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Thinking and Thinking and LanguageLanguage

Chapter 10Chapter 10

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Thinking and LanguageThinking and Language

ThinkingThinking ConceptsConcepts

Solving ProblemsSolving Problems

Making Decisions and Making Decisions and Forming JudgmentsForming Judgments

Belief BiasBelief Bias

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ThinkingThinking

Thinking, or Thinking, or cognition,cognition, refers to a process refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, that involves knowing, understanding,

remembering, and communicating.remembering, and communicating.

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Cognitive PsychologistsCognitive Psychologists

Thinking involves a number of mental Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive activities, which are listed below. Cognitive

psychologists study these in great detail.psychologists study these in great detail.

1.1. ConceptsConcepts

2.2. Problem solvingProblem solving

3.3. Decision makingDecision making

4.4. Judgment formationJudgment formation

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ConceptConcept

The mental grouping of similar objects, events, The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but

their common features define the concept of a their common features define the concept of a chairchair..

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Development of ConceptsDevelopment of Concepts

We form some concepts with We form some concepts with definitionsdefinitions. For . For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly,

we form concepts with mental images or we form concepts with mental images or typical examples typical examples (prototypes(prototypes). For example, ). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin

is not.is not.

Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)

Daniel J. C

ox/ Getty Im

ages

J. Messerschm

idt/ The Picture C

ube

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Problem SolvingProblem Solving

There are different ways to solve problems:There are different ways to solve problems:

Algorithms:Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular procedures that guarantee solving a particular

problem.problem.

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AlgorithmsAlgorithms

Algorithms, which are very time consuming, Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a

solution. Computers use algorithms.solution. Computers use algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,208 possibilities.

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HeuristicsHeuristics

Heuristics are Heuristics are simple, thinking simple, thinking

strategies that allow strategies that allow us to make us to make

judgments and solve judgments and solve problems efficiently. problems efficiently. Heuristics are less Heuristics are less

time consuming, but time consuming, but more error-prone more error-prone than than algorithms.algorithms.

B2M

Productions/D

igital Version/G

etty Images

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HeuristicsHeuristics

Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. principles to arrive at solutions to problems.

S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y

Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.

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InsightInsight

Insight involves a Insight involves a sudden novel sudden novel

realization of a realization of a solution to a solution to a

problem. Humans problem. Humans and animals have and animals have

insight.insight.

Grande using boxes toobtain food

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InsightInsight

Chimpanzees show insightful behavior Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems.when solving problems.

Sultan uses sticks to get food.

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InsightInsight

Brain imaging and EEG Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that studies suggest that

when an insight strikes when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), (the “Aha” experience),

it activates the right it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-temporal cortex (Jung-Beeman, 2004). The Beeman, 2004). The

time between not time between not knowing the solution knowing the solution and realizing it is 0.3 and realizing it is 0.3

seconds.seconds.

From M

ark Jung-Beekm

an, Northw

estern U

niversity and John Kounios, D

rexel University

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Obstacles in Solving Obstacles in Solving ProblemsProblems

Confirmation Bias:Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.for information that confirms a personal bias.

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FixationFixation

Fixation:Fixation: An inability to see a problem An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes from a fresh perspective. This impedes

problem solving. Two examples of fixation problem solving. Two examples of fixation are are mental setmental set and and functional fixedness.functional fixedness.

The Matchstick The Matchstick Problem: How would Problem: How would

you arrange six you arrange six matches to form four matches to form four equilateral triangles? equilateral triangles?

From

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

opyright © 1963 by

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

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Using these materials, how would you Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Candle-Mounting ProblemCandle-Mounting Problem

From

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

opyright © 1963 by

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

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The Matchstick ProblemThe Matchstick Problem: : SolutionSolution

From

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

opyright © 1963 by

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

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Candle-Mounting ProblemCandle-Mounting Problem: : SolutionSolution

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Mental SetMental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in a A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was particular way, especially if that way was

successful in the past.successful in the past.

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Using and Misusing Using and Misusing HeuristicsHeuristics

Two kinds of heuristics, Two kinds of heuristics, representative representative heuristicsheuristics andand availability heuristicsavailability heuristics, have , have

been identified by cognitive psychologists. been identified by cognitive psychologists.

Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman

Courtesy of G

reymeyer A

ward, U

niversity of L

ouisville and the Tversky fam

ily

Courtesy of G

reymeyer A

ward, U

niversity of L

ouisville and Daniel K

ahneman

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Probability that that person is a truck driver is Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than because there are more truck drivers than

such professors.such professors.

Representativeness HeuristicRepresentativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things or objects in Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or terms of how well they seem to represent, or

match, a particular prototype.match, a particular prototype.

If you meet a slim, short, man who wears If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be? An Ivy league his profession would be? An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?professor or a truck driver?

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Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic

Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?

Whatever increases the ease of retrieving Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability.information increases its perceived availability.

How is retrieval facilitated?How is retrieval facilitated?

1.1. How recently we have heard about the How recently we have heard about the event.event.

2.2. How distinct it is.How distinct it is.

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Making Decision & Forming Making Decision & Forming JudgmentsJudgments

Deliberative or Automatic?Deliberative or Automatic?

Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.

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Perils & Powers of Perils & Powers of IntuitionIntuition

Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and but may also be extremely efficient and

adaptive.adaptive.

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Perils & Powers of Perils & Powers of IntuitionIntuition

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Framing DecisionsFraming Decisions

Decisions and judgments may be significantly Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed.affected depending upon how an issue is framed.

Example: What is the best way to market Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

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Belief BiasBelief Bias

The tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs The tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making to distort logical reasoning by making

invalid conclusions.invalid conclusions.

God is love.God is love.

Love is blindLove is blind

Ray Charles is blind.Ray Charles is blind.

Ray Charles is God.Ray Charles is God.Anonymous graffitiAnonymous graffiti

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Belief PerseveranceBelief Perseverance

Belief perseverance is the tendency to Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary

evidence.evidence.

If you see that a country is hostile, you are If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as

a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

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LanguageLanguage

Language, our spoken, written, or gestured Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning work, is the way we communicate meaning

to ourselves and others.to ourselves and others.

Language transmits culture.

M. &

E. B

ernheim/ W

oodfin Cam

p & A

ssociates

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GrammarGrammar

Grammar is the system of rules in a Grammar is the system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate language that enable us to communicate

with and understand others.with and understand others.

Grammar

SyntaxSemantics

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SemanticsSemantics

Semantics is the set of rules by which we Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, derive meaning from morphemes, words,

and sentences. For example:and sentences. For example:

Semantic rule tells us that adding Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed–ed to the word to the word laughlaugh means that it happened in the past. means that it happened in the past.

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SyntaxSyntax

Syntax consists of the rules for combining Syntax consists of the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible words into grammatically sensible

sentences. For example: sentences. For example:

In English, syntactical rule says that In English, syntactical rule says that adjectives come before nouns; adjectives come before nouns; white housewhite house. .

In Spanish, it is reversed; In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blancacasa blanca..

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Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

Children learn their Children learn their native languages native languages

much before learning much before learning to add 2+2.to add 2+2.

We learn, on average We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 (after age 1), 3,500

words a year, words a year, amassing 60,000 amassing 60,000

words by the time we words by the time we graduate from high graduate from high

school.school.

Tim

e Life Pictures/ G

etty Images

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When do we learn When do we learn language?language?

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Explaining Language Explaining Language DevelopmentDevelopment

1.1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) believed that language development may believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.and reinforcement.

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Explaining Language Explaining Language DevelopmentDevelopment

2.2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it that it cannot be explained through cannot be explained through learning principleslearning principles, and thus most of , and thus most of it is it is inborninborn..

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Language Influences Language Influences ThinkingThinking

Linguistic Determinism:Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the suggested that language determines the way we think. For example, he noted that way we think. For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.readily about the past.