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Policy & Practice SOW 1201Policy & Practice SOW 1201

Lecture 2Lecture 2

Why do we have a welfare state and Why do we have a welfare state and what exactly is it supposed to do?what exactly is it supposed to do?

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OverviewOverview of Lecture (1) of Lecture (1)

Three Parts:Three Parts:

11 In order to answer the question - why do In order to answer the question - why do we have a welfare state - we need to know we have a welfare state - we need to know a little about the early development of a little about the early development of welfare in Britain up to the 1970s or sowelfare in Britain up to the 1970s or so

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Overview of Lecture (2)Overview of Lecture (2)

22 We need also to locate this British development in We need also to locate this British development in a comparative framework – what is distinct and a comparative framework – what is distinct and similar about Britain’s welfare development?similar about Britain’s welfare development?

This requires exploration of :This requires exploration of :

2a2a The key factors involved in why The key factors involved in why welfare systems developwelfare systems develop

2b2b Systems of classifying welfare systemsSystems of classifying welfare systems2c2c Understanding where Britain fits in Understanding where Britain fits in

thesethese classificationsclassifications

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Overview of Lecture (3)Overview of Lecture (3)

33 Finally in order to address the first question in Finally in order to address the first question in more detail – we need to ask:more detail – we need to ask:

3a) what exactly do these different types of 3a) what exactly do these different types of state welfare provision do? Including some state welfare provision do? Including some attention to what is happening to welfare attention to what is happening to welfare provision in Britain nowprovision in Britain now

Then we will, at the end of the lecture, be in a Then we will, at the end of the lecture, be in a better position to address the rather tougher better position to address the rather tougher

question: question:

3b) - what are they supposed to be doing? 3b) - what are they supposed to be doing?

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1a1a Historical Stages in the Development of the Historical Stages in the Development of the British Welfare StateBritish Welfare State

11 Pre Poor LawPre Poor Law Early forms of welfare – Vagrancy Laws – Early forms of welfare – Vagrancy Laws –

paupers forcibly removed if they were from paupers forcibly removed if they were from another parish & could not support another parish & could not support themselvesthemselves

1601 Vagrancy Act made provision to set the 1601 Vagrancy Act made provision to set the poor on workpoor on work

Some out relief at end of 18Some out relief at end of 18thth century century

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22 The Poor Law 1834The Poor Law 1834

Belief that population was increasing beyond the Belief that population was increasing beyond the means to feed to be fed - Malthusmeans to feed to be fed - Malthus

The Poor Law Commission recommended that:The Poor Law Commission recommended that:- - the workhouse testthe workhouse test – no relief outside – no relief outside

workhouseworkhouse- - less eligibilityless eligibility – relief inside lower than one – relief inside lower than one

could earn outside itcould earn outside it Poor LawsPoor Laws first attempt by govt. to impose order first attempt by govt. to impose order

in the giving of aidin the giving of aid Principle of Principle of less eligibilityless eligibility and the and the deliberatedeliberate

stigmastigma attached to claimants still attached to claimants still very much very much present todaypresent today!!

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33 Gradual Involvement of StateGradual Involvement of State

Enormous social problems in mid/late 19Enormous social problems in mid/late 19 thth century century by contemporary 1by contemporary 1stst world standards – world standards – Outcast Outcast LondonLondon example – origins of social work – example – origins of social work – problem of how to ration resources – problem of how to ration resources – deservingdeserving poor &, of course, poor &, of course, undeservingundeserving poor poor

British nation building – gradual take over of work British nation building – gradual take over of work by state of work previously done by church by state of work previously done by church charities e.g.1870 Education Act (free compulsory charities e.g.1870 Education Act (free compulsory education up to 11);Public Health and Factory Act education up to 11);Public Health and Factory Act reforms; gradual extension of local government reforms; gradual extension of local government (beginnings of town planning, council housing etc) (beginnings of town planning, council housing etc) WHY ???– return to belowWHY ???– return to below

National administrative systems established for National administrative systems established for education and public healtheducation and public health

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44 Post War Reforms – Universalist Welfare StatePost War Reforms – Universalist Welfare StateFive Giants Attacked by the 1944 Beveridge Report:Five Giants Attacked by the 1944 Beveridge Report:

WantWant – Social Security – Universal National Insurance – Social Security – Universal National InsuranceIgnoranceIgnorance – Education free till 15 – Education free till 15

DiseaseDisease – National Health Service free at point of delivery – National Health Service free at point of deliverySqualorSqualor – Extension of council housing and New Towns; – Extension of council housing and New Towns;

family allowancesfamily allowancesIdlenessIdleness – combination of less eligibility rule and free – combination of less eligibility rule and free

educationeducation

This Report was widely welcomed as a big improvement of previous This Report was widely welcomed as a big improvement of previous arrangements. It contains 3 principal elements:arrangements. It contains 3 principal elements:

1.1. A A guaranteed minimum standardguaranteed minimum standard – including income – including income2.2. Social protectionSocial protection in the event of insecurity in the event of insecurity

3.3. Provision of services at best level possible? – Provision of services at best level possible? – social citizenshipsocial citizenship

Please note no initial plans for personal social services – assumed want Please note no initial plans for personal social services – assumed want would be abolished! – residiium would need assistance – PSS for the would be abolished! – residiium would need assistance – PSS for the

residuum/underclass?residuum/underclass?

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However…….However…….

In practice post war British welfare may have guaranteed In practice post war British welfare may have guaranteed welfare as a right and included considerable protection BUT:welfare as a right and included considerable protection BUT:

-- whilst coverage was extensive, benefits & whilst coverage was extensive, benefits & services were generally always delivered at a low levelservices were generally always delivered at a low level

-- social protection was patchy – single women; disabled social protection was patchy – single women; disabled peoplepeople

-- services tightly rationedservices tightly rationed

The Beveridge model was based on :The Beveridge model was based on :

-- Work being equated with paid male labourWork being equated with paid male labour-- Therefore a Therefore a patriarchalpatriarchal conception of families – male conception of families – male

breadwinner with dependentsbreadwinner with dependents-- assumption of full male employmentassumption of full male employment-- Welfare services being geared up to this traditional Welfare services being geared up to this traditional

‘family’ ‘family’ modelmodel- - the promotion of the promotion of nationalnational solidarity – ethnicity? solidarity – ethnicity?- - managing life course risks through national insurance managing life course risks through national insurance

– – spreading income out over life timespreading income out over life time

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22 Comparative Framework : Comparative Framework : 2a The Key Factors in Why Welfare Systems Develop?2a The Key Factors in Why Welfare Systems Develop?

1.1. Demographic & economic Demographic & economic – as states get more complex – as states get more complex then welfare automatically develops – then welfare automatically develops – poor explanationpoor explanation

2.2. Politics Politics – demands from below – trade unions – and – demands from below – trade unions – and concerns from above – industrialists and reformers concerns from above – industrialists and reformers implementing from above– implementing from above– partial explanationpartial explanation

3.3. Multi-dimensionalMulti-dimensional

Clearly the latter is the most usefulClearly the latter is the most useful

How best to think about the different elements that go How best to think about the different elements that go towards why welfare state systems develop?towards why welfare state systems develop?

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2b2b Systems of Classifying Welfare StatesSystems of Classifying Welfare States

Simple classification:Simple classification:

Institutional modelInstitutional model – UK – universal minima – UK – universal minima offered to alloffered to all

Institutional- Redistributive or Social Democratic Institutional- Redistributive or Social Democratic modelmodel – Sweden – comprehensive provision with a – Sweden – comprehensive provision with a commitment to egalitarianismcommitment to egalitarianism

Liberal or residual modelLiberal or residual model – USA – individuals – USA – individuals largely expected to provide for themselves; largely expected to provide for themselves; welfare for the ‘residuals’..often attached to a welfare for the ‘residuals’..often attached to a punitive view of the poorpunitive view of the poor

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An improved way of thinking about this issueAn improved way of thinking about this issue

Esping-Andersen (1990, 1999) brought previous ways of Esping-Andersen (1990, 1999) brought previous ways of thinking about this issue together & tried to theorise welfare thinking about this issue together & tried to theorise welfare

states as combinations of political/economic and social states as combinations of political/economic and social factors – and called them factors – and called them ‘regime’ types‘regime’ types

He analysed:He analysed: the level of the level of state spendingstate spending

de-commodificationde-commodification – the extent to which welfare was – the extent to which welfare was provided by provided by non-market providersnon-market providers

stratificationstratification – the extent to which access to welfare was – the extent to which access to welfare was determined by one’s social classdetermined by one’s social class

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In practice this means……we can classify In practice this means……we can classify welfare regimeswelfare regimes

SwedenSweden GermanyGermany USAUSA

Regime TypeRegime Type Social Social DemocraticDemocratic

CorporatistCorporatist LiberalLiberal

Political Political BaseBase

Broad-based Broad-based compromisecompromise

Employer/Employer/

Worker coalitionWorker coalitionFree MarketFree Market

Service TypeService Type UniversalUniversal OccupationalOccupational ResidualResidual

Public Public

ExpenditureExpenditure High levelHigh level High LevelHigh Level Low levelLow level

Labour Labour MarketMarket

High High EmploymentEmployment

High WageHigh Wage

High WageHigh Wage Low WageLow Wage

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2c2c Where Does Britain Fit inWhere Does Britain Fit in??

Britain led the way in trying to provide a Britain led the way in trying to provide a comprehensive & universal welfare system; & post comprehensive & universal welfare system; & post 1945 welfare reforms did represent an important 1945 welfare reforms did represent an important leap forward….but not very extensive…..not very leap forward….but not very extensive…..not very

social democratic!social democratic!

For, at root, our benefits are For, at root, our benefits are at best modestat best modest & & often dependent on often dependent on means testingmeans testing, with limited , with limited

transfers between rich & poor, & encouragement transfers between rich & poor, & encouragement of private welfare…..but not liberal either. More of private welfare…..but not liberal either. More

about life time recycling of resourcesabout life time recycling of resources

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Britain : an odd mix…a Britain : an odd mix…a peculiarpeculiar welfare welfare statestate

There is still a strong foundation of There is still a strong foundation of universal universal principles in the education and health sectors – principles in the education and health sectors – and some continuing commitment to universal and some continuing commitment to universal social benefits at a low level.social benefits at a low level.

But we tolerate and encourage private But we tolerate and encourage private provision….and much welfare change of the last provision….and much welfare change of the last few years has not done an enormous amount to few years has not done an enormous amount to redistribute income from rich to poorredistribute income from rich to poor

Britain combines elements of the Britain combines elements of the liberalliberal or or residual residual welfare system with strong remnants of a welfare system with strong remnants of a social social democraticdemocratic regime – education and health regime – education and health

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Overview of British State’s welfare provisionOverview of British State’s welfare provision

As we saw last week the British state principally provides 5 As we saw last week the British state principally provides 5 social services:social services:

1.1. Social Security – benefits, pensions etc – income Social Security – benefits, pensions etc – income maintenance – and Employment Policymaintenance – and Employment Policy

2.2. Education Education 3.3. HealthHealth4.4. HousingHousing5.5. Personal Social ServicesPersonal Social Services

One difference from last week – we now have to One difference from last week – we now have to recognise that Employment Policy is key to recognise that Employment Policy is key to

understanding contemporary welfareunderstanding contemporary welfare

Let’s look at each in turn bearing in mind our discussion Let’s look at each in turn bearing in mind our discussion so far todayso far today

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3a what exactly does these different types of state welfare provision do? – 3a what exactly does these different types of state welfare provision do? – and what are they supposed to do?and what are they supposed to do?

1a 1a Income MaintenanceIncome Maintenance

involves some redistribution – through some state benefits – last involves some redistribution – through some state benefits – last week/sessionweek/session

Public expenditure on state benefits growing despite attempts to Public expenditure on state benefits growing despite attempts to control. £103 bn in 2003/4. £50.5bn insurance based; £29.7 means control. £103 bn in 2003/4. £50.5bn insurance based; £29.7 means testedtested

Increasing shift from insurance based to assistance based (means Increasing shift from insurance based to assistance based (means tested) in last 25 yearstested) in last 25 years

Entitlement and take up rates very between unemployed, pensioners, Entitlement and take up rates very between unemployed, pensioners, etc…..details later in unitetc…..details later in unit

Non-take up big problem – not least for social workers working with Non-take up big problem – not least for social workers working with poor userspoor users

Means testing can lead to unemployment and poverty traps - explainMeans testing can lead to unemployment and poverty traps - explain New Labour has instituted large reviews of social security and has New Labour has instituted large reviews of social security and has

increased some benefits for families and children – child tax increased some benefits for families and children – child tax credits…..but sees principal fight against poverty as being through credits…..but sees principal fight against poverty as being through getting people into employmentgetting people into employment – see Case Study – see Case Study

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1b1b Employment PolicyEmployment Policy

Not in 1940s reforms but now very importantNot in 1940s reforms but now very important Merged with social security – Dept of Work Merged with social security – Dept of Work

& Pensions& Pensions Key New Labour priority - ‘Welfare to work’ Key New Labour priority - ‘Welfare to work’

– key policy initiative New Deal for – key policy initiative New Deal for unemployed – more of on next slideunemployed – more of on next slide

EU law in conflict – social programme – with EU law in conflict – social programme – with UK – expands British employment rights and UK – expands British employment rights and employment protection considerablyemployment protection considerably

1919

New Labour’s New DealNew Labour’s New Deal

New Labour made commitment to replace past employment New Labour made commitment to replace past employment support provision with a support provision with a New Deal New Deal for the unemployedfor the unemployed

CompulsoryCompulsory training and work experience aligned to training and work experience aligned to renewed commitment to help key groups gain entry to renewed commitment to help key groups gain entry to

labour marketlabour market New Deal Programmes coverNew Deal Programmes cover

Young People 18-24; long term unemployed; lone parents; Young People 18-24; long term unemployed; lone parents; partners of unemployed; disabled people; 50 plus & partners of unemployed; disabled people; 50 plus &

partnerspartners

This has been combined with:This has been combined with: Statutory minimum wageStatutory minimum wage

Working families tax creditsWorking families tax credits Family friendly employment rights – maternity & paternity Family friendly employment rights – maternity & paternity

leaveleave

See Alcock P (2003) pp 124-126 for more discussionSee Alcock P (2003) pp 124-126 for more discussion

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Employment Key for Solving Poverty for Employment Key for Solving Poverty for New LabourNew Labour

Implicit in the New Deal is the above assumptionImplicit in the New Deal is the above assumption This is a contentious assumptionThis is a contentious assumption No good producing employment opportunities if No good producing employment opportunities if

people not able to take them for good welfare people not able to take them for good welfare reasons – e.g. single parentsreasons – e.g. single parents

What will happen in periods of economic downturn What will happen in periods of economic downturn when jobs are scarce?when jobs are scarce?

New Deal could be seen as WORKFARE…..not New Deal could be seen as WORKFARE…..not WELFARE at all……but then again principal WELFARE at all……but then again principal source of welfare is a job!source of welfare is a job!

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22 EducationEducation

Universal free education provided from 1945 from Universal free education provided from 1945 from 5-15…now 16…..next year 175-15…now 16…..next year 17

Is free education provided to ‘educate’ (liberal Is free education provided to ‘educate’ (liberal view) or ‘train’ (social capital view) and sort people view) or ‘train’ (social capital view) and sort people out into labour market allocations – think about it? out into labour market allocations – think about it? Return to at end of lectureReturn to at end of lecture

Some levels are provided free by state – primary, Some levels are provided free by state – primary, secondary, further .….but higher and nursery not secondary, further .….but higher and nursery not completely . Should they be?completely . Should they be?

50% to be in HE by 2007….8% in the 1960s50% to be in HE by 2007….8% in the 1960s Private school provision allowed Private school provision allowed New Labour targets extra resources to certain New Labour targets extra resources to certain

schools & categories of pupilsschools & categories of pupils

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33 HealthHealth

Improving health not necessarily same as treating Improving health not necessarily same as treating illness – different policy prioritiesillness – different policy priorities

The NHS was established in 1948 by Labour – the The NHS was established in 1948 by Labour – the Conservative Party opposed.Conservative Party opposed.

Largely free service but has always charged for Largely free service but has always charged for certain services – notably prescriptionscertain services – notably prescriptions

Approximately 7 million people covered by private Approximately 7 million people covered by private health insurancehealth insurance

Increasing encouragement & development of Increasing encouragement & development of partnerships partnerships between private contractors and the between private contractors and the NHS – see in particular, private finance initiative NHS – see in particular, private finance initiative

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44 HousingHousing Exploitation of tenants, over-crowding & public health Exploitation of tenants, over-crowding & public health

issues led to initial intervention by state against racketeer issues led to initial intervention by state against racketeer private landlordsprivate landlords

Government accepted responsibility for providing all with Government accepted responsibility for providing all with homes after 1homes after 1stst WW – Homes Fit for Heroes WW – Homes Fit for Heroes

Housing stock now primarily owner occupied orientated – Housing stock now primarily owner occupied orientated – just over 70% of population own their own housesjust over 70% of population own their own houses

Certain categories of homeless people have statutory right Certain categories of homeless people have statutory right to public housingto public housing

Much confusion about the present ‘large scale voluntary Much confusion about the present ‘large scale voluntary transfers’ – LSVTs - of housing stock from local authorities transfers’ – LSVTs - of housing stock from local authorities to housing associationsto housing associations

3 scenarios – will public housing still be a public service 3 scenarios – will public housing still be a public service controlled by LAs? Or Is it an opportunity to get local controlled by LAs? Or Is it an opportunity to get local democratically run housing? Or is it the re-introduction of democratically run housing? Or is it the re-introduction of private landlordism by the back door?private landlordism by the back door?

See Ginsburg N 2005 The Privatization of Public Housing, See Ginsburg N 2005 The Privatization of Public Housing, Critical Social PolicyCritical Social Policy, Vol 25, No 1, pp 115-135, Vol 25, No 1, pp 115-135

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55 Personal Social Services (a)Personal Social Services (a)

Early development dominated by charitable, Early development dominated by charitable, often church, provisionoften church, provision

Late 1940s statutory responsibility largely Late 1940s statutory responsibility largely transferred to new local authority based transferred to new local authority based Children’s, and Health and Welfare DeptsChildren’s, and Health and Welfare Depts

Seebohm Reforms of 1971 – one generic Seebohm Reforms of 1971 – one generic social service dept. Preventive social work?social service dept. Preventive social work?

Since 1990s – particularly under pressure of Since 1990s – particularly under pressure of high profile child abuse cases – gradual high profile child abuse cases – gradual return to specialisms – fire fighting?return to specialisms – fire fighting?

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55 Personal Social Services (b)Personal Social Services (b)

Work with child offenders shifts between Work with child offenders shifts between welfare welfare & & justice justice approachesapproaches

All SSDs since 1990 are required to produce community All SSDs since 1990 are required to produce community care planscare plans

SSDs have various & different names now!SSDs have various & different names now! Huge decline in residential provision and shift to Huge decline in residential provision and shift to

community, or smaller scale, residential provisioncommunity, or smaller scale, residential provision Mixed economy – see last week – now for community care Mixed economy – see last week – now for community care

provision – LAs having to purchase 85% of their provision provision – LAs having to purchase 85% of their provision from private or voluntary sectorsfrom private or voluntary sectors

Social care not free at point of delivery for all – but is in Social care not free at point of delivery for all – but is in Scotland!Scotland!

Increasing use of charges for domiciliary support careIncreasing use of charges for domiciliary support care Some SSDs employ welfare rights workers to help poor Some SSDs employ welfare rights workers to help poor

clients – the majority – to improve their incomes through clients – the majority – to improve their incomes through better take up of benefitsbetter take up of benefits

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3b What are the social services supposed 3b What are the social services supposed to do? (a)to do? (a)

This as I hope you are beginning to realise This as I hope you are beginning to realise is quite a complex question – and one we is quite a complex question – and one we

cannot really answer properly today.cannot really answer properly today.

But next week/session we will see that the But next week/session we will see that the different welfare ideologies produce very different welfare ideologies produce very

different answers to the questiondifferent answers to the question

By way of a taster…..By way of a taster…..

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3b What are the social services supposed to do? 3b What are the social services supposed to do? (b)(b)

Various possible interpretations :Various possible interpretations :

Literal Literal – they do that they say they do – do they? – they do that they say they do – do they? FunctionalistFunctionalist – as industrialisation/capitalism develops – as industrialisation/capitalism develops

welfare services emerge to carry out certain functions…welfare services emerge to carry out certain functions…explain difference between manifest & latent functions – explain difference between manifest & latent functions – see next slide for social worksee next slide for social work

Political Political – welfare is a combination of struggles from below – welfare is a combination of struggles from below for a better life and the needs – from above - of industry for for a better life and the needs – from above - of industry for an educated, healthy workforcean educated, healthy workforce

BeneficentBeneficent – welfare emerges in response to awareness of – welfare emerges in response to awareness of hardship – moral reformhardship – moral reform

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Social Work : Manifest and Latent FunctionsSocial Work : Manifest and Latent FunctionsManifest FunctionsManifest Functions

Services for those – who through no fault of their own fall through the Services for those – who through no fault of their own fall through the welfare netwelfare net

An accountable professional activity that enables individuals, families An accountable professional activity that enables individuals, families and groups identify personal & environmental differences adversely and groups identify personal & environmental differences adversely

affecting them ( CCETW, 1991)affecting them ( CCETW, 1991) Protecting children and the vulnerable Protecting children and the vulnerable To enable social inclusion to take placeTo enable social inclusion to take place

Latent Functions?Latent Functions?

A social control device to ‘police’ and contain the less well off and A social control device to ‘police’ and contain the less well off and potentially rebellious sections of the populationpotentially rebellious sections of the population

A largely bureaucratic, procedural activity with little or no professional A largely bureaucratic, procedural activity with little or no professional discretion – legalistic, formal and arms lengthdiscretion – legalistic, formal and arms length

Assessing and managing potential risk and dangerousnessAssessing and managing potential risk and dangerousness A compensatory service for those who are largely socially excluded A compensatory service for those who are largely socially excluded

from large aspects of the social order confirming their exclusionfrom large aspects of the social order confirming their exclusion

Discuss in seminarsDiscuss in seminars