farm.


and rangeland management is another essen-tial element. The objective of more special-ized systems is a straightforward, year-round(or, at best, season long) availability of good-quality pasture grasses, forbs and brush forall animals (Table 10.2). This needs to be pro-duced with good mineral efficiency, and bebased on healthy soils, with good soil life.

The recommendations for pasture andrangeland management in more specializedlivestock keeping are divided into two parts:(i) pasture management; and (ii) rangelandmanagement. Please note that is notintended to be a complete guide for thisextensive topic, which is also under con-tinuous discussion.

Improved pasture management

Good pasture management is a challengingfactor for more specialized livestock keep-ing. In low-input livestock keeping, pasturemanagement is not much used. The onlycommon form of pasture management inlow-input systems is controlled throughgrazing, for example, by tying the animalsto a pin and regularly moving them. Grazingyoung stock that are already weaned awayfrom the older stock helps to cut down onthe transfer of internal parasites. Thesestrategies that are described in detail inChapter 9 can be maintained and improvedin more specialized systems:

Table 10.2. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved pasture and rangelandmanagement in smallholder low-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animalhusbandry).

Pasture and rangelandmanagement Objectives Pasture Rangeland

Low-input anddiversified systems


Reduced overgrazingand soil erosion

Reduced bushencroachment

Increased carryingcapacity

Increased resistanceagainst drought

Community organization

More specialized Sufficient foddersystems available year round

Good-quality fodderGood N and P efficiencyIncrease soil fertility and

soil lifeRecommendations

for improvement

Controlled grazing Reviving communalgrazing control

Zero-grazing system Fencing off grazing areasRotational grazingSpecial grazing areas for

dry periodControlled and pre-

scribed burning

Plant fodder cropsPasture rotationSpecial pastures for young

stockZero-grazing systemEfficient fertilization of

pastures

Effective weed control

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Controlled grazing;Zero grazing system.

Additional pasture management strate-gies in more specialized systems are describedbelow.

Weed control

Weed control is often taken care of by strate-gic rotation of animal species or mechanicalmeans. Only in severe infestation cases arechemical means used.

Fertilization of pastures

Fertilization of grazing lands varies inmore specialized systems and is usuallylimited to the use of livestock manure,either directly applied by grazing animalsor spread mechanically from compostedmaterials. This provides readily accessibleorganic materials back to the soil fordecomposition.

Commercial fertilizer granules com-posed of nitrogen, phosphorus and potas-sium (NPK) along with lime to adjust soilpH can also be applied to rangelands. Theseshould be preceded by an assessment of thesoil needs by a professional soil scientist orsample analysed in a laboratory.

Soil humus health must also be consid-ered. Commercial application of a specificNPK or lime fertilizer lacks this component.Organic material sources provide improve-ments to soil tilth, or suitability to be tilled,that helps to hold soil moisture and build abody to the soil while the basic chemicalsthat describe soil fertility can come fromeither source.

Milk and carry system

For dairy animals, pasture management sys-tems can be designed so that cows are gath-ered for milking at designated places in thepasture. Milking equipment can be kept inthe pasture, where animals are either teth-ered for milking or milked freely. Insteadof a cut and carry system (see also zero-grazing), this is a milk and carry type ofmanagement, which is also common in low-input livestock keeping.

Zero-grazing system

In order to reduce the pressure on the pas-tures, sometimes it can be advantageous touse the zero-grazing system in which thefeed is brought to the animals. This impliesa transition to a more specialized animalkeeping system. Zero-grazing systems canbe used with any of the grazing species,such as cattle, goats and sheep, and evenwith chickens, pigs, rabbits and other ani-mals kept for production and marketing.Animals are housed in an appropriatelysized and simple shed with a slatted woodor hard dirt floor all made from local materi-als Animal droppings fall through the slatsonto the ground below and can be collectedeasily for composting or direct fertilizationof crops.

(See also later section on Protectionand Housing.)

Improved rangeland management

In low-input systems, rangeland manage-ment objectives relate to reducing theencroachment of brush, reducing soil ero-sion, increasing the carrying capacity ofthe land and managing through droughtconditions.

The strategies for low-input and diver-sified livestock keeping that are describedin detail in Chapter 9 can be maintainedand improved in more specialized systems:

Reviving communal grazing control;Use of traditional animal species, suchas camelids;Fencing off grazing areas;Rotational grazing;Reviving indigenous practices to reducebush encroachment, such as prescribedfire.

Additional recommendations for more spe-cialized animal keeping are given below.

Mob grazing

Pasture rotation systems are many andvaried. Sometimes called mob grazing, theaggressive control of where ruminants graze


can be quite beneficial to the rangeland andcan be a positive benefit to reduction ofgreenhouse gases while improving soil car-bon retention. Hooves loosen the soil as theanimals graze together (Fig. 10.4). The heavydeposit of manure and urine in the mob-grazed area leaves the ground ready for rainsand rapid regrowth of vegetation, once theanimals are moved to their new grazingspot.

The feature of mob grazing that must bekept in mind is that the animals must grazedown the vegetation within a designatedarea thoroughly before being moved. Theycannot be allowed to eat only what tastesgood, but all vegetation. Sometimes this isfacilitated by concurrent or sequential graz-ing of cattle, goats and sheep. These threespecies all prefer different types of forageand can be managed so that all grasses, forbsand shrubs in a given area can be fullyutilized.

When well managed, mob-grazing sys-tems actually allow greater utilization ofpastures so that more animal growth resultsfrom a given area than when animals are

given free choice to the entire area at onetime. In this type of management systemone must be aware of the specific optimumgrazing depth so that plants are not eatendown to the point that they will not growback quickly or grow back at all. Each planthas its optimum height of vegetative mate-rial above ground that is needed for the rootto stimulate regrowth. Too much grazingdown will kill or severely retard regrowth.

3: Water Provision

Dirty water or insufficient water is a factorthat seriously limits any form of animal hus-bandry. This essential and basic element istoo often neglected and under-estimated,especially in smallholder conditions(Table 10.3). The possibilities for improve-ment logically depend on the conditions ofeach place. Bad water quality or lack of watercan greatly reduce productivity and can gorelatively unperceived until too late. In morespecialized systems, extra attention needs tobe given to water quality and quantity.

Fig. 10.4. Pasture rotation systems require extra inputs but can be beneficial for the rapid regrowth of thevegetation. Credit: Ann Wells.

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Table 10.3. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved water provision in smallholderlow-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Water Objectives Access to water Water quality

Low-input and diversified Regular water uptakesystems Water quality sufficient

Pollution of human watersources prevented


More specialized Good water availabilitysystems Quality year round


Water 1-2 times a day Prevent polluted drinkingwater for animals

Opt for animal species Prevent pollution of waterthat require little water for human use by

animals

Continuous access or Prevent pollution ofprovide 3-4 times per drinking water by cropday chemicals and artificial

fertilizers

The recommendations for water provi-sion in low-input livestock keeping aredivided into two parts: (i) access to water;and (ii) water quality.

Access to water

The strategies for securing access to waterin low-input livestock keeping are describedin detail in Chapter 9, and can be main-tained and improved in more specializedsystems:

Regular daily watering;Opt for animal species that require lesswater.

Additional recommendations for morespecialized animal keeping are describedbelow.

Access to water at least threeto four times a day

In more specialized systems, the need forwater is larger than in low-input livestockkeeping, because of higher levels of produc-tion. The animals need water refreshment atleast three or four times a day, with morefrequent access in extremely hot weather.

Water - how much?

A good rule of thumb is to provide 1/20 ofthe animal's body weight in the weight ofwater each day (Fig. 10.5). One can figureout rough estimates for each animal usingthis conversion: 1 1 of water weights about2 pounds; 1 gallon of water weighs about8.35 pounds. Thus, an 800-pound (365-kg)cow needs about 5 gallons (or 18 1) of cleanwater per day.

Water quality

The strategies for securing water quality inlow-input livestock keeping are describedin detail in Chapter 9, and can be main-tained and improved in more specializedsystems:

Prevent polluted drinking water foranimals;Prevent pollution of human drinkingwater sources by animals.

Water sources need to be protected from allsources of contamination, whether frombarnyard waste materials or other pollutants.This is easier said than done and depends onlocal circumstances. Extra efforts in this


Fig. 10.5. Regular water supply is a majorrequirement for all animals, but especially so inmore specialized animal keeping. High-producinganimals are less resistant to water shortages thanlow-producing ones.

direction are, however, efficient and low-costways of improving livestock production andreducing animal mortality.

4: Control of Infectious Diseases

Contagious infectious diseases with highmortality are a common problem in low-input livestock keeping as well as in morespecialized livestock keeping. Each animalspecies has one or two major infectious dis-eases that are often possible to prevent rela-tively easy through regular vaccinations. Inorder to accomplish the aim of reducinganimal mortality, it is necessary to focusespecially on the control of these infectiousdiseases (Table 10.4).

The objective of infectious disease con-trol in more specialized systems is to reduce

the incidence of various diseases, besidesthese most common contagious diseases,without overlooking zoonotic infections(diseases transmitted between animals andman). Differences between the low-input andmore specialized systems begin to appear inthe practices of prevention and treatment.

The recommendations for the controlof infectious diseases in more specializedlivestock keeping are divided into twoparts: (i) animal health services; and(ii) vaccination.

Animal health services

The strategies for securing animal healthservices in low-input livestock keeping aredescribed in detail in Chapter 9, and can bemaintained and improved in more special-ized systems:

Supporting ethno-veterinary practicesand practitioners;Promote synergy between traditionaland modern remedies;Train community-based animal healthworkers;Increase awareness about zoonosis.

Additional recommendations for more spe-cialized animal keeping are described below.

Ethno-veterinary practices in morespecialized livestock keeping

The collection and use of local healingknowledge and remedies is the practice ofethno-veterinarymedicine. Ethno-veterinaryanimal health care - like commercial ani-mal health care - can be broken into threebasic areas of importance:

The prevention of disease, which involvesmost of the practices of livestock man-agement, from housing, nutrition, hus-bandry, environmental management aswell as preventive vaccines;Disease treatment;Animal health surveillance. This is theidentification of diseases and conditionswith the aim of preventing spread, con-trolling infections and public healthsafety.

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Table 10.4. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved control of infectious diseases andanimal nutrition in smallholder low-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animalhusbandry).

Infectious diseases Objectives Animal health services Vaccination

Low-input and diversified Reduced incidencesystems of zoonosis

Reduced animal mortalitybecause of infectiousdisease

Promote synergy betweentraditional and modernremedies

Improved access to localanimal health services


More specialized Improved use of ethno-vetsystems medicine

Improved use ofcommercial medicine

One Health - human andanimal medicine joinforces


Support ethno-vet service Vaccination of one ortwo major diseases

Train community animalhealth workers

Awareness of zoonoses

Ethno-vet practices Extended vaccinationstrengthened programmes

Training in improved use ofcommercial medicines

Disease surveillance,Monitoring and recordingof disease incidence

Ethno-veterinary practices and communityhealers are most common in the low-inputsystems, while commercial preparationsand professionally trained practitioners tendto be more common in the more specializedsystems - especially with high value ani-mals (Fig. 10.6). At the same time, in alllivestock-keeping systems, even specializedhigh-input systems, farmers' local knowl-edge and experience is a valuable asset whenit comes to animal health practices.

Community-based animal health workersin more specialized livestock keeping

Adequately trained community memberscan provide effective service to communitylivestock keepers, including those with more

specialized livestock keeping, for a smallfee. Community animal health workers canmake a lifelong profession out of this workthat supports their family and supports thecommunity. In some cases, they set up smallshops in their communities with veterinaryand agriculture supplies and equipment(Birmingham and Quesenberry, 2007).

Training, retraining and monitoring ofcommunity animal health workers is man-aged by NGOs, farmers' organizations orgovernment extension service.

Often the community animal healthworkers combine traditional and modernmedicine, but this is not always the case.They will especially favour modern medi-cine when this is their major source ofincome. Sometimes farmers with very high


Fig. 10.6. The knowledge on and use of medicinal plants is an important resource in most smallholderlivestock-keeping systems, including the more specialized ones. Credit: M.B.N.Nair.

value animals will prefer a formal veterinar- Strengthening ethno-vet practices byian over a community animal health worker. appropriate combination with conven-

tional medicine.Conventional professional animal

health care services

As more high-input and specializedlivestock-keeping units start emerging in aregion, the call and financial opportunitiesfor formally trained veterinary practitionersbegin to grow. These are often linked tocommercial association of veterinary prod-ucts, and tend to focus on modern and large-scale specialized livestock keeping, ratherthan low-input and diversified livestockkeeping.

These conventionally trained veteri-nary caregivers can play an essential role inworking together with local healers, com-munity animal health workers and farmersin facing the following challenges:

Training of improved use of commer-cial medicine;Monitoring and recording of diseaseincidence;

Improved used of commercial medicines

The indiscriminate and uncontrolled use ofcommercial products in smallholder live-stock keeping is a major problem that intime can lead to human health problemsrelated to residues in milk, meat and eggs.This is often complicated by the quality ofthe products being in question. If there is nostrong regulatory system in the country,counterfeit and low-price medications maybe abundant. Good training and mindfulcompliance is a safeguard against drug mis-use (Fig. 10.7).

Common problems with poorly regu-lated commercial products are:

Low quality of products sold: Not allmanufacturers follow the required stand-ards in the manufacture of products.Low quality because of poor storage:Medicines and vaccines should be

114 Chapter 10

stored in a clean, safe, temperature-controlled environment. If refrigerationis required to maintain potency, thenthis must be observed at all times; thisis especially true for most vaccines.Expiration dates: Commercial productsfrom legitimate pharmaceutical andbiological (vaccines) manufacturerscarry an expiration date, beyond whichthe potency and safety of the productcannot be supported by the manufac-turer. Products should be destroyedwhen they have reached their expira-tion date.Inadequate use: Commercial medicineneeds to be used according to the state-ments on the label. This may not hap-pen, in some cases. Because of their cost,antibiotics, for example, are often notapplied the number of days indicated,but only during the period with visiblesymptoms. This will, however, increasethe incidence of resistant microbes tothis antibiotic. The same is true for anti-parasitic treatments. Poor compliance infollowing label recommendations is oneof the most critical problems related tothe use of commercial medicine inconditions of low-input or more special-ized livestock keeping.

Fig. 10.7. The indiscriminate anduncontrolled use of commercial products,such as antibiotics and hormones, insmallholder livestock keeping is a majorproblem. In time, this can lead to serioushuman health problems related to residuesin milk, meat and eggs.

Indirect hazards to human health:Follow milk withholding and slaugh-ter withdrawal times listed on thelabel. This is the responsibility of theowner and other health professionals.If milk withholding times and slaugh-ter withdrawal times are not observedafter the treatment, the meat and milkconsumed can then contain residues ofthe medication, which can cause vari-ous health risks to the consumer. Thereare already major threats because ofmulti-resistant strains of microbes(Kumarasamy et al., 2010).Direct hazards to human health:Several products, especially insecti-cides used for external parasite con-trol, are hazardous to people or to theenvironment if they are not mixed orused according to the label. Whenusing these types of product, protec-tive clothing, gloves or eyewear areadvised.

One Health concept

It is becoming much more evident thathuman health, animal health, public healthand environmental health are all con-nected. This recognition has led to the


emergence of an initiative that is variouslyknown as One Health or One Medicine andis bringing practitioners of each fieldtogether.

One Health may seem far removed fromthe low-input livestock systems, however ithas immense implications in villages withlimited resources, especially related to thecontrol of zoonotic diseases (WHO, 2005).When veterinary and human health servicesjoin forces, for example vaccinations againstrabies can be more efficient if they coverdogs and cattle in one community at thesame time (Fig. 10.8).

The One Health concept is a worldwidestrategy for expanding interdisciplinary col-laborations and communications in allaspects of health care for humans, animalsand the environment. The synergismachieved will advance health care for the21st century and beyond by acceleratingbiomedical research discoveries, enhancingpublic health efficacy, expeditiously expand-ing the scientific knowledge base, andimproving medical education and clinical

Fig. 10.8. Rabies is one of the most serious commonzoonoses still very prevalent in many developingcountries that can be passed on through the bite ofan infected dog. Joint action of medical andveterinary services is required for successful control.Credit: Florencio Perez del Barco.

care. When properly implemented, it willhelp protect and save untold millions oflives in our present and future generations(Be.Troplive, 2010).

Disease prevention through vaccination

In more specialized animal keeping, con-trol of infectious diseases through vaccina-tion is extra-important, because of the highindividual value of each animal and thelarger number of animals kept together. Thestrategies for control of infectious diseasesin low-input livestock keeping are describedin detail in Chapter 9, and can be main-tained and improved in more specializedsystems, for example for swine fever in thecase of pigs; Newcastle disease in the caseof chickens; and blackleg, hemorrhagic sep-ticaemia and anthrax in the case of cattle.

Additional vaccination against majorinfectious diseases

In more specialized systems, the risk ofinfectious disease is higher because ofhigher animal numbers. Especially whenexotic breeds are introduced, there is a needfor vaccinating against other infectious dis-eases. The more specialized the system, thelarger the number of diseases against whichthe animals are vaccinated. The vaccinesused are often against diseases that do notonly cause direct mortality but also affectthe animals in their productivity. Accordingto animal species, the vaccination schemesneed to be strictly applied.

5: Parasite Control

Parasites - both internal and external - are acommon problem in low-input livestockkeeping as well as in more specialized live-stock keeping (Table 10.5). In general, para-sites have a more devastating effect onyoung animals and exotic breeds - such asHolstein cows or Yorkshire pigs - than onadults and animals of local breeds. Theyalso affect weak and malnourished animals

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Table 10.5. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved parasite control in smallholderlow-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Parasite control Objectives Internal parasites External parasites

Low-input and diversified Reduced incidence ofsystems internal and external

parasitesPrevention of parasitic

zoonosesReduced loss of young

stockImproved leather quality


More specialized systems Low incidence ofinternal and externalparasites

Special care for youngstock

Prevent resistanceagainst commercialmedications

Recommendations forimprovement

Make use of naturalresistance of localbreeds

Reducing parasiteincidence in grazingand feeding areas

Parasite controlespecially in youngstock

Support ethno-vetremedies for parasitecontrol

Regular treatment allstock

Medicinal plants andcommercialmedications

Make use of naturalresistance of localbreeds

Use of medicinal plantsfor parasite control(ethno-vet)

Community controlactivities (dips)

Regular dips/spray of allstock

Medicinal plants andcommercialmedications

more than healthy ones. Moreover, in warmand humid climates, parasites are moreprevalent than in dry and cold climates.Therefore, incidence and the necessarycontrol measures vary according to zone,species, breed, age and general state of theanimals. For this reason, specific guidelinesare difficult so consult local livestock hold-ers, extension personnel and local healers.

Another problem related to both inter-nal and external parasites in animals is thatsome of them can pass to people (parasiticzoonoses).

In low-input systems, the objective forcontrol is usually the reduction of incidenceto protect young stock and the quality of

products and by-products, such as meat andhides. Methods of treatment are often herbalremedies or the reliance on natural resist-ance in local breeds for both internal andexternal parasites.

In more specialized systems, a moreaggressive approach to parasite controlneeds to be taken. Even low incidence ofexternal and internal parasites can drawdown the resistance and growth of animalsleading to loss of profit and death ofthe animals. Animals from highly produc-tive breeds are especially susceptible. Asin all systems, young growing stock usu-ally suffers the most from parasiteinfestations.


The objective of all control mecha-nisms is to limit the effect of parasites tothe extent that they do not affect growthand production. In the highly productivebreeds, this usually requires regular anti-parasite treatments, which is becomingless effective because of resistance beingdeveloped by the parasites to the medicalcompounds used. Much can be done bynatural means, such as strategic controlof the grazing areas of the animals, use ofnovel natural substances and cullingof individuals that carry the heavier loadsof parasites.

The recommendations for parasite con-trol in more specialized livestock keepingare divided into two parts: (i) control ofinternal parasites; and (ii) control of externalparasites.

Control of internal parasites

Most types of internal parasites reproducethrough a life cycle including eggs, larvae,pupae and adults. Many of the life cyclestake place by deposition of manure ongrassland followed by consumption of pre-infective or infective stages that furthermature back in the animal's body. Eggs cansurvive outside the body for a certainperiod, and develop through several stagesand life forms. Finally, the juvenile formsclimb up the plants to be eaten by livestock.This process is greatly enhanced by hightemperatures and humidity. As a result, thecontrol of parasites in all animal keepingsystems is a combination between animal-related measures and the control ofgrazing.

The strategies for controlling internalparasites in low-input livestock keeping aredescribed in detail in Chapter 9, and can bemaintained and improved in more special-ized systems:

Make use of natural resistance of localbreeds;Reduce parasite incidence in grazingand feeding areas;Special focus on young animals;Support ethno-veterinary treatments andpractices for parasite control.


Regular treatments, especially in young stock

Internal parasites have a dramatic effect onyoung animals, of both exotic and localbreeds - though the effect on young animalsof exotic breeds is more dramatic. The youngbecome thin with swollen bellies. They growabnormally slowly and they may even die.Parasitism, in combination with insufficientnutrition and the use of exotic breeds, is themajor reason why livestock-keeping projectsfail, especially in marginalized areas. Younganimals in all animal production systems(Fig. 10.9) need extra treatments and care toreduce parasite numbers - while good nutri-tion can largely help to overcome the effectsof parasites.

Timing of treatments

Timing of any anti-parasite treatment is crit-ical for effective control. Thus, learning thelife cycle stages is a key factor in use ofinternal parasite preparations. Treatment isoften done prior to turning animals out forgrazing in order to diminish infestation ofthe fields with parasite eggs, and subse-quent exposure of the animals.

Treat new animals coming into the flock

All new animals need to be treated beforejoining an existing flock, in order to preventintroduction of new parasites.

Combine treatment with pasture rotationsand good-quality feeding

Regular rotation of pastures, in combinationwith regular treatments and good-qualityfeeding, are essential elements in internalparasite control, especially in young ani-mals of crossbreeds or exotic stock.

Prevent resistance against commercialproducts

Improper and too frequent use of commercialanti-parasite products can lead to the devel-opment of resistance of the parasites against

118 Chapter 10

the chemical composition of the drug. Thiscan lead to multi-resistant parasites - whichare extremely difficult to control.

External parasites

External parasites, such as lice and mites,can reproduce directly on the animal.Other species, such as ticks, have anotherreproduction strategy, in which the juve-nile forms live on vegetation. At certainstages, they need to encounter an animalin order to complete their life cycle andreproduce. Therefore, the control of exter-nal parasites is a combination of measuresdirectly related to the animals with meas-ures to reduce parasite levels in theenvironment.

When deciding on treatment regimens,it is important to treat all animals in agroup. Treatment of one or a few animalsin a group is usually short lived. Trulyeffective and long-lasting internal parasitecontrol will take a combination of usinganimal breeds with some resistance againstexisting parasites, effective bush control,pasture rotations, prevention of co-min-gling, strategic use of systemic commercialdips or sprays, and ethno-veterinary anti-parasitic preparations.

The strategies for controlling internalparasites in low-input livestock keeping are

Fig. 10.9. Young animals in all animalproduction systems - and especially thoseof exotic breeds - need extra treatmentsand care to reduce parasite numbers -while good nutrition can largely help toovercome the effects of parasites. Credit:Ellen Geerlings.

described in detail in Chapter 9, and can bemaintained and improved in more special-ized systems:

Make use of natural resistance of localbreeds;Support ethno-veterinary treatmentsand practices for parasite control;Community control activities of exter-nal parasites.

Additional recommendations for more spe-cialized animal keeping are given below.

Treat new animals coming into the flock

All new animals need to be treated effec-tively before joining an existing flock, inorder to prevent introduction of new para-sites. Avoidance of co-mingling animals inmarkets or communal pastures is also a wisemethod to prevent transmission.

Combine treatment withpasture rotations, bush control

and good-quality feeding

Regular rotation of pastures, in combinationwith regular treatments and good-qualityfeeding, are essential elements in internalparasite control, especially in young ani-mals of crossbreeds or exotic stock. Bushcontrol, especially controlled burning of oldvegetation, can be another way of reducingtick numbers.


Prevent resistance against commercialproducts

Past recommendations for more specializedlivestock system parasite control oftenincluded frequent spraying or dipping ofanimals with certain commercial parasitecontrol medications. This has led to theproblem of some flies, ticks, lice and mitesbecoming resistant to the preparations thatwere regularly used. Since those productsare no longer fully effective, such multi-resistant external parasites have becomemajor problems (Fig. 10.10). Regular treat-ments are no longer a recommendation forparasite control products, even with novelrotation schemes of parasite product.

6: Improved Breeding and Selection

Breeding the best animals is a central chal-lenge in any animal production system.Farmers want healthy and high-producinganimals that are adapted to their environ-ment. In low-input systems, this challengeis especially great, because of the challeng-ing environment with seasonal feedingshortages, specific parasites and diseases aswell as the multiple roles of the animals.

In more specialized systems, more produc-tive traits are required besides the need forrobust and healthy animals (Table 10.6).

The recommendations related to localbreeding and selection in more specializedlivestock keeping are divided into two parts:(i) use and choice of breeds; and (ii) breed-ing management.

Use and choice of breeds

The strategies for the use of choice of breedsin low-input livestock keeping are describedin detail in Chapter 9, and can be maintainedand improved in more specialized systems:

Breeding selection on the basis of localcriteria;Use of recommended local breeds.

Additional recommendations for more spe-cialized systems are presented below.

Genetic improvement of local breedsthrough selection

Numerous valuable local animal breeds havebeen developed over time in the context ofseasonal feeding shortages, specific parasitesand diseases as well as the multiple roles of

Fig. 10.10. Correct spraying with insecticides - either commercial or made from medicinal plants - reducesthe external parasite incidence.

120 Chapter 10

Table 10.6. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved breeding and selection insmallholder low-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Breeding Objectives Use of breeds Breeding management

Low-input and diversified Maintain important localsystems breeds

Make use of importanttraits of local breeds

Effective selectionPrevent in-breeding


More specialized Increased productivitysystems Effective selection

Selective use of exoticsGood reproduction ratesMaintain local breeds for

crossbreedingRecommendations for

improvement

Breeding selection onbasis of local criteria

Use of improved localbreeds

Improved local breeds

Crossbreeding between25% and 75% of exoticgenetics

Selection of bulls

Selected use of artificialinsemination

Prevent inbreeding

Timely castration

Change males beforemating with offspring

Breeding only atminimum age andweight

Strict control of uterineinfections

Effective heat detection(with artificialinsemination)

the animals. The myth of the 'unproductive'local breeds is a hard-to-crack notion,because indeed local breeds are usually lessproductive in conventional terms than theso-called exotic or high-yielding breeds.

These local breeds can be furtherselected and improved in terms of improvedgrowth rates, improved milk production andother marketable traits. These improved localbreeds can stand at the basis of more special-ized animal keeping. This, however, requiresa special process of breeding and selection.Most livestock projects promoting more spe-cialized livestock keeping opt for another -and more readily available alternativeintroducing exotic breeds or crossbreedingexotics with animals of the local breed. Thishas both advantages and disadvantages.

The first step in a breeding programmeis to look over the individuals of the localbreed and make selection decisions on thosestrengths and weaknesses of males andfemales. This is best done with direct sup-port of the livestock owners themselves(Fig. 10.11). Experience shows that thiskind of genetic improvement through effec-tive selection can give rise to exceptionallyproductive local breeds that still maintaintheir innate resistance and other locallyvaluable traits.

There are numerous examples of thispractice throughout the world - though notall examples are well documented. Oneexample is the experience of local cattlebreeds from India (Gir and Kankrej fromGujarat, and Ongole from Andhra Pradesh)


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that were imported into Brazil in the 1960s.Besides producing meat, these breeds weredeveloped as excellent milk breeds after aprocess of selection. In fact, the world'sbest Gir cows today live in Brazil and givearound 5500 1 of milk on average per lacta-tion. Comparing these with the neglectedcousin in India, which do not yield morethan 980 1, the Brazilian Gir yields roughlysix times more (Sharma, 2010).

Other well documented examples arethe improvement of the Aseel backyardchicken breed with support of ANTHRA inthe Andhra Pradesh region of southernIndia (Ghotge and Ramdas, 2007) and theimprovement of local Tzotzil sheep by theIndigenous Institute of Chiapas University(Perezgrovas, 2006).

This usually requires an exceptionalsupport effort in combination with effectivelocal organization. Sometimes the improve-ment of local breeds is being done in researchor formal breeding institutes. This runs therisk of selecting traits that are not of majorimportance to the population involved.

Bringing in exotic breeds throughcrossbreeding

Faster changes are often desired, how-ever. This can be done with the introduc-tion of exotic breeds utilizing artificial

Fig. 10.11. The Deccan i sheep of theDeccan Plateau in India were effectivelyselected and improved by thecommunities directly involved inbreeding them. Credit: ANTHRA.

insemination (AI) techniques or the importof new males, often called exotics. Manylivestock development projects promotecrossbreeding local breeds with exotics,with the primary objective of improving theproductivity of next generations of off-spring. Male animals with superior charac-teristics in terms of productivity are bred tolocal females. This can result in improvedgrowth rates, improved milk productionand other marketable traits. It is not withoutcomplications, though, because of the needfor improved nutrition, some changes inmanagement and facilities and possibledecrease in innate disease resistance andability to survive in stress conditions in theoffspring.

Though this is not always implicitly rec-ognized as such, this option implies a changefrom low-input into a more specialized ani-mal keeping system. Any crossbreeding pro-gramme requires a careful consideration ofthe advantages and disadvantages of co-min-gling the genetics of quite different breeds orfamily lines and the acclimatization to newenvironments for the offspring (Fig. 10.12).The greatest danger in using exotics lies withthe ability - or inability - of the offspring tosurvive under conditions to which the exoticis not accustomed. Another factor to con-sider is that larger exotic animals may bemore difficult to handle than local animals,

122 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.12. When adequate management is guaranteed, local breeds can be effectively crossed up to 75%with exotic breeds, such as Jersey cattle.

or may have a size too large for regular saleon the local market.

Breeding management

Prevent inbreeding

Many livestock keepers have effectiveknowledge and practice related to breeding.However, it is common to find inbreeding,in both low-input and more specializedlivestock keeping. Related animals breedamong themselves, gradually resulting in agenetic degeneration. It does not cause mor-tality directly, but can lead to deformed,weak and poorly growing animals that aremore likely to die.

Depending on the species, there arepractices to deal with this problem:

Selection of breeding males and castra-tion of all other male animals;Timely castration of males, so they can-not mate with their mother/sisters;Regular exchange of reproductive males;Dividing animals in age groups.

Artificial insemination

The transfer of frozen semen from selectedexotic males using AI techniques isroutinely practised in cattle and some otherspecies. Frozen semen can be transportedover long distances in special shippingtanks and, if liquid nitrogen is available tomaintain the frozen condition of the mate-rials, the use of exotic bulls can take placealmost anywhere in the world. Transferringfresh (not frozen) semen is also practisedin some areas and with some species, butrequires clean handling facilities and hav-ing both the male and the females in rela-tively close proximity. Pregnancy ratesfrom AI are normally lower than with natu-ral breeding.

There are many factors that go into hav-ing a successful AI programme, so the deci-sion to go into this breeding practice mustbe considered in all aspects. Often, the lackof or interruption of supply of liquid nitro-gen is a major limiting factor. AI techniciansmust be well trained and the basic equip-ment must be in place and in good condi-tion. Heat detection of the animals to be


bred is an art to be learned by the herdowner. Good records kept by the farmer forbirthing dates and other heat dates are nec-essary. Females must be in a good nutri-tional plane and have healthy reproductivetracts. A decrease in any one of these factorswill result in zero offspring or only a fewpregnancies, at best.

Even with an excellent AI programme,there is the need for a male animal to breedthe females that do not conceive to AIattempts. Thus, even though the costs andcomplexities of keeping males are decreased,they are not eliminated.

Advantages of artificial insemination:Genetic improvement through cross-breeding by use of selected qualitysemen;Decreased costs of feeding and housingmale animals;Prevention of infectious reproductivediseases through natural mating;Documented pedigrees.

Disadvantages of artificial insemination:Lower fertility rate;Requires time and special skills offarmer for heat detection;Requires technical and communicationinfrastructure, transport and special-ized input of inseminator;Requires technical infrastructure forsemen collection, storage and transportof semen.

7: Improved Protection and Housing

Efficient protection and housing is a centralelement to reduce animal mortality in low-input as well as more specialized animalkeeping (Table 10.7, Fig. 10.13). No majorconstructions are necessary - efficient con-structions based on local materials havebeen developed by livestock-keeping fami-lies. A world can still be gained in thisrespect, however, as mortality because of

Table 10.7. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved protection and housing insmallholder low-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Protection ObjectivesPredators, accidents andtheft protection Weather protection

Low-input anddiversified systems


More specializedsystems


Reduced loss becauseof predators, theft andtrampling

Effective low-costconstruction with localmaterials

Prevent transmission ofzoonotic parasites

Protection of young Provide simple nightanimals during sheltersfirst weeks

Protection during broodingand caring for young

Night sheltersPrevent cross-contamination

between animal manureand human waste

Trees for shade in fields

Milking shed, ventilation, Housing for zero-manure pit management grazing

124 Chapter 10

predators, theft and trampling is exces-sively high in low-input livestock keeping.This is especially the case amongst younganimals.

In more specialized livestock keeping,housing is also used in zero-grazing sys-tems and has an additional benefit ofreducing the contamination of milk andother products. Moreover, effective protec-tion in simple constructions can reducethe risk of transmitting animal diseases tohumans.

The recommendations related to pro-tection in more specialized livestock keep-ing are divided into two parts: (i) effectiveprotection; and (ii) zero grazing systems.

Effective protection

The strategies for protection against preda-tors, accidents, theft and adverse weatherconditions are described in detail inChapter 9, and can be maintained andimproved in more specialized systems:

Protection during the first weeks of life;Protection during brooding;Simple birthing pen, for example forpiglets;Shade and wind breaks in the field;Special night shelters.

Fig. 10.13. Effective and low-costhousing for goats, which facilitates there-collection of manure for cropproduction.


Milking sheds

Milk is often called nature's perfect food.However, milk is also an excellent mediumfor growth of foreign organisms like bacte-ria. In more specialized milk productionunits it is favourable to use sheds that aredesigned to reduce insect pests, and to getclean milk rapidly from the mother into acooler or fermenting jar. Milk hygiene is crit-ical for making good products and gettingthe products to market.

Ensure that the milk facility and equip-ment are clean and meet local milk ordi-nance standards for production type. Thosedoing the milking practice also need tomaintain good personal hygiene. The shedalso needs to be constructed so that theanimals can move easily from the loafing/eating areas to the milking areas. Raisedand solid floors help to keep moisture fromcollecting under foot and make it easy toremove manure.

Ventilation

Fresh air is important in all-weather types.It is unfortunately a practice in many cold


regions to house livestock in a closed barnin the winter with the doors and windowsclosed and with little fresh air ventilation.The build-up of ammonia gases is almostoverwhelming in this kind of more spe-cialized livestock keeping.

Even high-producing dairy cattle canstand the cold relatively well and can livecomfortably in temperatures well below ourown level of tolerance. As long as animalscan be out of standing water and out of thewind, they live very well in colder climates.Closed barns should have moving ventila-tion through strategically placed open win-dows and doors that draw a slight breezethrough the facility.

Zero-grazing systems with fodder crops

Zero-grazing systems

Zero-grazing is one of the more developedpractices in more specialized systems of live-stock management for smallholders. It meanskeeping animals in a stall, and bringing fod-der to them instead of sending them out tograze over large tracts of land. It is also some-times called 'cut-and-carry'. With dairy ani-mals, for example, it is a system that producesmore milk from a small amount of land orfrom a rangeland grazing style of feeding.

Zero-grazing systems can be used withany of the grazing species, such as cattle,goats and sheep, and even with chickens,pigs, rabbits and other animals kept for pro-duction and marketing. Animals can behoused in an appropriately sized and sim-ple shed with a slatted wood or hard dirtfloor all made from local materials. If slatfloors are used, the shed is raised about 1 mabove the ground.

In other zero-grazing systems, the ani-mals are tied to a rope, or can move aroundin a larger shed or open space with a simpleroof building.

The major advantages of zero-grazing are:

It saves the energy of the animal forproduction and reproduction that itotherwise would use for walking to andthrough grazing lands;

Reduced number of pests, especiallyticks and intestinal worms;Reduced loss of animals because ofextreme weather, theft and predators;More land is available for growingfodder;Damage to crops by grazing cattle isreduced;Animal droppings that fall through theslats onto the ground can be collectedeasily for composting or direct fertiliza-tion of crops;Manure can be used for biofuel.

The major disadvantages of zero-grazingsystems (Fig. 10.14) are:

Construction of shed and planting fod-der crops requires relatively high initialmonetary and labour inputs;More day-to-day labour to grow, cutand carry the feed, and to fetch water;The maintenance of the shed and remo-val of manure requires extra labour;Lack of adequate exercise and availabil-ity of sunlight.

Requirements for zero grazing are primarilybuilding materials, many of which comefrom local sources. For more extensive sys-tems, some commercial source of lumber,cement, sand, gravel, posts and roofingmaterial could be used. There is also theneed for natural fodder or fields to grow fod-der. Shed designs can be simple or complex.Basic requirements are an adequate perime-ter to keep animals from breaking out, a rooffor protection of all animals from the sun, afloor that can be easily cleaned and thatdrains away from the areas where animalslie down and stand and adequate space forfeeding as well as a constant water supply.

What size? In the case of cattle, individ-ual cubicles of about 120 cm wide x 210 cmlong (4 feet x 7 feet) are best. Goats, sheepand pigs need approximately 2 m2 of livingspace when confined to a pen.

Additional special features can be builtinto the zero-grazing sheds with separatesections for pregnant animals or the newborn,milking areas, larger animals kept fromsmaller animals and male animal segregation.

126 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.14. Zero-grazing or semi-zero units that can be used for various animal species.

An adjacent paddock can be provided foranimals to get out of the pen and movearound.

Additional best practices for zero-grazingunits:

Provide as much water as the animalswant to drink.Hang mineral blocks from the roof foranimals to lick. Alternatively, pow-dered minerals can be placed in woodenboxes with an open top that are securelyfastened in the feeding area.Cut fresh grass every day to feed to cat-tle. Make sure the feed troughs arenever empty.Protect the stall from predators that arecommon to livestock in your area.If the region is very hot, extend the roofto provide a larger shaded area for cool-ing the air - but do not block natural airventilation through the unit. This helpsto dry manure and urine and reduceodours.If necessary, put straw in the pens asbedding for the animals.Make sure the animals have enoughspace for lying down, getting up andwalking around. Keep the stall clean.Watch carefully for pests and diseases,and treat them early.Keep male animals separate but close tothe females. Heat detection is easier

when male animals are in close prox-imity to the females.Roadside grasses tend to have more pestssuch as ticks, and diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease. Avoid feeding thisforage to the extent possible.

8: Improved Special Care

Special care is another effective way toreduce animal mortality in all kinds oflivestock-keeping systems. Special care isespecially relevant around birth and forindividual animals with a disease or otherproblem (Table 10.8). In this way, the foun-dation is laid for a future healthy and pro-ductive life. This only requires specialknowledge and attention, without the needfor expensive constructions.

The recommendations related to specialcare in more specialized livestock keepingare divided into two parts: (i) special carefor sick animals and disease prevention;and (ii) special care around delivery.

Special care for sick animalsand disease prevention

Ways to provide special care for sick ani-mals in low-input systems is described in


Table 10.8. Comparing objectives and recommendations for improved special care in smallholderlow-input and diversified livestock keeping (with more specialized animal husbandry).

Special care Objectives Sick animals Around delivery

Low-input and diversified Increased survival ratesystems of sick animal

Reduced mortalityof newborn

Reduced diseaseof females after birth

Good bondingReduced disease

transmissionof newborn


More specialized Effective control of highlysystems productive animals

Young stock in goodcondition


Separate sick fromhealthy animals

Shade, water, fresh feed

Ethno-vet treatmentDisposal of dead animals

Have animals nearbyat birth

Attend birth whennecessary

Check afterbirthAssure colostrum

consumption

Special care of young Support to birthingstock difficulties

Regular mastitis control Milk fever preventionand treatment

Ethno-vet/commercialtreatments

detail in Chapter 9, and can be maintainedand improved in more specialized systems:

Isolate sick animals;Provide shade, fresh water, feed, andnecessary treatment;Disposal of dead animals.


Regular mastitis control

Mastitis - or udder infection - is of specialimportance in more specialized animalkeeping. Regular mastitis prevention activi-ties can be included into milking practice.

Special care before, during and after delivery

Ways to provide special care for sick ani-mals in low-input systems is describedin detail in Chapter 9, and can be main-tained and improved in more specializedsystems (see below).

Extra assistance around delivery

This is especially important in more spe-cialized systems - especially when AI isused. In this case, the young may be toolarge for a simple delivery. In the case ofheifers (first delivery), it is better not to useAI for this reason.

128 Chapter 10

Facilitate feeding with first milk (colostrum)

First feeding of milk needs to be assuredwithin a few hours after birth. This milkwith special antibodies - also known ascolostrum - has special relevance to pre-vent disease in the first year of life. Inorder to have this quality it needs to beconsumed during the first hours of life(Fig. 10.15).

Be prepared to treat milk fever

Milk fever is a common problem in morespecialized dairy systems, which causesdeath within hours if not treated effectively.Because of calcium shortage in the blood,the animal cannot stand and feels very cold.A simple calcium infusion together with afollow-up treatment can save the animal.Special feeding adaptations during preg-nancy can be taken to prevent thisproblem.

Check afterbirth

In both low-input and more specialized ani-mal keeping, problems with the afterbirthcan cause serious problems that need to betaken care of effectively.

Fig. 10.15. All newborn calves need their first milkwithin a few hours after birth as it containsimportant antibodies to prevent diseases. This iseven more important in calves of the exotic breeds.

References and Further Reading

Be.Troplive (2010) Invitation Symposium 'Where medics and vets join forces', 5 November, Institute ofTropical Medicine (ITM), Antwerp.

Bhandari, D.P. (2009) Community Animal Health Worker Manual. Heifer International, Little Rock, Arkansas.Birmingham, M. and Quesenberry, R (2007) Where there is no Animal Doctor. Christian Veterinary Mission,

Seattle, Washington.FAO (2010) Background Note for An International Consultation on Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems for

Development - The Way Forward for Sustainable Production Intensification. Agriculture & ConsumerProtection Department in collaboration with Embrapa, IICA and IFAD. FAO, Rome.

FAO and OIE (2010) Guide to Good Farming Practices for Animal Production and Food Safety. FAO, Rome.Fl in tan, F. and Cull is, A. (2010) Natural Resource Management Technical Working Group, Ethiopia. Introductory

Guidelines to Participatory Rangeland Management in Pastoral Areas. Save the Children-US/FAO,Rome.

Ghotge, N. and Ramdas, S. (2007) Summary of proceedings of the National Seminar on the Sustainable Useand Conservation of the Deccan i Sheep. Proceedings dated 20-22 February 2007, Hyderabad.

Hooft, K. van't (2004) Gracias a los Animales Crianza Pecuaria Familiar en America Latina, con casos de losValles y el Altiplano de Bolivia (Thanks to the Animals - Family Level Livestock Keeping in Latin Americawith Case Studies from the Bolivian Valleys and Highlands). Plural Publishers, La Paz.

Kumarasamy, K.K., Toleman, M.A., Walsh, T.R., Bagaria, J., Butt, F., Balakrishnan, R., et al. (2010) Emergenceof a new antibiotic resistance mechanism in India, Pakistan and the UK: a molecular, biological, andepidemiological study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 10,597-602.


Perezgrovas, R. (2006) Direct involvement of indigenous women in sheep improvement research in Chiapas,Mexico. Prize winning poster in German Tropentag 2006, Bonn: Prosperity and Poverty in a Global izedWorld - Challenges for Agricultural Research.

Sharma, D. (2010) Holy cow, Acclaimed abroad, despised at home (part 1 and 2) Blogpost on Arise IndiaForum. www.ariseindiaforum.org/cow_protection.php

WHO (2005) The control of neglected zoonotic diseases -a route to poverty alleviation. Report of a JointWHO/DFID-AHP Meeting, September. WHO, Geneva.

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