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Features of Academic Writing

Dr. Sarwet Rasul

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Review of previous session

• What is a preposition?• What are prepositional phrases• English prepositions enlisted• Detailed rules of prepositions• Time, location and position prepositions• Exercises and activities

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Current Session

• Features of academic writingFeatures of academic writing• What is academic writingWhat is academic writing• Importance of learning academic writingImportance of learning academic writing• Features of academic writing Features of academic writing

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What is Academic Writing?

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Importance of learning academic writing

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Features of academic writingFeatures of academic writing

There are eight main features of academic writing .There are eight main features of academic writing . • 1. complex1. complex

• 2. formal2. formal• 3. objective 3. objective • 4. explicit4. explicit• 5. precise5. precise• 6. accurate6. accurate• 7. hedged7. hedged• 8. responsible8. responsible

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1: Complexity1: Complexity

• Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. • Written language has longer words, it is Written language has longer words, it is lexically more denselexically more dense and it and it

has a more varied vocabulary. has a more varied vocabulary. • It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. • Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical

complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.

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Lexical DensityLexical Density

•   Lexical density is a useful measure of the difference between texts Lexical density is a useful measure of the difference between texts (for example, between a person’s written language and their (for example, between a person’s written language and their speech). To calculate this we must distinguish between content speech). To calculate this we must distinguish between content words and function words. Lexical density is shown to be a useful words and function words. Lexical density is shown to be a useful measure of how much information is contained within a text.measure of how much information is contained within a text.

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Content word

• A word, such as a noun, verb, or adjective, that has a statable lexical meaning, rather than indicating a syntactic function, as a function word does.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin

Company.

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Function word• A word, such as a preposition, a conjunction, or an article,

that has little semantic content of its own and chiefly indicates a grammatical relationship. Also called form word, functor.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin

Company.

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• Content wordsContent words include: include:• nouns (e.g.  (e.g. dog, Susan, oildog, Susan, oil))• adjectives (e.g.  (e.g. red, happy, coldred, happy, cold))• adverbsadverbs (e.g.  (e.g. very, carefully, yesterdayvery, carefully, yesterday))• lexical verbslexical verbs (e.g.  (e.g. run, walk, sitrun, walk, sit))

• Function wordsFunction words, therefore include the remaining:, therefore include the remaining:• auxiliary verbsauxiliary verbs (e.g.  (e.g. can, will, havecan, will, have))• prepositionsprepositions (e.g.  (e.g. in, to, afterin, to, after))• conjunctionsconjunctions (e.g.  (e.g. and, but, ifand, but, if))• numeralsnumerals (e.g.  (e.g. two, three, firsttwo, three, first))• determinersdeterminers (e.g.  (e.g. the, those, mythe, those, my))• pronounspronouns (e.g.  (e.g. she, yourself, whoshe, yourself, who))

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Lexical Density of Written Language: An ExampleLexical Density of Written Language: An Example• In 1918, when the In 1918, when the chemicalchemical  industryindustry was  was firstfirst  establishedestablished in  in

the the areaarea, , BillinghamBillingham was a  was a villagevillage  inhabitedinhabited by a  by a few few hundredhundred  peoplepeople but  but grewgrew  rapidlyrapidly as  as ICIICI’s ’s operationsoperations  expandedexpanded, , helpedhelped b by the y the companycompany’s ’s reputationreputation for  for providing secureproviding secure  employmentemployment. . The The wageswages, , conditionsconditions and  and benefitsbenefits  offeredoffered by ICI were  by ICI were attractiveattractive and  and the the companycompany  quickly gainedquickly gained a  a reputationreputation as a  as a goodgood  employeremployer. . ManyMany of  of those we those we interviewedinterviewed  claimedclaimed this was their  this was their mainmain  reasonreason for  for applyingapplying for  for a a jobjob. Our . Our interviewsinterviews also  also highlighthighlight the  the influenceinfluence of  of familyfamily when  when makingmaking decisionsdecisions about  about employmentemployment and  and ICIICI was  was certainlycertainly  happyhappy to  to recruitrecruit  

the the sonssons and  and daughtersdaughters of  of existingexisting  workersworkers..

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ExamplesExamplesSpoken: Spoken: • You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can

be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.weather gets.

Written: Written: • The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer

and faster train running in the most adverse weather and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions.conditions.

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Spoken:Spoken:• Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up feeling that it Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up feeling that it

would be futile if I tried to do anything more.would be futile if I tried to do anything more.

Written: Written: • Every previous visit had left me with a sense of the futility of Every previous visit had left me with a sense of the futility of

further action on my part.further action on my part.

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Spoken: Spoken: • Because the technology has improved its less risky than it Because the technology has improved its less risky than it

used to be when you install them at the same time, and it used to be when you install them at the same time, and it doesn't cost so much either.doesn't cost so much either.

Written: Written: • Improvements in technology have reduced the risks and high Improvements in technology have reduced the risks and high

costs associated with simultaneous installation.costs associated with simultaneous installation.

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2: Formality2: Formality

• Academic writing is relatively formal. Academic writing is relatively formal. • In general this means that in a formal piece of writing you In general this means that in a formal piece of writing you

should avoid colloquial words and expressions such as should avoid colloquial words and expressions such as ""stuff", stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of","a lot of", "thing", "sort of",

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Avoid slang words and phrasesAvoid slang words and phrases

Compare the following:Compare the following:• ‘‘The individual was sentenced for The individual was sentenced for nickingnicking a bike.’ a bike.’• ‘‘The doctor looked The doctor looked kind ofkind of worried when he reviewed worried when he reviewed

the case notes.’the case notes.’

• ‘‘The individual was sentenced for The individual was sentenced for stealingstealing a bike’ a bike’• ‘‘The doctor looked The doctor looked slightlyslightly worried when he reviewed worried when he reviewed

the case notes.’the case notes.’

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Avoid abbreviations and contractionsAvoid abbreviations and contractions

• Abbreviations and contractions are informal, and are best avoided in Abbreviations and contractions are informal, and are best avoided in academic writing. academic writing.

For example:For example:• ‘‘Department’ should be used instead of the abbreviation ‘dept’.Department’ should be used instead of the abbreviation ‘dept’.• ‘‘Is not’ should be used in place of the contraction ‘isn’t’.Is not’ should be used in place of the contraction ‘isn’t’.

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Identify the informal expressions and rewrite with a Identify the informal expressions and rewrite with a more formal equivalent.more formal equivalent.

1.1. With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a certain With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a certain physical shape.physical shape.

2.2. Significantly, even at this late date, David was considered a bit conservative by Significantly, even at this late date, David was considered a bit conservative by his peers. his peers.

3.3. It focused on a subject that loads of upper-class exhibition-going public It focused on a subject that loads of upper-class exhibition-going public regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.

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• 1. With women especially, there is a great deal of social 1. With women especially, there is a great deal of social pressure to conform to a certain physical shape.pressure to conform to a certain physical shape.

• 2. Significantly, even at this late date, David was 2. Significantly, even at this late date, David was considered somewhat conservative by his peers.considered somewhat conservative by his peers.

• 3. It focused on a subject that much of the bourgeois and 3. It focused on a subject that much of the bourgeois and upper-class exhibition-going public regarded as anti-upper-class exhibition-going public regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.social and anti-establishment.

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3: Objectivity3: Objectivity

• Academic written language is in general objective rather than Academic written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason,  academic writing tends to make, rather than you. For that reason,  academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).

• Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. led you to your various conclusions.

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Personal or impersonal style?Personal or impersonal style?• An impersonal style uses:An impersonal style uses:

– the passive voicethe passive voice

– the third person rather than the first person the third person rather than the first person ( ( itit rather than  rather than II or  or wewe))

– things rather than people as subjects of sentences.things rather than people as subjects of sentences.

• Examples of active and passive sentencesExamples of active and passive sentences

Active:Active: I observed the patient to be… I observed the patient to be…

Passive:Passive: The patient was observed to be… The patient was observed to be…

Active:Active: The authors suggest… The authors suggest…

Passive:Passive: It is suggested… It is suggested…

Active:Active: We used a standard graphical representation  We used a standard graphical representation

to…to…

Passive:Passive: A standard graphical representation was  A standard graphical representation was

used to…used to…

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Cont… Personal or impersonal style?Personal or impersonal style?• Examples of the first and third person pronounsExamples of the first and third person pronouns

First person:First person: I found… I found…

Third person:Third person: It was found that… It was found that…

First person:First person: I assumed that… I assumed that…

Third person:Third person: It was assumed that… It was assumed that…

• Examples of persons or things as subjectsExamples of persons or things as subjects

Person as subject:Person as subject: I noticed… I noticed…

Thing as subject:Thing as subject: Analysis of the raw data indicated… Analysis of the raw data indicated…

Person as subject:Person as subject: In this report I show… In this report I show…

Thing as subject:Thing as subject: This report presents… This report presents…

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• In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".

Don't write:" In my opinion, this is a very interesting study.”Don't write:" In my opinion, this is a very interesting study.”

Write: "This is a very interesting study.“Write: "This is a very interesting study.“

• Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.

Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."ago."

Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."

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Here is a piece of writing that is subjective.Here is a piece of writing that is subjective.Change it into objective style of academic writingChange it into objective style of academic writing• I would call Wagner a subjective artist. What I mean is I would call Wagner a subjective artist. What I mean is

that his art had its source in his personality; his work was that his art had its source in his personality; his work was virtually independent, I always feel, of the epoch in which virtually independent, I always feel, of the epoch in which he lived.he lived.

On the other hand, I always consider Bach an objective On the other hand, I always consider Bach an objective artist. You can see that he worked only with the forms artist. You can see that he worked only with the forms and ideas that his time proffered him. I do not think he and ideas that his time proffered him. I do not think he felt any inner compulsion to open out new paths.felt any inner compulsion to open out new paths.

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Here is a sample!

• Wagner was what might be called a subjective artist in that his art Wagner was what might be called a subjective artist in that his art had its source in his personality. His work seems virtually had its source in his personality. His work seems virtually independent of the epoch in which he lived.independent of the epoch in which he lived.

On the other hand, Bach can be considered an objective artist. He On the other hand, Bach can be considered an objective artist. He seems to have worked only with the forms and ideas that his time seems to have worked only with the forms and ideas that his time proffered him, feeling no inner compulsion to open out new paths.proffered him, feeling no inner compulsion to open out new paths.

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4: Explicitness4: Explicitness

• Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer to make it clear to Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signaling connections can be made explicit by the use of different signaling words. words.

• If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.another sentence, make it explicit.

• If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.

• If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.

• If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

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Use parallel constructionUse parallel constructionLists of ideas (and number lists of ideas) should Lists of ideas (and number lists of ideas) should

be written in parallel form.be written in parallel form.

Not Parallel:Not Parallel:If you want to be a good doctor, you must If you want to be a good doctor, you must study study hardhard, , critically think aboutcritically think about the medical literature, the medical literature, and and you should be a good listeneryou should be a good listener. .

Parallel:Parallel:If you want to be a good doctor you must If you want to be a good doctor you must study study hardhard, , listen welllisten well, and , and think criticallythink critically about the about the medical literature. (imperative, imperative, medical literature. (imperative, imperative, imperative)imperative)

Parallel:Parallel:If you want to be a good doctor, you must be If you want to be a good doctor, you must be a a good studentgood student, , a good listenera good listener, and , and a critical a critical thinkerthinker about the medical literature. (noun, about the medical literature. (noun, noun, noun)noun, noun)

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Activity: Here is something that is not written in Activity: Here is something that is not written in parallel; write it in a way that it adheres to the rule of parallel; write it in a way that it adheres to the rule of

parallel formation:parallel formation:

This research follows four distinct phases: (1) establishing This research follows four distinct phases: (1) establishing measurement instruments (2) pattern measurement (3) measurement instruments (2) pattern measurement (3) developing interventions and (4) the dissemination of successful developing interventions and (4) the dissemination of successful interventions to other settings and institutions.interventions to other settings and institutions.

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Parallel:Parallel:

This research follows four distinct phases: (1) This research follows four distinct phases: (1) establishingestablishing measurement instruments (2) measurement instruments (2) measuringmeasuring patterns (3) patterns (3) developingdeveloping interventions and (4) interventions and (4) disseminatingdisseminating successful interventions to successful interventions to other settings and institutions.other settings and institutions.

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Another activity? Another activity?

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Review of this session

• Features of academic writingFeatures of academic writing• What is academic writingWhat is academic writing• Importance of learning academic writingImportance of learning academic writing• Features of academic writing Features of academic writing (Following eight main features of academic writing)(Following eight main features of academic writing) • 1. complex1. complex• 2. formal2. formal• 3. objective 3. objective • 4. explicit4. explicit• 5. precise5. precise• 6. accurate6. accurate• 7. hedged7. hedged• 8. responsible8. responsible

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Thank you very much!