1 mining the web traces: workload characterization, performance diagnosis, and applications lili qiu...
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1
Mining the Web Traces:Workload Characterization, Performance Diagnosis, and Applications
Lili QiuMicrosoft Research
Performance’2002, Rome, ItalySeptember 2002
2
Motivation
Why do we care about Web traces? Content providers
How do users come to visit the Web site? Why do users leave the Web site? Is poor
performance the cause for this? What content are users interested in? How do users’ interest vary in time? How do users’ interest vary across
different geographical regions? Where are the performance bottlenecks?
3
Motivation (Cont.)
Web hosting companies Accounting & billing Server selection Provisioning server farms: where to place servers
ISPs How to save bandwidth by storing proxy caches? Traffic engineering & provisioning
Researchers Where are the performance bottlenecks? How to improve Web performance? Examples: Traffic measurements have influenced
the design of HTTP (e.g., persistent connections and pipeline), TCP (e.g., initial congestion window)
4
Tutorial Outline
Background Web workload characterization Performance diagnosis Applications of traces Bibliography
5
Part I: Background
Web software components Web semantic components Web protocols Types of Web traces
6
Web Software Components
Web clients An application that
establishes connections to send Web requests
E.g., Mosaic, Netscape Navigator, Microsoft IE
Web servers An application that
accepts connections to service requests by sending back responses
E.g., Apache, IIS Web proxies (optional) Web replicas
(optional)
Internetreplica
proxy
replica
proxy
proxy
WebClients
WebServer
s
7
Web Semantic Components Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
An identifier for a Web resource Name of protocol: http, https, ftp, .. Name of the server Name of the resource on the server Eg., http://www.foobar.com/info.html
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) Platform-independent styles (indicated by markup
tags) that define the various components of a Web document
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Define the syntax and semantics of messages
exchanged between Web software components
8
Example of a Web Transaction
BrowserWeb server
DNSserver1. DNS query
2. Setup TCP connection
3. HTTP request
4. HTTP response
9
Internet Protocol Stack
Application layer: application programs (HTTP, Telnet, FTP, DNS)
Transport layer: error control + flow control (TCP,UDP)
Network layer: routing (IP)
Datalink layer: handle hardware details(Ethernet, ATM)
Physical layer: moving bits(coaxial cable, optical fiber)
10
Web Protocols
HTTP
TCP
IP
Ethernet
HTTP
TCP
IP
Ethernet
HTTP messages
TCP segments
A picture taken from [KR01]
IP IPIP pktIP pkt
Ethernet Sonet Sonet Ethernet
IP pkt
Sonet link Ethernet Ethernet
11
Web Protocols (Cont.) DNS [AL01]
An application layer protocol responsible for translating hostname to IP and vice versa (e.g., perf2002.uniroma2.it 160.80.2.140)
TCP [JK88] A transport layer protocol that does error control and flow
control Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP 1.0 [BLFF96] The most widely used HTTP version A “Stop and wait” protocol
HTTP 1.1 [GMF+99] Adds persistent connections, pipelining, caching,
compression
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HTTP 1.0
HTTP request Request = Simple-Request | Full-Request
Simple-Request = "GET" SP Request-URI CRLF Full-Request = Request-Line;
*( General/Request/Entity Header) ; CRLF [ Entity-Body ] ;
Request-Line = Method SP Request-URI SP HTTP-Version CRLF Method = "GET" ;| "HEAD" ; | "POST" ;| extension-method
Example: GET /info.html HTTP/1.0
13
HTTP 1.0 (Cont.)
HTTP response Response = Simple-Response | Full-Response
Simple-Response = [ Entity-Body ]Full-Response = Status-Line;
*( General/Response/Entity Header ); CRLF
[ Entity-Body ] ; Example:
HTTP/1.0 200 OKDate: Mon, 09 Sep 2002 06:07:53 GMTServer: Apache/1.3.20 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux) PHP/4.0.6Last-Modified: Mon, 29 Jul 2002 10:58:59 GMTContent-Length: 21748Content-Type: text/html…<21748 bytes of the current version of info.html>
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HTTP 1.1 Connection management
Persistent connections [Mogul95] Use one TCP connection for multiple HTTP requests Pros:
Reduce the overhead of connection setup and teardown Avoid TCP slow start
Cons: head-of-line blocking increase servers’ state
Pipeline [Pad95] Send multiple requests without waiting for a response
between requests Pros: avoid the round-trip delay of waiting for each
response Cons: connection abortion is harder to deal with
15
HTTP 1.1 (Cont.)
Caching Continues to support the notion of expiration used in
HTTP 1.0 Add a cache-control header to handle the issues of
cacheability and semantic transparency [KR01] E.g., no-cache, only-if-cache, no-store, max-age, max-
stale, min-fresh, …
Others Range request Content negotiation Security …
16
Types of Web Traces
Application level traces Collection method: Available tools: Concerns:
Flow level traces Collection method: Available tools: Concerns:
Packet level traces Collection method: monitor a network link Available tools: tcpdump, libpcap Concerns: packet dropping, timestamp accuracy
17
Tutorial Outline
Background Web workload characterization Performance diagnosis Applications of traces Bibliography
18
Part II: Web Workload Characterization
Overview Content dynamics Access dynamics Common pitfalls Case studies
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Overview Process of trace analyses Common analysis techniques Common analysis tools Challenges in workload characterization
20
Process of trace analyses
Collect traces where to monitor, how to collect (e.g.,
efficiency, privacy, accuracy) Determine key metrics to characterize Process traces Draw inferences from the data Apply the traces or insights gained from
the trace analyses to design better protocols & systems
21
Common Analysis Techniques - Statistics
Mean Median Variance and standard deviation
Geometric mean: less sensitive to outliers
Confidence interval A range of values that has a specified probability of
containing the parameter being estimated Example: 95% confidence interval 10 x 20
)var()(,)(1
)var(1
2 xxstduxN
xN
ii
)(log xEnixGM
22
Common Analysis Techniques – Statistics (Cont.)
Cumulative distribution (CDF) P(x a)
Probability density function (PDF) Derivative of CDF: f(x) = dF(x)/dx
Check for heavy tail distribution Log-log complementary plot, and check its tail Example: Pareto distribution
If 2, distribution has infinite variance (a heavy tail)If 1, distribution has infinite mean
axax
axF ,0,,)(1)(
23
Common Analysis Techniques – Data Fitting
Visually compare the empirical distribution with a standard distribution
Chi Squared tests [AS86,Jain91] If , then two distributions are close, where
need enough samples Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests [AS86,Jain91]
Compares two distributions by finding the maximum differences between two variables’ cumulative distribution functions
kX 2
k
i i
ii
E
ExX
1
22 )(
24
Common Analysis Techniques – Data Fitting (Cont.)
Quantile-quantile plots [AS86,Jain91] Compare two distributions by plotting the
inverse of the cumulative distribution function F-1(x) for two variables, and find best fitting line
If the slope of the line is close to 1, and y-intercept is close to 0, the two data sets are almost identically distributed
25
Common Analysis Tools
Scripting languages Perl, awk, UNIX shell scripts, VB
Databases SQL, DB2, …
Statistics packages Matlab, S+, R, SAS, …
Write our own low level programs C, C++, C#, Java, …
26
Challenges in Workload Characterization
Each of the Web components provides a limited perspective on the functioning of the Web
Workload characteristics vary both in space and in time
Internetreplica
proxy
replica
proxy
proxy
Clients Servers
27
Views from Clients
Capture clients’ requests to all servers Pros
Know details of client activities, such as requests satisfied by browser caches, client abortion
The ability to record detailed information, as this does not impose significant load on a client browser
Cons Need to modify browser software Hard to deploy for a large number of clients
28
Views from Web Servers
Capture most clients’ requests (excluding those satisfied by caches) to a single server
Pros Relatively easy to deploy/change logging
software Cons
Requests satisfied by browser & proxy caches will not appear in the logs
May not log detailed information to ensure fast processing of client requests
29
Views from Web Proxies Depending on the proxy’s location
A proxy close to clients see requests from a a small client group to a large number of servers [KR00]
A proxy close to the servers see requests from a large client group to a small number of servers [KR00]
Pros More diverse …?
Cons Requests satisfied by browser caches will not appear in
the logs May not log detailed information to ensure fast
processing of requests Does not have full information …?
30
Workload Variation Vary with measurement points Vary with sites being measured
Information servers (news site), e-commercial servers, query servers, streaming servers, upload servers
US vs. Italy, … Vary with the clients being measured
Internet clients vs. wireless clients University clients vs. home users US vs. Italy, …
Vary in time Day vs. night Weekday vs. weekend Changes with new applications, recent events Evolve over time, …
31
Part II: Web Workload Overview Content dynamics Access dynamics Common pitfalls Case studies
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Content Dynamics
File size distribution File update patterns
How often files are updated How much files are updated
33
File Size Distribution
Two definitions D1: Size of all files on a Web server D2: Size of all files transferred by a Web
server D1 D2, because some files can be
transferred multiple times or not in completion and other files are not transferred
Studies show that the distribution of file sizes in both definitions exhibit heavy tails (i.e., P[F > x] ~ x-, 0 2)
34
File Update Interval
Varies in time Hot events and fast changing events require more
frequent update, e.g., Worldcup Varies across sites
Depending on server update policy Depending on the nature of content (e.g., University
sites have slower update rate than news sites) Recent studies
Study of the proxy traces collected at DEC and AT&T in 1996 showed the rate of change depended on content type, top-level domains etc. [DFK+97]
Study of 1999 MSNBC logs shows that modification history yields a rough predictor of future modification interval [PQ00]
35
Extent of Change upon Modifications
Varies in time Varies across sites Recent studies
Study of 1996 DEC and AT&T proxy traces shows that ??? [MDF+97]
Study of 1999 MSNBC log shows that most file modifications are small delta encoding can be very useful [PQ00]
36
Part II: Web Workload Motivation Limitations of workload measurements Content dynamics Access Dynamics
File popularity distribution Temporal stability Spatial locality User session and request arrivals & duration Synthetic workload generation
Common pitfalls Case studies
37
Document Popularity
The Web requests follow Zipf-like distribution Request frequency 1/i, where i is a document’s ranking The value of depends on the point of measurements
Between 0.6 and 1 for client traces and proxy traces Close to or larger than 1 for server traces [ABC+96, PQ00]
The value of varies over time (e.g., larger during hot events)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
MSNBC Proxies Less popular servers
38
Impact of the value Larger means more
concentrated accesses on popular documents caching is more beneficial
90% of the accesses are accounted by
Top 36% files in proxy traces [BCF+99, PQ00]
Top 10% files in small departmental server logs reported in [AW96]
Top 2-4% files in MSNBC traces
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Percentage of Documents (sorted by popularity)
Pe
rce
nta
ge
of R
eq
ue
sts
12/17/98 Server Traces 08/01/99 Server Traces10/06/99 Proxy Traces
39
Temporal Stability Metrics
Coarse-grained: likely duration that a current popular file remains popular
e.g., overlap between the set of popular documents on day 1 and day 2
Fine-grained: how soon a requested file will be requested again
e.g., LRU stack distance [ABC+96]
File 5
File 4File 3
File 2File 1
File 2
File 5File 4
File 3File 1
Stack distance = 4
40
Spatial Locality
Refers to if users in the same geographical location or same organization tend to request the same documents E.g., degree of a request locally shared vs.
globally shared
41
Spatial Locality (Cont.)
Normal Day
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.E+00 1.E+04 2.E+04 3.E+04 4.E+04 5.E+04
Domain ID
Fra
cti
on
of
req
ue
sts
s
ha
red
Domain membership is significant except when there is a “hot” event of global interest
Dec. 17, 1998
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0E+00 5.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.5E+04 2.0E+04 2.5E+04 3.0E+04 3.5E+04
Domain IDFr
actio
n of
re
ques
ts s
hare
d
Trace Random
42
User Request Arrivals & Duration User workload at three levels
Session: a consecutive series of requests from a user to a Web site
Click: a user action to request a page, submit a form, etc. Request: each click generates one or more HTTP requests
Exponential distribution [LNJV99,KR01] Session duration
Heavy-tail distribution [KR01] # clicks in a session, most in the range of 4-6 [Mah97] # embedded references in a Web page Think time: time between clicks Active time: time to download a Web page and its
embedded images
43
Common Pitfalls Trace analyses are all about writing scripts &
plotting nice graphs Challenges
Trace collection: where to monitor, how to collect (e.g., efficiency, privacy, accuracy)
Identify important metrics, and understand why they are important
Sound measurements require disciplines [Pax97] Draw implications from data analyses
Understanding the limitation of the traces No representative traces: workload changes in time and in
space Try to diversify data sets (e.g., collect traces at different
places and different sites) before jumping into conclusions Draw inferences more than what data show
44
Part II: Web Workload Motivation Limitations of workload measurements Content dynamics Access dynamics Common pitfalls Case studies
Boston University client log study UW proxy log study MSNBC server log study Mobile log study
45
Case Study I: BU Client Log Study
Overview One of the few client log studies Analyze clients’ browsing pattern and their impact on
network traffic [CBC95] Approaches
Trace collection Modify Mosaic and distribute it to machines in CS Dept. at
Boston Univ. to collect client traces in 1995 Log format: <client machine, request time, user id, URI,
document size, retrieval time> Data analyses
Distribution of document size, document popularity Relationship between retrieval latency and response size Implications on caching strategies
46
Major Findings
Power law distributions Distribution of document sizes Distribution of user requests for documents # requests to documents as a function of
their popularity Caching strategies should take into
account of document size (i.e., give preference to smaller documents)
47
Case Study II: UW Proxy Log Study
Overview Proxy traces collected at the University of
Washington and Microsoft Approaches [WVS+99a, WVS+99b]
Trace collection: deploy a passive network sniffer between the Univ. of Washington and the rest of the Internet in May 1999
Set well-defined objectives Understand the extent of document sharing within
an organization and across different organizations Understand the performance benefit of cooperative
proxy caching
48
Major Findings
Members of an organization are more likely to request the same documents than a random set of clients
Most popular documents are globally popular
Cooperative caching is most beneficial for small organizations
Cooperative caching among large organizations yield minor improvement if any
49
Case Study III: MSNBC Server Log Study
Overview of MSNBC server site a large news site server cluster with 40 nodes 25 million accesses a day (HTML content
alone) Period studied: Aug. – Oct. 99 & Dec. 17, 98
flash crowd
50
Approaches Trace collection
HTTP access logs Content Replication System (CRS) logs HTML content logs
Data analyses Content dynamics
How often files are modified? How to predict modification interval? How much a file change upon modification?
Access dynamics Document popularity Temporal stability Spatial locality Correlation between document age and popularity
51
Major Findings
Content dynamics Modification history is a rough predictor Frequent but minimal file modifications
Access dynamics Set of popular files remains stable for days Domain membership has a significant bearing on
client accesses except during a flash crowd of global interest
Zipf-like distribution of file popularity but with a much larger than at proxies
Accesses to old documents account for most first-time misses hard to anticipate such accesses, and eliminate these first-time misses
52
Case Study IV: Mobile Log Study Overview of a popular commercial Web site
for mobile clients Content
news, weather, stock quotes, email, yellow pages, travel reservations, entertainment etc.
Services Notification Browse
Period studied 3.25 million notifications in Aug. 20 – 26, 2000 33 million browse requests in Aug. 15 – 26, 2000
53
Approaches Analyze by user categories
Cellular users Browse the Web in real time using cellular technologies
Offline users Download content onto their PDAs for later (offline)
browsing, e.g. AvantGo Desktop users
Signup services and specify preferences Analyze by Web services
Browse Notifications
Use SQL database to manage data
54
Major Findings
Notification Services Popularity of notification messages follows
Zipf-like distribution Top 1% notification objects account for 54-
64% of total messages Exhibits geographical locality
Browse Services 0.1% - 0.5% urls account for 90% requests The set of popular urls remain stable
Correlation between the two services Correlation is limited
55
Tutorial Outline
Background Web Workload Performance Diagnosis
Overview Infer the causes of high end-to-end delay in
Web transfers [BC00] Infer the causes of high end-to-end loss rate
in Web transfers [PQW02a, PQW02b] Applications of traces
56
Overview Goal: Determine internal
network characteristics using end-to-end Web traces
Metrics of interest Delay Loss rate Raw bandwidth Available bandwidth Traffic rate
Why interesting Resolve the trouble spots Server selection Placement of mirror servers
Sprint
AT&T
Web Server
UUNET
MCI
Qwest AOL
EarthlinkWhy so slow?
57
Finding the Sources of Delays Goal
Why is my Web transfer slow? Is it the server or the network or the client?
Sources of delay in Web transfer DNS lookup Server delays Client delays Network delays
Propagation delays Network variation delays Delays introduced by packet losses (e.g., signaled by
the fast retransmit mechanism or TCP timeouts)
58
TCPEval Tool
Inputs: “tcpdump” packet traces taken at the communicating Web server and client
Generates a variety of statistics for file transactions File and packet transfer latencies Packet drop characteristics Packet and byte counts per unit time
Generates both timeline and sequence plots for transactions
Generates critical path profiles and statistics for transactions
59
Critical Path Analysis Tool
Client Server Client ServerData flow Critical Path
Network delay
Network delayServer delayNetwork delay
Client delayNetwork delayServer delay
Network delaydue to pkt loss
60
Finding Sources of Packet Losses Goal
Determine link loss rate or identify lossy links
l1
l8l7l6
l2
l4 l5
l3
server
clientsp1 p2 p3 p4 p5
(1-l1)*(1-l2)*(1-l4) = (1-p1)
(1-l1)*(1-l2)*(1-l5) = (1-p2)…(1-l1)*(1-l3)*(1-l8) = (1-p5)
Under-constrained system of
equations
61
Approaches
Active probing Probing
Multicast probes Striped unicast probes
Inference technique: EMS
A B
S
A B
62
Approaches (Cont.) Passive monitoring
Random sampling Random sample the solution space, and draw
conclusions based on samples Akin to monte carlo sampling
Linear optimization Determine a unique solution by optimizing an
objective function Gibbs sampling
Sampling from P(|D), where is ensemble of loss rates of links in the network, and D is observed packet transmission and losses at the clients
EM
63
Tutorial Outline
Background Web Workload Performance Diagnosis Applications of traces Bibliography
64
Part IV: Applications of Traces Synthetic workload generation Cache design
Cache replacement policies [CI97,BCF+99] Cache consistency algorithms [LC97, YBS99,YAD+01] Cooperative cache or not [WVS+99] Cache infrastructure
Pre-fetching algorithms [CB98, FJC+99] Placement of Web proxies/replicas [QPV01] Other optimizations
Improving TCP for Web transfers [Mah97,PK98,ZQK00] Concurrent downloads, pipelining, compression,…
…
65
Synthetic Workload Generation
Generate user requests Generate user sessions using a Poisson arrival
process For each user session, determine # clicks
using a Pareto distribution Assign a click to a request for a Web page,
while making sure The popularity distribution of a file follows a Zipf-like
distribution [BC98] Capture the temporal locality of successive requests
for the same resource Generate a next click from the same user with
think time following a Pareto distribution
66
Synthetic Workload Generation (Cont.)
Generate Web pages Determine the number of Web pages Generate the size of each Web pages using file
size distribution (log-normal) Associate a page with some number of
embedded pages using empirical distribution (heavy-tail)
Generate file modification events Examples of generators
Webbench [Wbe], WebStone[TS95], Surge [BC98], SPecweb99 [SP99], Web Polygraph [WP], …
67
Cache Replacement Policies Problem formulation
Given a fixed size cache, how to evict pages to maximize the hit ratio once the cache is full?
Hit ratio Fraction of requests satisfied by the cache Fraction of the total size of requested data satisfied by
the cache Factors to consider
Request frequency Modification frequency Benefit of caching: reduction in latency & BW Cost of caching: storage
68
Cache Replacement Policies (Cont.) Approaches
Least recently used (LRU) Least frequently used (LFU)
Perfect: maintain counters for all pages seen In-cache: maintain counters only for pages that are in
cache GreedyDual-size [CI97]
Assign a utility value to each object, and replace the one with the lowest utility
Use of traces Evaluate the algorithms using trace-driven
simulations or synthetic workload
69
Placement of Web Proxies/Replicas
Problem formulation [JJK+01,QPV01] How to place a fixed number of
proxies/replicas to minimize users’ request latency
Factors to consider Spatial distribution of requests Temporal stability of requests
Stability in popularity of objects Stability in spatial distribution of requests
70
Placement of Web Proxies/Replicas (Cont.) Approaches
Random placement Greedy placement Hot-spot placement
Use of traces Trace-driven simulations High concentration of requests to a small number
of objects focus on replicating only popular objects
Temporal stability in requests no need to frequently change the locations of proxies/replicas
71
References [AS86] R. B. D’Agostino and M. A. Stephens. Goodness-of-Fit Techniques. Marcel Dekker,
New York, NY 1986. [ABC+96] Virgilio Almeida, Azer Bestavros, Mark Crovella and Adriana de Oliveria.
Characterizing reference locality in the WWW. In Proceedings of 1996 International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Information Systems (PDIS'96), December 1996.
[ABQ01] A. Adya, P. Bahl, and L. Qiu. Analyzing Browse Patterns of Mobile Clients. In Proc. of SIGCOMM Measurement Workshop, Nov. 2001.
[ABQ02] A. Adya, P. Bahl, and L. Qiu. Characterizing Alert and Browse Services for Mobile Clients. In Proc. of USENIX, Jun. 2002.
[AL01] P. Albitz, and C. Liu. DNS and BIND (4th Edition), O’Reilly & Associates, Apr. 2001. [AW97] M. Arlitt and C. Williamson. Internet Web Servers: Workload Characterization and
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72
References (Cont.) [BCF+99] L. Breslau, P. Cao, L. Fan, G. Phillips, and S. Shenker. Web Caching and Zipf-like
Distributions: Evidence and Implications. In Proc. of INFOCOM, Mar. 1999. [BC00] P. Barford and M. Crovella. Critical Path Analysis of TCP Transactions. In Proc. of
ACM SIGCOMM, Aug. 2000. [BLFF96] T. Berners-Lee, R. Fielding, and H. Frystyk. Hypertext Transfer Protocol --
HTTP/1.0. RFC 1945, May 1996. [BPS+98] H. Balakrishnan, V. N. Padmanabhan, S. Seshan, M. Stemm and R. H. Katz. TCP
Behavior of a Busy Internet Server: Analysis and Improvements Proc. IEEE Infocom, San Francisco, CA, USA, March 1998.
[CB98] M. Crovella and P. Barford. The network effects of prefetching. In Proc. of INFOCOM, 1998.
[CBC95] C. R. Cunha, A. Bestavros, and M. E. Crovella. Characteristics of WWW client-based traces. Technical Report BU-CS-95-010, CS Dept., Boston University, 1995.
[CI97] P. Cao and S. Irani. Cost-Aware WWW proxy caching algorithms. In Proc. of USITS, Dec. 1997.
[DFK+97] F. Douglis, A. Feldmann, B. Krishnamurth, and J. Mogul. Rate of change and other metrics: a live study of the World Wide Web. In Proc. of USITS, 1997.
[FCD+99] A. Feldmann, R. Caceres, F. Douglis, and M. Rabinovich. Performance of Web Proxy Caching in heterogeneous bandwidth enviornments. In Proc. of IEEE INFOCOM, March 1999.
73
References (Cont.) [FJC+99] L. Fan, Q. Jacobson, P. Cao and W. Lin. Web Prefetching Between Low-Bandwidth
Clients and Proxies: Potential and Performance. In Proc. of SIGMETRICS, 1999. [GMF+99] J. Gettys, J. Mogul, H. Frystyk, L. Masinter, P. Leach, T. Berners-Lee. Hypertext
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Computer Communications, Vol. 25, No. 4 (March 2002), pages 357-366. [KR01] B. Krishnamurthy and J. Rexford. Web Protocols and Practice, HTTP/1.1, Networking
Protocols, Caching, and Traffic Measurement. Addison-Wesley, May 2001. [LC97] C. Liu and P. Cao. Maintaining Strong Cache Consistency in the World-Wide Web. In
Proc. of ICDCS'97, pp. 12-21, May 1997. [LNJV99] Z. Liu, N. Niclausse, and C. Jalpa-Villaneuva. Web Traffic Modeling and
Performance Comparison Between HTTP 1.0 and HTTP 1.1. In Erol Gelenbe, editor, System Performance Evaluation: Methodologies and Applications. CRC Press, Aug. 1999.
74
References (Cont.) [Mah97] Bruce Mah. An empirical model of HTTP network traffic. In Proc. of INFOCOM,
April 1997. [Mogul95] Jeffrey C. Mogul. The Case for Persistent-Connection HTTP. In Proc.
SIGCOMM '95, pages 299-313. Cambridge, MA, August, 1995. [MDF+97] J. C. Mogul, F. Douglis, A. Feldmann, and B. Krishnamurthy. Potential benefits
of delta-encoding and data compression for HTTP, In Proc. of SIGCOMM, September 1997. [Pad95] V. N. Padmanabhan. Improving World Wide Web Latency. Technical Report
UCB/CSD-95-875, University of California, Berkeley, May 1995. [PQ00] V. N. Padmanabhan and L. Qiu. The Content and Access Dynamics of a Busy Web
Server. In Proc. of SIGCOMM, Aug. 2000. [PQW02a] V. N. Padmanabhan and L. Qiu. Network Tomography using Passive End-to-
End Measurements, DIMACS on Internet and WWW Measurement, Mapping and Modeling, Feb. 2002.
[PQW02b] V. N. Padmanabhan, L. Qiu, and H. J. Wang. Passive Network Tomography using Bayesian Inference. Internet Measurement Workshop, Nov. 2002.
[QPV01] L. Qiu, V. N. Padmanabhan, and G. M. Voelker. On the Placement of Web Server Replicas. In Proc. of INFOCOM, Apr. 2001.
[SP99] SPECWeb99 Benchmark. http://www.spec.org/osg/web99/.
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References (Cont.) [Pax98] V. Paxson. An Introduction to Internet Measurement and Modeling.
SIGCOMM’98 tutorial, August 1998. [TS95] G. Trent and M. Sake. WebStone: The First Generation in HTTP Server
Benchmarking, Feb. 1995. http://www.mindcraft.com/webstone/paper.html. [Wbe] Webbench. http://www.zdnet.com/etestinglabs
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Acknowledgement
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Thank you!Thank you!