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Features of Academic Writing Part 3

Dr. Sarwet Rasul

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Review of previous sessions on Academic Writing

• Features of academic writingFeatures of academic writing• What is academic writingWhat is academic writing• Importance of learning academic writingImportance of learning academic writing• Features of academic writing Features of academic writing (Following eight main features of academic writing)(Following eight main features of academic writing) • 1. complex1. complex• 2. formal2. formal• 3. objective 3. objective • 4. explicit4. explicit• 5. precise5. precise• 6. accurate6. accurate• 7. hedged7. hedged• 8. responsible8. responsible

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Review of previous Session

Academic Writing Part 2: PrecisionAcademic Writing Part 2: Precision • a. Delete redundant modifiers a. Delete redundant modifiers • b. Delete redundant categories b. Delete redundant categories • c. Replace redundant word pairs with single words c. Replace redundant word pairs with single words • d. Replace wordy expressions with single words  d. Replace wordy expressions with single words  • e.  Delete “hollow” hedges and meaningless intensifiers e.  Delete “hollow” hedges and meaningless intensifiers • f. Delete needless repetition f. Delete needless repetition • g. Delete g. Delete thatthat for brevity; retain  for brevity; retain thatthat for clarity  for clarity • h. Avoid prolonged introductionsh. Avoid prolonged introductions• i. Trim sentence endings for closing emphasis i. Trim sentence endings for closing emphasis • j. Prefer action verbs to nominalizations j. Prefer action verbs to nominalizations • k. Avoid indirect negatives k. Avoid indirect negatives • l. Avoid needless attribution l. Avoid needless attribution • m. Limit personal commentarym. Limit personal commentary • n. Avoid Repetitive Wording n. Avoid Repetitive Wording • o. Dead weight phrases o. Dead weight phrases • p. Tautologiesp. Tautologies

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Current Session

Features of academic writing Features of academic writing

• 1. complex1. complex• 2. formal2. formal• 3. objective 3. objective • 4. explicit4. explicit• 5. precise5. precise• 6. accurate6. accurate• 7. hedged7. hedged• 8. responsible8. responsible

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6: Accuracy6: Accuracy

• The increasing popularity of writing as a means of informal The increasing popularity of writing as a means of informal communication via text messaging, email and social networking sites communication via text messaging, email and social networking sites has meant that we have changed the way we write. In these contexts, has meant that we have changed the way we write. In these contexts, speed and spontaneity take priority, and accuracy has lost some of its speed and spontaneity take priority, and accuracy has lost some of its importance as a result. importance as a result.

• Yet in other contexts, including academic and professional writing, Yet in other contexts, including academic and professional writing, accuracy is as important as ever. accuracy is as important as ever.

• To write effectively and authoritatively, you need to use accurate To write effectively and authoritatively, you need to use accurate grammar, vocabulary, spelling and punctuation. grammar, vocabulary, spelling and punctuation. www.ncl.ac.uk › ... › www.ncl.ac.uk › ... › Learning resources › › Academic language & style

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Cont… AccuracyCont… Accuracy

• Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. words with narrow specific meanings.

• If there is any uncertainty about a particular point, use cautious If there is any uncertainty about a particular point, use cautious language (such as ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘could’, ‘potentially’).language (such as ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘could’, ‘potentially’).

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7: Hedging7: Hedging

• In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways. different ways.

• A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’.by linguists as a ‘hedge’.

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Hedge in Linguistics• Jump to: navigation, search

• A hedge is a mitigating device used to lessen the impact of an utterance. Typically, they are adjectives or adverbs, but can also consist of clauses. It could be regarded as a form of euphemism.

• Examples:

• There might just be a few insignificant problems we need to address. (adjective)

• The party was somewhat spoiled by the return of the parents. (adverb)

• I'm not an expert but you might want to try restarting your computer. (clause)

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Cont… Hedges in Linguistics

• Hedges may intentionally or unintentionally be employed in both spoken and written language since they are crucially important in communication.

• Hedges help speakers and writers indicate more precisely indicate how Gricean maxims (expectations of quantity, quality, manner, and relevance) are observed.

• For example,

• All I know is smoking is harmful to your health.

• They told me that they are married.

• I am not sure if all of these are clear to you, but this is what I know.

• By the way, you like this car?

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• Hedging•  In academic writing, claims are often couched in cautious or tentative

language. This is known as ‘hedging’. Compare these two sentences:• Water shortages trigger conflict between nations. • Water shortages may trigger conflict between nations. • The first sentence indicates a high level of certainty; indeed, the claim, or

assertion, is presented as a fact. The second sentence, on the other hand, is more tentative, suggesting that conflict will occur in certain circumstances or under certain conditions, but not necessarily in every case.

• As the example above illustrates, the use of hedging enables the writer to make claims that are proportionate to the evidence available at the time of writing. In other words, hedging language helps to make statements as accurate and fair as possible. Since there is a wide range of hedging words and phrases, it is important to choose one that reflects the strength of the supporting evidence.

• www.ncl.ac.uk › ... › Learning resources › Academic language & style

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• The use of the word ‘probably’ in the sentence below indicates that the evidence is fairly strong. In the second sentence, the more tentative word ‘could’ was selected, indicating that the evidence is weak.

• The fire was probably caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge.

• The fire could have been caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge.

• Paying due attention to accuracy and fairness helps to avoid, or at least reduce, criticism of your work. Viewed from this perspective, hedging has a persuasive function.

www.ncl.ac.uk › ... › Learning resources › Academic language & style

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Cont…• Hedging is also used to mitigate criticism of other authors’ work, as

in the examples below:• Johnson (2007) appears to ignore the adverse psychological side-

effects of this approach. • The risks of the new vaccine may have been overstated.

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Language used in hedgingLanguage used in hedgingType ExamplesIntroductory verbs: doubt, be sure, indicate, think, believe, ,

suggest seem, tend, look like, appear to be,

Certain modal verbs will, must, would, may, might, could Certain lexical verbs suggest, believe, assume

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Cont… Language used in hedgingCont… Language used in hedgingModal adjectives certain, definite, clear, probable, possibleAdverbs of frequency often, sometimes, usually Modal adverbs certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,

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Cont…Language used in hedgingCont…Language used in hedgingModal nouns assumption, possibility, probabilityThat clauses It could be the case that .

It might be suggested that . There is every hope that .

To-clause + adjective It may be possible to obtain . It is important to develop . It is useful to study .

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Hedging language: Looking at it again• A wide range of words and phrases can be used in hedging:• Modal auxiliary verbs:

can, could, may, might, should, would • Other modal verbs:

appear, look, seem, tend • Probability adjectives:

likely, possible, probable, unlikely • Probability adverbs:

perhaps, possibly, probably, presumably • Frequency adverbs:

generally, occasionally, often, seldom, usually • www.ncl.ac.uk › ... › Learning resources › Academic language & style

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Identify the hedgesIdentify the hedges1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and 1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and

economic concepts was less strong than it is now.economic concepts was less strong than it is now.

2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to 2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.most women today.

3. Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did 3. Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.hence no evolution.

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Original text without hedgesOriginal text without hedges

1. The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was 1. The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.less strong than it is now.

2. The lives they chose are overly ascetic and self-denying to most 2. The lives they chose are overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.women today.

3. Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, 3. Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.hence no evolution.

(Consider the difference meaning?)(Consider the difference meaning?)

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Activity: Identify the hedging expressions in the Activity: Identify the hedging expressions in the following sentences. following sentences.

• There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a feather contributes to survival and reproduction; the difficulty is in thinking of feather contributes to survival and reproduction; the difficulty is in thinking of a series of steps by which it could have arisen.a series of steps by which it could have arisen.

• For example, it is possible to see that in January this person weighed 60.8 For example, it is possible to see that in January this person weighed 60.8 kg for eight days,kg for eight days,

• For example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on For example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on which it is standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch.which it is standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch.

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8: Responsibility8: Responsibility

• In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.

• You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.source texts you use.

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How to Develop Better Writing Habits

• There’s no better way to consistently improve your work and knowledge of the craft than by adopting good writing habits.

• These habits will strengthen your writing through study, practice, observation, and self-reflection.

• Set a goal to acquire all of these writing habits over the course of one year or so. Then, adopt one habit each month. By the end of the year, you’ll be well on your way to becoming an expert in all things writing.

• www.writingforward.com/better-writing/writing-habits

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Cont…How to Develop Better Writing Habits

• Read. Listening to audio books and surfing around the Internet do not count as reading. Curl up with a well written novel, brush up on your nonfiction reading, flip through some poetry collections. Reading is the single best way to naturally acquire writing skills.

• Write every day. A music teacher would say it is better to practice for fifteen minutes every day than to practice for two hours three times a week. I think the same is true for writing. Even if you can only dedicate a few minutes to writing every day, it will become an ingrained habit. Writing will become an integral part of your life.

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Cont…How to Develop Better Writing Habits

• Brush up on grammar and style. It’s rare for a piece of writing to be so amazing that readers are willing to ignore bad grammar. Many writers are lazy in this area because learning grammar is a lot of work and it’s academic work rather than creative work. The good news is that once you learn the rules, they will be with you forever. Make sure you know which style guides are pertinent to your chosen field of writing and make sure you include them in your own collection of writing resources.

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Cont…How to Develop Better Writing Habits

• Cultivate creativity. Have fun with your writing. Try new words and off-the-wall images. Creative writing keeps readers interested!

• Collect tools and resources. Find out which writing tools work best for you. Some of us like notebooks or note cards. Others need nothing more than a simple computer. Make sure you have a nice stockpile of writing resources, from blog and magazine subscriptions (on the craft of writing) to books and mentors you can call on when you’re faced with writing-related questions.

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Cont…How to Develop Better Writing Habits

• Conduct thoughtful research. If you work in the nonfiction arena, then make sure you’ve got your facts straight. Even in fiction, there has to be some alignment with reality for a story to be believable. Resources are abundant. Use them (and be sure to check their credentials).

• Develop a process. Find a writing process that works for you. What steps do you need to complete to tackle a writing project? Maybe you need to start with an outline, or perhaps you do better when you just dive right in. You could have one process for fiction and another for nonfiction. Know yourself and know your process, whatever it may be.

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Cont…How to Develop Better Writing Habits • Proofread, edit, and revise. It’s blatantly obvious when a piece of writing

has not been properly proofread. Typos, grammatical errors, and other crimes against language will assault anyone who attempts to read your work. So fix it.

• Share your work and invite feedback. One of the quickest ways to improve your writing is through feedback. Get a real, live, well-read person to review your work. Embrace the feedback, even if it hurts, and then put it to work for you by ironing out all the wrinkles that your friendly reader found. Return the favor: when you edit or critique another writer’s work, you’ll see a piece of writing from the editor’s angle as well as the reader’s. This will give you a better perspective on your own work.

• Make writing a priority. It will be almost impossible to succeed if writing isn’t high on your list of priorities and commitments. If writing is last on your daily to-do list, maybe it’s not something you’re all that serious about.

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Current Session

Features of academic writing Features of academic writing

• 1. complex1. complex• 2. formal2. formal• 3. objective 3. objective • 4. explicit4. explicit• 5. precise5. precise• 6. accurate6. accurate• 7. hedged7. hedged• 8. responsible8. responsible

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• Thank you very much!