1 thinking module 23. qr code fro 23 24 25 2 3 thinking overview thinking concepts solving...
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Thinking
Module 23
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QR code fro 23 24 25
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Thinking Overview
Thinking Concepts
Solving Problems
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
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Thinking Cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities
concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation
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In Class Exercise on Prototypes
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Thinking
Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
Prototype mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
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Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)
Daniel J. C
ox/ Getty Im
ages
J. Messerschm
idt/ The Picture C
ube
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Category Hierarchies
We organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Courtesy of C
hristine Brune
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Categories
Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category prototype.
A computer generated face that was 70 percentCaucasian led people to classify it as Caucasian.
Cou
rtesy o
f Olive
r Co
rne
ille
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Problem SolvingProblem solving strategies include:
1. Trial and Error2. Algorithms3. Heuristics4. Insight
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Thinking Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--use of heuristics
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AlgorithmsAlgorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
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HeuristicsMental shortcuts
that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less
time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
Heuristics with the psych files 15:12 B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
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HeuristicsHeuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.
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InsightInsight involves a sudden
novel realization of a solution to a problem.
Humans and animals have insight.
Chimp Problem solving: Link 1:03
Crow Problem solvingLink :48
Rook Prob solvingLink 1:40
Grande using boxes toobtain food
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Try to connect these dots with three lines, without lifting your pencil from the paper or retracing any of the lines you draw. You must also end the drawing where you began it. You can take up to three minutes.
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Insight (it can be seen in the brain before you are
conscious of it)Brain imaging and
EEG studies suggest that when an insight
strikes (the “Aha” experience), it
activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-
Beeman & others, 2004). The time
between not knowing the solution and
responding is about 0.3 seconds.
From M
ark Jung-Beekm
an, Northw
estern U
niversity and John Kounios, D
rexel University
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Thought Puzzle
• Predict the next number in this sequence.
• In your notes, write down your thought process. Include any “dead ends.”
• Don’t talk about your process or your answer so that everyone can work on the puzzle.
Sequence
8 5 9 1 7 2 ____
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Thought Puzzle
Sequence
8 5 9 1 7 2 ____
Now think about the words rather than the numbers
Eight Five Nine One Seven Two _____
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Thought Puzzle
What got in the way of solving this problem?
Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem.
Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.
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Thought Puzzle #2 – Connect the dots with no more than 4 straight lines without
lifting your pen.
* * ** * ** * *
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Thought Puzzle #2 – Connect the dots with no more than 4 straight lines
without lifting your pen.
* * ** * ** * *
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Thought Puzzle #2
Many people suffer from the Mental Set which states that they must stay within the square defined by the dots.
Functional Fixedness keeps most people in a “connect the dots” mode.
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What path will the marble follow when it leaves the curved tube?
Figure: Applying a Mental Model
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Are these pairs of objects the same or different?
Manipulating Images
Return
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Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
Discover the rule
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Fixation
The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
Candle-Mounting Problem
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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The Three-Jugs Problem
Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?
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Fig. 8-6, p. 311
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Fig. 8-7, p. 312
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The Matchstick Problem: Solution
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution
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The Three-Jugs Problem
Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.
b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.
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Using and Misusing Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists.
Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and the Tversky fam
ily
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and Daniel K
ahneman
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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than
such professors.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or
match, a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?
More likely an ivy league professor of ancient Greek history or a truck driver?
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All (except one) of these animals fit the concept of “penguin”
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Heuristics
Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events
based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind
(perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
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OverconfidenceOverconfidence: tendency to
overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
In the stock market, both the
seller and the buyer may be
confident about their decisions on
a stock. Mind over Money at NOVA 52:52
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• …overconfidence increases with action. As we actively engage, we become more confident in what we are doing.
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You might steal more when asked NOT to…
• Sign posted that condemned the fact that many visitors steal the wood from Petrified Forest National Park.
• In the absence of the sign 3% stole wood
• In the presence of the sign 8% stole wood
• Messages that condemn yet highlight undesired social norms are common, and that they invite counterproductive results
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Exaggerated Fear
Exaggerated fear: about what may
happen. Such fears may be unfounded. This is opposite of
having overconfidence.
The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
AP
/ Wide W
orld Photos
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We often fear the wrong things…• What is most likely to kill someone your
age…15-24.– Murder? – Criminal violence?– Accidents, mostly car wrecks…
• As a group you are more likely to kill yourself than to be murdered!
• Are you more likely to be burglarized or steal from your work?
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Thinking Framing
the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and judgments
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning sometimes making invalid conclusions seem
valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Magic and the Brain at PBS
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Belief Bias example
God is love.
Love is blind
Ray Charles is blind.
Ray Charles is God.Anonymous graffiti
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Fluency Effect
• If the form of information is difficult to assimilate, that affects our judgments about the substance of that information.
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Perils & Powers of IntuitionIntuition may be perilous if unchecked, but
may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.
Irrational behavior linkMyers on Intuition
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Predictably Irrational
• The power of FREE!• Truffle at 15 cents Kiss at 1 cent,• 73% chose truffle 27% chose kiss• Truffle at 14 cents Kiss at free• 31% chose truffle 69% chose kiss• The price difference in both cases is the
same… 14 cents• So…free can make you miss something…
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EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY(7th Edition in Modules)
David MyersPowerPoint Slides
Aneeq AhmadHenderson State
University
Worth Publishers, © 2008
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Impact of Belief Bias in a Syllogism
• Premise #1– Some professors wear
ties.
• Premise #2– Some men wear ties.
• Conclusion– Some professors are
men.– Does this follow
logically?
• Premise #1– Some scarecrows
wear ties.
• Premise #2– Some professors wear
ties.
• Conclusion– Therefore, some
scarecrows are professors???
Return
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Figure 8.9: Two Versions of the Same Premise
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Thinking Strategies: Informal Reasoning
• Also known as inductive reasoning– Role of heuristics
• Potentially problematic heuristics– Anchoring heuristic
• Basing judgments on existing info – early info has more impact
– Representativeness heuristic• Judging whether something belongs to a class based on its
similarity to other members of the class
– Availability heuristic• Basing judgments on information most easily brought to mind
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Biases and Flaws in Decision Making
• Loss Aversion
• Biases in Perceptions of Probability– Overestimate probability of unlikely events– Underestimate probability of likely events– Gambler’s fallacy
• Unrealistic Confidence in Accuracy of Predictions
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Cognition, Language, and Intelligence
• Simple concepts have a single common feature
• Complex concepts– Conjunctive: simultaneous
presence of 2 or more common characteristics
– Disjunctive: presence of one common characteristic or another, or both
appleRed t-shirt ball
aunt female
mom’s sister
Schizophrenic person
hears havingvoices distortednot there beliefs
Types of Concepts
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Cognition, Language, and Intelligence
Basic Concepts
Station Station wagonwagon
Basic conceptsBasic concepts
VehiclesVehicles
PlanesPlanes
Propeller Propeller planeplane
CarsCars
Luxury Luxury sedansedan
SportsSportscarcar
BoatsBoats
Glider Glider
Jet planeJet plane
KayakKayak
SailboatSailboat
MotorboatMotorboat
Subordinate Subordinate conceptsconcepts
Superordinate Superordinate conceptconcept
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Creative Problem Solving• Creativity – ability to act or think in novel
and ways that are valued by others
• Convergent thinking – Logical, factual, conventional, focused thinking
• Divergent thinking– Unconventional, loosely organized and directed– Breaks out of mental sets more easily
Cognition, Language, and Intelligence
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Cognition, Language, and Intelligence
Which two belong
together?
Chinese thinking
(relationship)
American thinking
(category)