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Chapter 2American Revolution

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War of American Independence• American & British War Aims:

– War Aims of Both Sides? (gain people’s ?__________)• Both: destroy or preserve ?______ and create or destroy what?

• American & British Strategy & Tactics:– Initial British Strategy & Tactics? (?______________)– American Rebel Strategy & Tactics? (______ & ______)– Contrast two Strategies w/18th Cent. Mil. Conventions:

• Militia of people vs. set piece engagement & combined arms

• Start of the War – Militia War:– Both sides: “Minimum Force” & Brit “Show of Force”– American & British self-imposed restraint & its impact– Unskilled Militia vs. small well trained regular Army

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Opening Engagements

• Lexington & Concord (Map):– British CinC’s (Gage) Military Objective: Concord Magazine

• Strategy/Tactics & Military Plan– Execution: march through Lexington & then on to Concord– Net Result & extent of success/failure: Brits suffer CAS– Significance of action & results: emboldens Rebels

• Who also learn wrong lesson

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Boston- 1775

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Bunker Hill - Opening Engagement 16-17 June

• Force Disposition:– Rebels: 3200 Mass/NH/CN– Brits: Howe w/1500=>2500)

• Battle Plan: – Feign attack on Rebel redoubt– Attack NE flank along Mystic

• Plan/s Strategic Purpose & Objective:– Rebels: force Brits to abandon

Boston (but have few arty)– British Objective: Drive Rebels

out of Charlestown Neck– Strategic aim: Demonstrate

British “invincibility”

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Bunker Hill: Execution & BDA

• Execution: Rebels blunt Howe’s flanking attack

– Force Howe to convert his feint to the Rebel center into costly frontal attack

– Howe leads 3 attacks before taking Breed Hill

– Americans retreat to Bunker Hill- out of ammo

• Battle Results & significance:

– Costly Tactical victory at cost of 1054 British CAS to 400 American CAS

– Strategic failure: Americans were not “over awed” of British might

• Key American Lesson Learned

– Larger better trained/equipped force required

– But Americans still not ready to create standing Army- yet…

• Howe becomes cautious of future costly tactical “victories”

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Washington Takes Command• Selection of George Washington as CinC:

– Key choice for key reasons

• Washington’s strategy: – Personally desires decisive engagement, but…

• “first things first” (organize, equip & train)

• Acquire needed men/weapons/powder & cannon first!

• Siege of Boston– British are completely cut off except for sparse Naval re-supply

– Howe (now CinC) maritime LOC vulnerable if Navy threatened

– But Rebels need guns and firing position to pose an actual threat

– Col Henry Knox proposes retrieving guns from Ft Ticonderoga

• Rebels must occupy what position to force Brits out?

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Siege of Boston• American Occupation of Dorchester Heights (Map)

– Well executed deployment in front of but unseen by Brits at night

– Men & cannon deploy & construct works throughout the night• By morning Howe & his troops & ships awake to threat of Rebel guns

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Dorchester Heights- Results

• Howe forced to abandon Boston – why?– __________& ______ at risk– British Army departs by ship

for Halifax– Prepare for future major

engagement (NYC)

• Rebels’ morale soars– Forced Brits to W/D

• Washington moves to protect New York– Rebels redeploy south– Raise defense strong works

around New York

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Contrasting Strategies

• Revolutionary War Strategies:– American Unconventional purpose & strategic objective

• Win hearts & minds of the people to the “cause of freedom”

– Howe’s priorities contrast w/those of British government• Howe: promote negotiated settlement & restore Brit empire

• General Howe’s Strategy for 1776:– Take territory, minimize. causalities, invincible image =>

• Convince Americans to accept British Government

• General Howe’s Plan to accomplish this Strategy ?

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Howe’s Initial Plan

• Howe’s Plan to accomplish above strategy:– Capture NYC & occupy Hudson River Valley – Capture Rhode Island– Send detachments to raid coast fm NY to Maine- then…

• Push North along Hudson & join Canadian Army– Encircle & cut off New England – Attack Massachusetts's western frontiers– Lure Washington into decisive Battle=> to end war

• Lord Howe convinces his brother to modify plan:– General Howe’s new plan?

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General Howe’s Modified Plan

• Gradual (incremental) recovery of territory:– Aim: project British image of invincibility– Minimize causalities on both sides– Use only just enough force to prevail

• Encourage negotiated political settlement on Crown’s terms

• Problem with above: no authority to negotiate!• Meanwhile- Washington prepares to defend NY

– Fortify NYC & Long Island (Brooklyn Heights)– Occupy Brooklyn Heights but hold back main reserve

• (Concern that Brits would land main attack further North)

– Simplified tactics and doctrine necessary (Militia!)– Military Strategy to serve unconventional purpose

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British Advantages• British enjoy significant advantage:

– Powerful Fleet for operational & logistic support– Experienced Commanders, Officers, & trained Vets– Proven leadership qualities during Seven Years War– Troops: trained, disciplined, professional, unit integrity– Well established unity of command

• American forces lack all of above• Role of “Command of the Seas” WRT New York

– Key to New York is Long Island– The Key to Long Island is holding Brooklyn Heights – Can New York be held without a strong Navy?

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Battle of Long Island • Howe’s Battle Aim:

– Drive Rebels out of NY• Force disposition:

– 3K Americans spread 6 miles along Guana Heights

• 9K on Brooklyn Heights in reserve– Howe had total force of 32K, of which 15K would

attack Long Island

• British (Clinton’s) Plan– 5K Demo on American right flank.– 5K Hessians hold Rebel Center– Main force (10K) flank unprotected Rebel

left at Jamaica pass• 1st major engagement of the war

– Americans soundly defeated – But Howe failed to exploit it

• Surprise night retreat across Hudson saves Washington’s Army– Early morning fog helps too

– Army survives to fight again

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Impact of British Victory at Long Island• The Howes persist in their strategy

– Recover territory & encourage peace negotiations – Thru series of turning movements- forces further retreat– Washington forced to abandon NYC (untenable)

• Divides his forces and tries to halt further British advance up the Hudson

• Howe’s strategic purpose met?– Is British “invincibility” image re-enforced?

• No decisive victory achieved… – But series of limited engagements successful– Howe & Hessians capture Fort Washington (2000+ men lost)

• Americans forced to abandon Fort Lee without a shot fired– Howe gradually evicts Americans from NY, NJ, & RI

• Adm Lord Howe offers pardons to all taking loyalty oath– 5000 accept offer & take pledge in NY, NJ, & Newport– For the Americans, it’s a time that “tries men’s souls”– A long retreat across NJ& the Delaware into PA begins

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The Long Retreat

Militia enlistments up soon => desperate measures required- opportunity when?

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Desperate Gamble:Washington’s raid on Trenton

• Howe pursues Washington relentlessly across New Jersey– Then abruptly disperses his

forces into winter quarters • Including along Delaware River

– Hessian Garrison of 1400-1500 in winter quarters at Trenton

• Strategic purpose of Washington’s planned attack?– Washington needs a win- why?

– Restore ?_______& __________

• Tactics: Rapid concentration of force and surprise

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Raid on Trenton- “Actions at Objective”• Washington crosses Delaware

during a blizzard w/2400 men & 18 cannon– Patrols all night to a jump off

point for an early dawn raid

• Washington splits force into two groups for assault

• Hessian’s caught by surprise & slow to react – Friction: NE storm conceals

Rebel crossing & approach– Concentration of American #s,

arty, surprise, & luck carry day

• Result: Tactical – 948 Hessian POWs, 114 KIA/WIA– Minor tactical but major

strategic gain: American morale & propaganda

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Desperate Gamble #2:Washington’s raid on Princeton

• Princeton: similar raid one week later on garrison;– Limited but adequate American tactical success– Successfully escapes Howe’s 5500 Regulars in pursuit

• Major Strategic Impact of both raids: – American morale & confidence soars– Howe forced to rethink strategy of Intimidation– Howe deeply embarrassed & his strategy undermined– Seeks re-validation through decisive battle (fixation)

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Lead up to Saratoga

• Crown orders Canadian Army south– Objective: link up with Howe to concentrate

forces

– Desires decisive attack on NE frontiers- logistic delays

• Burgoyne blames delay on his commander– Convinces Crown he has energy to succeed

• Burgoyne gets command of 7K regulars– Ordered to cross Champlain & attack

Albany

– (See Map overview)

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Impact of Trenton Victory on Washington

• Meanwhile- Trenton/Princeton’s victories also has negative impact on Washington’s Army:– Raised expectations of Congress– Increased pressure for more & better results– Congress also wants decisive battle (like Howe)

• Washington still needs trained men & supplies– Resist pressure to engage in set piece engagement– Avoids direct battle with better trained British regulars– Focus his attacks on British loyalists– Harass British foragers in fields

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Howe Pursues Decisive Battle• Battle of Brandywine

Creek (Map p. 37):– Howe’s strategy to threaten

Philly successful– Washington forced to fight

in attempt to block advance

• Results in a series of conventional American defeats (diverted & flanked)– Chalked up to lack of

experience & training• Meanwhile- Burgoyne

prepares to deploy from Quebec to Albany link-up

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Quebec to Albany - 1777• Burgoyne’s extensive prep/logistics

result in further delay– Transport: men, food, supplies, arty,

personal baggage

• Finally embarks on Lake Champlain in late June, 1777– Americans shadow advance & try to

delay it (cut down trees & ambush)– Burgoyne’s LOC becomes overextended

on Hudson• 300 miles from Quebec- source of supply

• British Foragers severely harassed:– Casualties mount with time & distance– British force reduced to 5500 actionable

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Key Battles: Freeman’s Farm & Bemis Heights

• Americans (Gates) entrench to block British advance

• British troop disposition: (Map)– British (4135 Regulars) &

Hessians (3116) • Plus approximately 500 Indians

& Canadian French Militia

• American Disposition: – Americans dug in on high

ground with 10K+– Gates stays put & waits:

• RF anchored on Hudson • LF extended 1 mile west from

river

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American Dispute & British Tactical Plan

• General Gates ignores Arnold’s advice to move forward– Arnold had urged that inexperienced men be

placed fwd on the Left Flank– Tactical objective: refuse American left flank

to British attack– Given option to fall back to American lines

if pressed

• Burgoyne’s Tactical Objective & Plan:– Turn American left flank;

• Plan: organize forces into 3 divisions:– Riedesel w/1000 to divert and fix American

(Gates’) RF– Burgoyne w/1100 advances center & left;– Fraiser w/2200 to turn American left flank

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Battle of Freeman’s Farm (19 Sept ’77) • American Unit encounters &

routes Brit picket on LF– Disordered pursuit of Brits=>

and in turn becomes routed– Arnold commits continentals on

British center– Engages in heavy fighting (“to

the sound of guns”)– Little support from Gates – stuck

on his RF & unengaged;• (Could of/ should of on British

center);

• Riedesel saves Brit Center w/timely arty & inf. assault– On own initiative attacks

Arnold’s RF;– Americans withdraw back to

their defensive line;

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Burgoyne’s Hard Choices

• Results: Brits hold battlefield – but that’s all:– Brits: 600 Causalities versus Americans: 319;– Burgoyne entrenches & awaits (hopefully) for MG Clinton

• Burgoyne situation grows desperate with time:– Supplies for 5500 will run out in 4 weeks;– Well entrenched forces of Gates grow to 11K

• Burgoyne considers his options:– No word from Clinton or promised diversion to west– Forces difficult choices on Brits:

• Withdraw back the way he came;• Attack outnumbered on fortified position;

• Political factor: prior imprudent boast & pride– Forced to take one more shot at breakthrough

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Battle of Bemis Heights 7 Oct 1777

• Burgoyne decides to conduct Recon in Force– Probe Gates’ left flank & see what’s there

• 1500 Brits deployed on line facing SW– Advance to ridges of Bemis Heights

– Then stops to forage in wheat field

• Gates sees opportunity - attacks exposed British flank– Routes Brits assisted ably by his

previously relieved subordinate-• Benedict Arnold (Professional pride)

• Burgoyne is forced to retreat leaving most of his 600 causalities on the Battle Field

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Tactical & Operational & Strategic Victory• Burgoyne continues retreat up Hudson;

– Gates pursues, overtakes & surrounds;

• Burgoyne surrenders on 17 Oct 1777– Give up weapons & march in captivity

• Tactical & Operational victory for Americans– British lose Canadian based Army

– Depart Lake Champlain & Hudson area

– Abandon attempt to cut off New England via Hudson

• Strategic & political impact?– American Independence now more likely

– French openly recognize American independence• Soon will formerly announce formal alliance & support

• Why did the British lose at Saratoga?

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Reasons for British Defeat at Saratoga

• Howe’s preoccupation w/Penn & Washington

• Lack of clear higher HQ guidance & coordination

• Burgoyne’s slow conventional strategy– Attendant logistical delays

• Persistent but poor judgment of Burgoyne– Force his way through to Albany no matter what

• Finally => Gate’s strategic caution & =>– Arnold’s aggressive tactics

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Impact of American Victory at Saratoga

• Impressive tactical & operational victory– Americans defeat British Army!

• Prevent Albany link-up of two British Armies

– Half British forces lost

• Significant strategic & political implications:– What is the strategic & political impact?– French recognition & support to Americans– British now have to consider threat from France

• Key Strategic Turning Point in War (why?)=>

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Key Strategic Turning Point in War

• Impact on British Army in North America: – British Army in NA suffers 20% depletion– British now forced to adjust strategy accordingly

• Viability of American Revolution– Would likely now survive

• Political influence on Europe=> – France & other nations:

• Provide recognition, support, make alliances with Americans

• British Ministry orders major changes– Howe is replaced (by his disliked subordinate- who?)

• MG Clinton• Saratoga’s specific impact on British Strategy?

– Brits must now fight a global war to preserve the British Empire– North American conflict no longer first priority

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New British Strategy: The Southern Strategy• Saratoga & French entry into war forced hard choices on British

– British Ministry orders changes: The Southern Strategy• 1. Shift strategic focus to South (Georgia, Carolinas, Virginia)

• 2. Still seek decisive Battle with Rebels & conduct Raids and Blockades

• 3. Support Loyalist and restore Royal government locally in South

• 4. Rely more heavily on Loyalists & British Navy (resources stretched)

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Operations in South• Clinton departs New York for

Charles Town:– Conducts effective siege

– Takes Charleston by 12 May 1780

– Captures garrison & key port

• Immediate operational impact:– Major British victory of war

– New British strategy appears to be working

• Key impact on Americans:– Shakes Rebel complacency

– Now more willing to support war

• Clinton confident- returns to NY– Who executes Clinton’s Southern

Strategy from now on?

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Carolina Campaign• Cornwallis commences Ops throughout Carolinas:

– Overall: results of his expedition are mixed (initially good)

• Cornwallis destroys Gates’ army of 6000 at Camden– Brits shatter Left & Right Flanks after firing one volley– Follow up with bayonet charge & overwhelm Gates’ troops

• Cornwallis then heads North to NC to exploit victory– Conducts 37 small engagements & then returns to SC

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American Army’s Problems

• Meanwhile Rebel Army Problems Continue– Washington’s struggle to maintain army & morale – Winter of 1780-81 especially bad for Rebels– Mutinies, troop resentment & feelings of abandonment

• Lack of support from Congress

• Then a series of Key Battles in Southern Theater changes everything:– Battle of Cowpens– Guilford Court House– Siege of Yorktown

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American Southern Theater Strategy• Nathanial Greene replaces Gates as COMSOUTH

– Assessment: Green is excellent choice- key strategist– Most important: along with Knox, a key trusted Lt to Washington

• American Forces available & their attendant limitations:– Militia & Irregulars with some Continentals

• Able to conduct mostly Raids & logistic interdiction

• Greene’s Strategy & operational aim:– Tempt Cornwallis to divide his Army– Then attack each wing in detail – Green sends two divisions of 1000 men to NW & NE

• Cornwallis’ reaction: takes the bait– Splits his forces & pursues Rebels– 5K remain in SC; 4K to Charlotte & North; 1100 to NW

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Battle of Cowpens• Brit Commander & Force Composition:

– LTC Tarleton with 1100 comprised of light Dragoons & Calvary, attached infantry, 71st Highlanders, & 2 arty pieces

• American Commander & Force Composition:– Daniel Morgan with 1100: (320 MD &

DL Continentals & 720 Militia, + 125 Calvary)

• Effective integration of

– Operational Strategy & Tactics:– Morgan sets two skirmish lines of Militia

& Riflemen in front of his Continentals & invites attack

– The Broad River is at his back

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Battle of Cowpens - Execution

• Tarleton makes 8 mile forced march – Attacks immediately w/o recon with his

Calvary & was immediately repulsed

– Reorganizes with his infantry, 17th Light Dragoons, & loyalist infantry in 1st line

• Then Calvary & 71st Highlanders in 2nd line

• Rebel militia fires 2 volleys & falls back as planned behind Continentals – Brits able to flank Rebel line but Morgan

orders retreat to refuse his flank

– Rebels then counter-attack & defeat tired and disorganized Brits

• Col Tarleton & his survivors retreat

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BDA: Tactical Results & Operational Impact

• Major tactical victory for Rebels:– British suffered 100 KIA & over 800 captured– Americans had 12 KIA & 60 WIA

• Operational impact: – Cornwallis became enraged & fixated on destroying

Greene’s Army as his first priority– Morgan’s victory had forced Cornwallis to alter his

operational strategy to the pursuit of Greene’s Army– And so they meet finally at the Guilford Court House

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Cowpens to Guilford Court House• Cornwallis’ Reaction:

– Becomes fixated on defeating Green=> heads North

Cornwallis pursues Greene to Guilford Court House

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Guilford Court House• Greene’s Strategy wrt Cornwallis’ preoccupation w/him

– Avoid Battle while gathering numerical superiority of 2:1– Then invite Cornwallis to attack his defended position

• Execution: Greene’s use of Morgan’s Tactics– Americans: 2600 Militia form up in two skirmish lines=>

• Militia placed forward of 1600 Continentals• Directed to fire twice before retiring

– Brits attack & destroy Militia- but Continentals hold– Greene then withdrawals in good order

• Results: British hold Battlefield – tactical victory?– American casualties: 6% vs. British casualties: 28% of force

• Operational Impact: Cornwallis retreats to Wilmington– *Abandons Offensive Campaign in Carolinas & Georgia– Now British focus on holding on to only key coastal Ports

• (Rely on Royal Navy for re-supply at coastal ports still held)– Major strategic victory for Greene at operational level

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Prelude to Yorktown

• Cornwallis W/D forces to NE– Heads toward Virginia ports– Cornwallis moves to establish

Navy bases there

• Crown’s focus is Chesapeake– Cornwallis fortifies Yorktown on

2 Aug 1781

• Washington desires to attack Clinton at New York– Settle humiliating score of 1776– Conducts recon & reassesses – When Clinton reinforced: – New York becomes too hard– Decides to head South to

Virginia instead

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Yorktown- Deployment• Key role played by French:

– Rochambeau & DeGrasse

• Key role of French Navy– Interdict & defeat Royal Navy at

Battle of Chesapeake- 5Sep 1781

– Result: prevent reinforcement, re-supply, & rescue of Yorktown

– Provide direct op. & fire support to Americans during siege

• Washington’s redeployment:– From New York to Virginia:

– Ground troops march overland

– French Navy sails from RI• Transport big guns & siege arty

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Yorktown Siege- Execution

• Force Disposition:

– French & American forces: 16K• Plus French Fleet with local superiority

– Verses 8K Brits on the defense

• Classic Conventional Strategy

– De Saxe’s siege warfare methods of Europe used

– Series of parallel trenches

– Close in & bombard British positions & their ships

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Yorktown Results

• Tactical Results: major victory for Americans– Defeat of British Southern expeditionary force

• Operational & Strategic Impact:– Brits unable to replace losses in North America (NA)– Ends major ops & engagements in NA

• Minor skirmishes only over next 18 months

• Yorktown victory has major Political Impact: – American victory & independence now virtually assured– British political & military commitment to NA lacking– British lose political will to continue war– To quote Lord North: “It’s all over!”

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Overall Assessment• Contrast of Amer. War of Independence w/Europe’s wars

– European limited war aims vs. American conquest of peoples

• Key tactical victories w/strategic & political significance:– 1st tier: Saratoga & Yorktown– 2nd tier: Boston siege, Trenton, Princeton, Cowpens

• British strategic challenges:– Much wider global war for British– Required incremental adjustments to British strategy & tactics:

• Intimidation/show of force=> Recover territory & project “invincibility”

• Then to: recover South first, put loyalist in charge, cut off New England • Throughout: Wage decisive battle (if possible)

• Role of Royal Navy & Loyalists – Royal Navy played dominate role from start

• (re-supply, re-deployment, & operational & fire support & sea control)

– Loyalists’ role grew with time- especially toward end in South

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Overall Assessment- 2• American strategic challenges:

– First & foremost: Stay alive & survive

– Required adjustments to strategy & tactics • (Militia inadequate against regulars)

– Role & professionalization of Continental Army• Von Steuban & French support critical

– Integration of Militia & Partisans:• Instructed in Simplified tactics (Morgan)• (Two Ranks of Militia fire twice then retire to rear)

• Then Continentals take over from there

• Tactical Adjustments adapted by both sides:– Small scale mobility adapted to NA environment

• (Terrain: forest vs. European plains)

– Simplified tactics (favored American citizen soldiers more)

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Overall Assessment- 3• Conventional Victory ended the war (where?):

– Collaboration of French & American Forces:• Fr. Regulars, Continentals, & Militia in coordinated assault• French Fleet in direct operational & logistic support

– Critical at ?_____________________

• Key Contrast of American & Europe’s Wars:– Total conquest vs. 18th cent. Conventional limited War

• Waged by Militia/citizen soldiers vs. professional regulars

– Role of soldier, civilian, classes, methods blurred

• All classes served in American Army & Navy– Support of the people essential to success– Ultimately Americans relied on its people to fight

• Win independence and form a new Nation

Back-up Slides

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Modification of “New Strategy”

• Key Events force Brits to modify New Strategy:– French recognition & declaration of support– Britain broadens concerns globally- protect empire

• Crown orders NA troops to Canada, RI, Nova Scotia, NF

• Redeploys troops to defend Caribbean & Florida colonies

– Impact: North America now 2nd priority (‘till Oct 1778)

• Impact of Valley Forge on Washington’s army:– Army emerged from Valley Forge better than before– Army now better trained and disciplined

• Drilled in classic 18th cent. conventional combat arms by who?

• General Von Steuban

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Resumption of British “New Strategy”• Clinton resumes New Strategy:

– Commences Operations in the South– Must rely primarily on Navy & loyal colonist from now on– British Navy takes control of North American waters

• (In modern terminology: sea control)

• Clinton sends 3K to retake Georgia under LTC Campbell– Success=> captures key towns: Savannah, SE Georgia, Augusta– Encourages further British operations in the South

• Still seeks Decisive Battle in Northern Theater• Washington’s reaction?

– Refuses to engage in decisive battle- for now…– Limited troops #s force Washington on defensive strategy– Avoids general engagement with Clinton

• Conducts small raids on isolated British outposts & loyalists– Tries to maintain morale as popular support lags- why?– Lack of Congressional support (post- Saratoga victory)