CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING

‘Critical Thinking means making reasoned judgments’

• According to Beyer (1995):

a. Using criteria to judge the quality of something, from a simple activity such as normal daily activities to the conclusion of a research paper.

b. Critical Thinking is a disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to evaluate the validity of something (statement, new ideas & research).

• According to Scriven & Paul (1996) & Angelo (1995):

– Critical thinking as the intellectually disciplined process of actively & skilfully conceptualising, applying, analysing, synthesising & evaluating information gathered from or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication.

– “Critical thinking directly influences the capacity for individuals to advance in effectively applying the information to which they have been exposed”

• According to Glaser (1985) and Primack (1986):

a. It seems important for us not only to learn to think critically, but to teach critical thinking to others as well.

b. This contention is significantly because for a person to be successful in any field of living he must have the ability to think critically.

c. He should be able to reason inductively & deductively such as when criticising or constructing ideas or solutions. These critical thinking abilities are generally recognised as an important & pervasive educational objective & are considered a desirable outcome of all human activities.

CRITICAL THINKING THEORIES

3 PERSPECTIVES

1. The Philosophical Perspective

• Ennis (1986), Henri (1991) & Garrison (1992), Watson & Glaser (1980), Facione (1998), & Missimer (1990) have focused their attentions upon the requirements of formal logical systems of critical thinking.

• Their theories represent the philosophical perspective of critical thinking.

i) The Critical Thinking Process

• According to Ennis (1986), Henri (1991) & Garrison (1992) they developed their theories of critical thinking as a problem solving. The theories involved four stages.

• The processes include:a. Focusing & observing on a question or problemb. Asking & answering questions for clarification of the

problemc. Making & evaluating decisions / solutionsd. Deciding on an action

• The critical thinking dispositions suggested by Ennis include:

1. Seeking a clear statement of the question2. Seeking reasons3. Trying to be well-informed, &4. Trying to remain relevant to the main point

• Henri (1991) identifies four dimensions for analysing problems which are participative, social, interactive, cognitive & meta-cognitive. She thinks that critical thinking is in the cognitive dimension.

• She suggests four processes of critical reasoning:

Elementary classification

Inference

Judgment

Strategies

• As for Garrison (1992), critical thinkers move through five stages:

1. Problem identifying2. Defining it clearly3. Exploring the problem & possible solutions4. Evaluating their applicability 5. Integrating understanding with the existing

knowledge

Comparison among the critical thinking processes of Ennis, Henri and Garrison

Ennis’s categories of critical thinking abilities:

1. Elementary ClarificationFocusing on a question, analysing arguments, asking & answering questions of clarification

2. Basic SupportJudging the credibility of a source and observation reports

3. InferenceDeducing & judging deductions, induction, making & judging value judgments

4. Advanced classificationDefining terms and judging definitions, identifying assumptions

5. Strategy and TacticsDeciding on an action & interacting with others

Henri’s critical reasoning stages:

1. Elementary clarificationObserving or studying a problem, identifying its elements, observing their linkages.

2. In-depth clarificationAnalysing a problem to understand its underlying values, beliefs & assumptions

3. InferenceAdmitting or proposing an idea based on true propositions

4. JudgementMaking decision, evaluations & criticism

5. StrategiesApplication of solution following on choice or decision

Garrison’s critical thinking stages:

1. Problem identificationTriggering event arouses interest in a problem

2. Problem definitionDefine problem boundaries end & means

3. Problem ExploringDeep understanding of situation of problem

4. Problem integrationEvaluation of alternative solutions and new ideas.

5. Problem integrationActing upon understanding to validate knowledge

The Composite of Attitudes, Knowledge & Skills:

• From the philosophy perspective: Watson & Glaser (1980) view critical thinking as a composite of attitudes, knowledge & skills. The composite include:

a. Attitudes of inquiry that involve an ability to recognise the existence of problems

b. Knowledge of the nature of valid inferences, abstractions & generalisation

c. Skills in employing & applying the above attitudes & knowledge

According to Watson & Glaser, competency in critical thinking is represented by certain critical thinking abilities:

1. InferenceThe ability to discriminate among degrees of truth /falsity of inferences. An inference is a conclusion a person can draw from certain observations or facts.

2. Recognition of assumptionsThe ability to recognize assumptions. An assumption is something taken for granted.

3. DeductionThe ability to determine whether certain conclusion necessarily follow from information in given statements or premises.

4. InterpretationThe ability to weigh evidence & come to generalization or conclusion logically follows beyond reasonable doubt from given information.

5. Evaluation of an argumentThe ability to distinguish between arguments that are strong & relevant & those that are weak or irrelevant.

An argument is very strong if it is almost impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

An argument is weak if it is likely that the premises could be true & the conclusion is false.

An example of evaluation of argument.

1. Premises:All cats like to eat fish. Garfield is a cat.

Conclusion:Garfield likes to eat fish.

Strong argument: It is impossible for the premises to be true & the conclusion false.

2. Premises:Mr. Lim is a bachelor.

Conclusion:Mr. Lim was never married.

All bachelor are unmarried.

Weak argument:Lim could have been divorced. It is likely that the premises could be true an the conclusion false.

The Critical Thinking Model

• In model of critical thinking skills there are six core critical thinking skills:

1. INTERPRETATIONInterpret is to comprehend and express the meaning / significance of a wide variety of: - experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.

- Interpretation includes sub-skills of categorization, decoding significance & clarifying meaning.

2. ANALYSISIs to identify the actual relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions / other forms of representation.

This is intended to express belief, judgement, experiences, reasons, information / opinions.

It includes examining ideas, detecting arguments & analysing arguments as sub-skills of analysis.

E.g. Identifying the similarities & differences between two approaches to the solution of a given problem

3. EVALUATION

Evaluation means to assess the credibility of statements / other representations which are accounts / descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief or opinion & to assess the logical strength of the actual / intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation.

E.g. Comparing the strength and the weaknesses of alternative interpretations.

4. INFERENCEInference means to identify & secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions, to form conjecture & hypothesis, to consider relevant information & to deduce the consequences flowing from data, statemetns, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions/other form of representations.

E.g. reading/identifying & securing the information needed to formulate a synthesis from multiple sources.

5. EXPLANATIONExplanation can be define as being able to state the results of one’s reasoning.

It is to justify that reasoning in term of the evidential, conceptual, methodological & contextual considerations.

The sub-skills under explanation are stating results, justifying procedures & presenting arguments.

6. SELF-REGULATIONMeans self-consciously to monitor one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities & the result deduced, particularly by applying skills in analysis & evaluation to one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning, confirming, validation or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results.

The two sub skills under self-regulation are self-examination & self-correction.

The House of Argument

• The three major features of the “House of Arguments” are:– Issue– Reason– Conclusion

• The author claims that the house provides a way to visualise an argument & help us to see the argument more clearly.

• If the structure of the house is well-supported then it is a strong argument & represents a well constructed critical thinking characteristics.

• However, if the reasons are weak, t en the house of argument can collapse & it is a weak argument.

2. The Psychological perspective

• Sternbery (1986) & Cohen, Freeman and Wolf (1996) are critical thinking experts who view critical thinking from the psychological perspective.

• According to Sternberg, critical thinking involves three kinds of thought:

1.Metacompontents– The metacomponents include:• Recognising that a problem exists

• Defining the nature of the problem

• Deciding on a set of steps for solving the problem

• Ordering these steps into a coherent strategy

• Deciding upon a form of mental representation for information

• Allocating one’s time & resources in solving a problem

• Monitoring one’s solution to a problem as the problem is being solved and

• Utilizing feedback regarding problem solving after one's problems solving has been completed

2. Performance components– Performance components are lower order, non-

executive processes used to execute the instructions of the metacomponents & provide feedback to them.

– Performance components vary by domain of performance for e.g. inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning & spatial visualisation.

3. Knowledge-acquisition– Knowledge-acquisition components are the

processes used to conceptualize information.

– Three components:1. Selective encoding (involves screening relevant from

irrelevant information)2. Selective combination (involves putting together the

relevant information in a consistent & organised way)3. Selective comparison (involves relating old, previously

known information to new information)

The recognition and metacognition model

• According to Cohen, Freeman and Wolf (1996), they believe that in order to be critical thinking, one must have two pre-requisite skills which refer to recognitional skill & metacognitive skill.

1. Recognitionally skilled.• They are able to recognize a large number of

situations as familiar & to retrieve an appropriate response.

• In these situations, critical thinkers act quickly & effectively on “intuition”.

• Recognition can fail / midlead, however in unfamiliar, novel & uncertain situations.

• Critical thinkers must switch from intuition (right atmosphere function) to analysis (left atmosphere function)

• They must break the problem down into component, make judgment and then put them back together again by a systematic formula that leads to an “optima” solution.

2. Metocognitively skilled. • Metocognition is thinking about one’s own thinking.

• Metacognition is being aware of one’s thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what he doing.

• The process of critical thinking is about the results of recognition can be stopped at anytime and immediate action taken on the best solution.

The Model of Recognition and Mecognition

1. Recognitional Processing– When a problem is presented, in most situations

decisions are made by rapid recognitional processing.

– At this stage, in recognising familiar situations, actions may be activated. If the situations are unfamiliar, no immediate action will be taken and one will wait & think more about the problem.

2. The Quick Test– Is a control function that decides whether / not

to act immediately on the recognitional solution / to think more.

– If the stakes are high, time available & the situation is unfamiliar or uncertain then the initial recognition response may be inhibited & a cycle of critical thinking begins.

3. Critiquing and Correcting– Critiquing & correcting process of critical thinking

involve looking for qualitative appropriate ways.

– One may find gaps (not enough reason to choose one conclusions / the other), conflict (reasons to choose both conclusions) / unreliable assumptions (reasons that depend on unexamined premises).

3. The Educational Perspective • One of the most influential of the critical

thinking models is Bloom’s Taxonomy of Higher Thinking.

1. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Higher Thinking– Critical thinking is synonymous with high level of

thinking, especially ‘evaluation’. The ability to evaluate is fundamental to critical thinking.

• The process involve:– The evaluation of the ideas– Solutions– Arguments– Evidences.

• In Bloom’s Taxonomy of Higher Thinking, the evaluation skill is the highest level of thinking skills.

• Bloom list a set of six levels from the simplest to the most complex level of critical thinking.

• The list begin with:– Knowledge & moves on the comprehension– Application– Analysis– Synthesis– Evaluation

• The evaluation skill is the goal of the learning & thinking processes.

• Bloom’s theory has been widely accepted & taught in thinking skill courses in all fields of education programmes.

• This theory giving learners practice in some of the lower levels of critical thinking skills before moving them on to the more difficult tasks of the higher thinking processes.

• According to Bloom one must master a level thinking before one can move on to the next level or stage.

• The reason is we cannot ask a person to evaluate if he does not know it, does not understand it, cannot interpret it, cannot apply it & cannot analyse it.

The six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Evaluation (Judging and evaluating)

Synthesis (Putting Together)

Analysis (Taking Part)

Application (Making use of)

Comprehension (Interpreting & understanding)

Knowledge (Remembering & retaining)

2. The Critical Thinking Cyclic Model• Zebra (2001), suggests that a paradigm shift from

the traditional method is necessary in how we teach students.

• This shift involves a revised model / a new sequence of components that should be used to help students engage biology.

• This model is an educational model of critical thinking process.

• Each cycle of the model begins with a focus / careful observation of problem, to a question/a hypothesis proposed.

• Next is the data generating stage, where new content is collected.

The Critical Thinking Cyclic Model

Focus or observation- Careful observation

& engagement

Question or Hyphothesis – Questioning about how

the problem can be solved

Data Generating- New content is

collected

Analysis & Deliberation Component

- Weigh relative merits of content & value

Decision / Description of the Solution

- Use public, self knowledge or

evidence

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

The Critical Thinking Abilities

1. Ennis’s critical thinking abilities

• Ennis identifies twelve abilities of critical thinking.

• These twelve abilities indicate ways of avoiding making a mistake in evaluating when selecting the only right answer.

• By using the terms “meaningful”, “clear”, “consistent”, “logical”, “precise” following the rules “accurate”, “justified”, “relevant”, “assumption” and “true”, one can think more precisely & critically in the evaluation process of critical thinking.

Critical thinking abilities Question related

Grasping the meaning of a statement It is meaningful?

Judging whether there is ambiguity in reasoning It is clear?

Judging whether statements contradict each other It is consistent?

Judging whether a conclusion follows necessarily It is logical?

Judging whether a statement is specific enough It is precise?

Judging whether a statement applies a principle It is following rule?

Judging whether an observation is reliable It is accurate?

Judging whether an inductive conclusion is warranted It is justified?

Judging whether the problem has been identified It is relevant?

Judging whether something is an assumption It is taken for granted?

Judging whether a definition is adequate It is well-defined?

Judging whether a statement taken as authority is acceptable

It is true?

2. Wade’s critical thinking skills

• Wade (1995) observed critical thinkers who are “fair-minded”.

• He identified eight skills of critical thinking.• Fair-minded critical thinking involves the abilities of:– Asking questions– Defining the problem– Examining evidence– Analyzing assumptions and biases– Avoiding emotional reasoning– Avoiding oversimplification– Considering other interpretations – Tolerating ambiguity

Examining Evidence

Avoiding oversimplification

Tolerating AmbiguityAvoiding

Emotional Reasoning

Considering Other

Interpretation

Analysing Assumptions

and Biases

Asking Question

Defining Problem

Wade’s critical thinking skills

3. Silverman and Smith Critical Thinking abilities:

• According to Silverman & Smith, one demonstrates the ability to think critically by being able to:– Analyse complex issues & make informed decision– Synthesise information in order to arrive at reasoned conclusions– Evaluate the logic, validity & relevance of data– Solve challenging problems– Question the assumptions of those in authority & conventional

wisdom– Distinguish between observation & inference– Identify the assumptions in any arguments & judge their validity– Identify the nature of the reasoning being used. Know when

inductive / deductive reasoning is required.

Aspect of Critical Thinking

1. DISPOSITION• Critical thinker are open-minded, value fair-

mindedness, respect evidence & reasoning, respect clarity & precision, look at different points of view and will change positions when reason leads them to do so.

2. CRITERIA• The conditions that must be met for something to

be judged as believable.

• Although the argument can be made that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects.

• An assertion must be based on relevant, accurate, facts, on credible sources, precise, unbiased, free from logical fallacies, logically consistent & strongly reasoned.

3. ARGUMENT• Argument is a statement or proposition with

supporting evidence. Critical thinking involves identifying, evaluating & constructing arguments.

4. REASONING• Reasoning is the ability to infer a conclusion from

one / multiple premises. To do so requires examining logical relationship among statements / data.

5. POINT OF VIEW• The way one views the world which shapes one’s

construction of meaning.• In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view

phenomena from many different points of view.

6. PROCEDURES FOR APPLYING• Critical thinking makes use of many procedures.• These procedures include asking questions, making

judgments and identifying assumptions.

Implications of Critical Thinking Theories

• The theories of critical thinking manifest that critical thinking involves skills of analysis, interpretation, inference, explanation & evaluation.

• It implies to promote & enhance critical thinking in learners, the style of passive teaching & learning must be shifted to an “active” one.

• Besides, students are encourage to work with each other in small discussion groups after major points / demonstration during lectures.

• Student will be able to process the new information, connect it to previously learned topics & practice asking questions that promote further critical thinking.

Strategies to promote critical thinking:

1. Improve Critical Thinking –”Building A House of Argument”

• The process of building a house of argument can be used as an effective strategy to promote critical thinking.

The Process of Critical Thinking:A) An issue arise- an issue is a statement of a problem- e.g. Whether you should drive over 120 km p/h.

B) Set up reasons- This stage involves information & reason

collection. The reasons are claims to defend/to justify a belief in a conclusion.

- e.g. The condition of your car is bad / the tyres of the car are bald / you may meet with an accident

C) Search for supporting evidence- Four types of evidence: scientific, philosophic,

statistical and research.- E.g. Statistic shows that there are more accidents &

fatalities when people drive at / above 120 km p/h.

D) Making conclusions- A conclusion is the decision that the thinker has made about an issue. It is often preceded by words such as “in conclusion” or “therefore:.- in the process of drawing a conclusion, the ability to make inferences is important. - Two factors are necessary for a conclusion to be warranted.

i) The reason must be trueii) The conclusion must follow from the reasons

• E.g. therefore, you should try not to drive at or above 120km p.h.

E) Recognizing assumptions– Assumptions lie beneath the argument & constitute the

basement of the statement of critical argument– The terms commonly used to expose an assumption are

“assumes”, “presume”, “presupposes”– “I am assuming that…”, “The presumption is that…”, “The

presupposition is that…”

F) Explore the implication• Implication is the possible outcome that follows from an

argument.• For example, the conclusion that “you should try not to drive

at or above 120 km p.h.” may cause the attention & discussion of other people & the implications / outcomes of these discussion might be favourable / unfavourable.

• When the implications are positive, they function as additional reasons for the argument.

• However, if the implications are negative or unclear, they may be offered as a major reason in a counter argument.

2. Improve Critical thinking through Questioning• Critical thinking can be enhanced through critical

questioning.• Questions eliciting thoughtful wording &

construction are most likely to produce higher level thinking in the students.

a. The Cooperative Questioning Process• Learners can hear other perspectives, analyze

claims, evaluate evidence and explain & justify their reasoning.

The circle of cooperative questioning model

1. Introduction of general teaching/learning goals

6. Teachers repeat the process with another related

topic

5. Reports from merged groups report to class

2. Teaching (10-20 minutes) current brain research suggest that “mental breaks” every 20 minutes keep learners alert &

on task

3. Students work together to answer questions.

4. Couples of students merge to discuss their answers

b. Critical Questioning Strategies• Examples of these strategies are the Taxonomy of

Socratic Questioning and Paul and Elder’s Standards Question.

The Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning• Stimulate interaction between the teacher &

learner.• Comprises six categories of Socratic questions.

An example of the Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning

Categories of Socratic questions Examples of question

1. Questions of clarification What do you mean by _______?What is your main point?

2. Questions that probe assumptions

What are you assuming?What could we assume instead?

3. Questioning that probe Reasons and Evidence

Do you have any evidence for that?

4. Questions about Viewpoint or Perspectives

How can we find out?What does this question assume?

5. Question that Probe Implications and Consequences

What are you implying by that?

6. Questions about the question Why is this question important?

The Standard Questions• Paul and Elder (1999) have identified eight standard questions

students should learn in promoting critical thinking.

Standard Questions

Clarify Could you elaborate further?Could you illustrate what you mean?

Accuracy How could we check on that?How could we find out if that is true?

Precision Could you be more specific?Could you give me more details?

Relevance How does that relate to the problem?How does that bear on the question?

Depth What factors make this a difficult problem?

Breadth Do we need to consider another point of view?

Logic Does all this make a sense together?

Significance Is this the most important problem to consider?

3. Arrange Classroom Space to Encourage Interaction• Teachers should first create a comfortable

environment for interaction & discussions.• The classroom space should be designed to

facilitate the activity of critical thinking.• The arrangement of the classroom should also

facilitate division of students into small groups for discussion / problem solving exercise.

4. Allow Time for Reflection or Interaction• Teachers should allow a little time for reflection or

interaction.

• Allowing silent time can prompt and deepen critical thought of the students.

• Students need time to mull over & digest all the new information, concepts and methodologies being presented to them & especially during the periods of questioning.

5. Begin Class with a Problem and Finish Class with a Brief Evaluate Exercise

• At the beginning of a class, teaches can ask some question on a problem related to the topic for that day.

• At the end of the class, a brief evaluative exercise about the most important thing they have learned should be done. In this way, students have more opportunities for critical thinking.

BLOCKAGES TO CRITICAL THINKING

1. Unable to Maintain Critical Thinking Attitudes

• To be critical thinking, ones needs certain strong attitudes.• A critical thinking attitude is a strong mental stance with

which a person approaches events & issues.• Critical thinking is eliminated when a person approaches

events & issues.• Critical thinking is eliminated when a person can’t struggle

to maintain the following attitudes:– Intellectual Curiosity– Open-mindedness– Strong sense of critical questioning and reasoning

2. Strong Personal Experience

• There is a tendency for a person to trust his own observations & experiences when he is arguing, judging & evaluating ideas.

• This blockages will lead to a bias when he is judging /evaluating solutions/ideas of a problem.

• To overcome this mental blockage when judging / evaluating ideas, one should not base decisions on only one experience but refer to a few examples.

3. Stereotypes

• The tendency to stereotypes is another blockage of critical thinking.

• A stereotype thinker approaches any topic with certain preliminary belief as habits of mind.

• When someone stereotypes, he believes that a particular group has a specific set of characteristics.

• E.g. The white people is more intelligent than the black people.

4. Oversimplifying

• Oversimplifying means failing to consider that there are other characteristics in addition to those in which we are interested in that might affect the thoughts under observation.

• Most of us prefer simplicity to complexity.• Decision & situation with simple answers permit us to move

on rapidly & confidently to the next topic without investing much mental energy.

• Oversimplifying can limit our critical thinking. Whenever we fail to consider that there are other perspectives we cut ourselves off from potential insights.

5. Strong Psychological Needs

• In arguing and evaluating ideas, one’s reaction may too often be guided by one psychological need.

• If certain things are true & good for the person, he/she feels better.

• For instance, when evaluating ideas of a problem, one may need certain conclusion to be true & these conclusion may be wrong but they reflect his personal psychological needs,

• Because one wishes, certain conclusions to be true one may reason as if they are true emotionally despite strong evidence to the contrary.