1 aristoteles und die vernetzte welt barry smith
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Aristoteles und die vernetzte Welt
Barry Smithhttp://wings.buffalo.edu/philosophy/faculty/smith
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JOBS FOR PHILOSOPHERS
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PUT YOUR PHILOSOPHY TRAINING TO USE IN THE HI-TECH WORLD !
“is looking for people who can organize information into carefully defined hierarchical categorization schemes.
The information architecture model we employ is rather like an Aristotelian category schema in which information is grouped into genus-species relationships.”
www.kanisa.com
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www.kanisa.com
“We are looking for people with at least a Masters degree, Ph.D. preferred,in philosophy or a related field, e.g., linguistics.”
Contact:[email protected]
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What do ontological engineers do?
They build catalogue systems for given domains of reality
for example: meat.com... a catalogue system for an entire industry
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... a catalogue system
... designed to allow customers, suppliers, insurers, subcontractors, shippers, and so on
to find their way about the world of
meat
... as readers find their way about the world of books in a library
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Varieties of information system ontology
Business ontology
Legal ontology
Military ontology
Art ontology
Archeology ontology
Image ontology
...
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there are too many individuals ...
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Therefore:
catalogue systems must rest on general concepts
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able about account acid across act addition adjustment advertisement after again against agreement air awake all almost among amount amusement and angle angry animal answer ant any apparatus apple approval arch argument art arm army as at attach attempt attention attraction authority automatic baby back bad bag balance ball band base basin basket bath be beautiful bed because bee before behavior belief bell bent berry best between bird birth bit bite bitter black blade blood blow blue board boat body boiling bone book boot bottle box boy brain brake branch brass bread breath bridge brick bright broken brother brown brush bucket building bulb burn burst business but butter button by cake camera canvas card care carriage cart cat cause certain chainchalk chance change cheap cheese chemical chest chief chin church circle clean clear clock cloth cloud coal coat cold collar color comb come comfort committee common company comparison complete complex condition connection conscious control cook copper copy cord cork cotton cough country cover cow crack credit crime cruel cry cup curtain current curve cushion cut damage danger dark daughter day dead dear death debt decison deep degree delicate dependent design desire destruction detail development disease different digestion direction discovery discussion disgust distance distribution division dirty do dog door doubt down drain drawer dress drop dry drink driving dust ear early east earth edge education effect egg elastic electric end engine enough equal error even event ever every example exchange existence expansion experience expert eye face fact fallfalse family far farm fat father fear feather feeble feeling female fertile fiction field fight finger fish fire first fixed flag flame flat flight fly floor flower fold food foolish foot for force fork form forward fowl frame free frequent friend from front fruit full future garden general get girl give glass glove go goat gold good government grain grass great green grey grip group growth guide gun hair hammer hand hanging happy harbor hard harmony hat hate have he head healthy hearing heart heat help here high history hole hollow hook hope horn horse hospital hour house how humor i ice idea if ill important impulse in increase industry ink insect instrument insurance interest invention iron island jelly jewel join journey judge jump keep kettle key kick kind kiss knee knife knotknowledge land language last late laugh law lead leaf learning leather left leg let letter level library lift light like limit line linen lip liquid list little living lock long look loose loss loud love low machine make male man manager map mark market married mass match material may meal measure meat medical meeting memory metal middle military milk mind mine minute mist mixed moon money monkey month morning mother motion mountain mouth move much muscle music nail name narrow nation natural near necessary neck need needle nerve net new news night no noise normal north nose not note now number nut observation of off offer office oil old on only open operation opinion opposite or orange order organization ornament other out oven over owner page pain paint paper parallel parcel past paste part payment peace pen pencil person physical picture pig pin pipe place plane plantplate play please pleasure plough pocket point poison polish political poor porter position possible pot potato powder power present price print prison private probable process produce profit property prose protest public pull pump punishment purpose push put quality question quick quiet quite rail rain range rat rate ray reaction reading ready reason receipt record red regret regular relation religion request representative respect responsible reward rhythm rice right ring river road rod roll roof room rough round rub rule run rush sad safe sail salt same sand say scale school science scissors screw sea seat second secret secretary see seed seem selection self send sense separate serious servant sex shade shake shame sharp sheep shelf ship shirt shock shoe short shut side sign silk silver simple sister size skin skirt sky sleep slip slope slow small smash smell smile smoke smoothsnake sneeze snow so soap society sock soft solid some son song sort sound soup south spring spoon sponge spade special space stage stamp star start statement station steam steel stem step stick sticky stiff still stitch stocking stomach stone stop store story straight strange street stretch strong structure square substance such sudden sugar suggestion summer sun support surprise sweet swim system table tail take talk tall taste tax teaching tendency test than that the then theory there thick thin thing
There are too many general concepts
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Therefore:
concepts/genera must be hierarchically organized
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Porphyrian Hierarchy
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Linnaean Hierarchy
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Desktop Hierarchy
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From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
species-genus hierarchyas inference machine
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
fishhas finscan swimhas gills
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animal
bird
canary
From Species to Genera
can singis yellow
has skin
moves
eatsbreathes
has wingscan flyhas feathers
species-genus hierarchyas inference machine
XX
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Why are species-genus hierarchies good ways to represent our reasoning?
1. They capture the way the world is (Aristotelian realism)
2. They capture the natural ways we think (Kantianism) ... species are concepts
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Species-genusgenus trees can be represented also as map-like partitions
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From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canarycanary
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Species Genera as Tree
canary
animal
bird fish
ostrich
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Species-Genera as Map/Partition
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
canary
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Tree and Map/Partition
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Species-genusgenus trees can be represented also as map-like partitions
If Aristotelian realism is right, then such partitions are transparent to the reality beyond
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Alberti’s Grid
c.1450
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Coarse-grained Partition
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Fine-Grained Partition
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Map of US Stocks by Category
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Map of US Stocks by Category
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... a way of viewing the stock market
as we might view other parts and dimensions of reality
34Artist’s Grid
as through a transparent grid
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Aristoteles und die vernetzte Welt
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Net
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Partitions come with a labelling and an address system
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Periodic TableDie periodische Tabelle der chemischen Elemente
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Perspectivalism
PerspectivalismDifferent partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other
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Universe
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Universe/Periodic Table
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All veridical perspectives are equalEach veridical perspective (= transparent
partition) captures some corresponding domain of objects
43
Scientific partitions (like the periodic table)
and database partitions (like the Dewey Decimal Classification System)
... are transparent to the hierarchical order of an associated domain of objects
44
Question:
what other sorts of partitions have this feature of transparency?
the partitions of common sense (folk biology, folk physics, folk psychology ...)
Answer:
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Aristotle
the ontologist of common-sense reality
Aristotle
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Die Welt des gesunden Menschenverstands
= the world as apprehended via that conceptualization we call common sense
= the normal environment (the niche) shared by children and adults in everyday perceiving and acting
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The world of mothers, milk, and mice ...
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The Empty Mask (Magritte)
mama
mouse
milk
Mount Washington
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our common-sense partition of the world of common sense is transparent
(common sense is true)
mothers exist ...
...but there is a problem
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Why are species-genus hierarchies good ways to represent our reasoning?
Recall our question:
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
fishhas finscan swimhas gills
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
fishhas finscan swimhas gills
ostrichhas long thin legsis tallcan‘t fly
yy
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canary can singis yellow
has wings
can fly
has feathers
has skin
moves
eats
breathes
fishhas finscan swimhas gills
ostrichhas long thin legsis tallcan’t fly
yy
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Theory of vagueness
How can -based conceptualizations be transparent,if the world is shaped like this
?
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no such problems arise for the closed worlds constructed in information systems
hierarchies as reasoning tools work very well for the closed worlds of database engineers
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whether a file is in a given folder on your hard-drive is completely determinate:
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Dewey Decimal Classification as Map
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Dewey Decimal Classification (Detail)
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No borderline cases in the closed world of a database
Every book is assigned a determinate Dewey Classification Number at birth
111.560xxx
this yields a classificationthat is completely crisp
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Kantianism
There are no species-genus hierarchies in reality unless we put them there
The world -- insofar as it is accessible to us through our concepts -- is a closed system tailored by us to fit
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Kantianism
seems to work very well for the closed worlds of database environments (which are always finite)
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veiled reality
or:
Kantianism asMidas-touch epistemology
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hard vs. soft categories
Kantianism: we constitute/shape (empirical) reality in such a way that it corresponds to our categories
Aristotelianism: reality in itself is messy, but our categories fit nonetheless
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How ?
because they are made up, not of crisp (hard), but of open (soft) genera and species
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that is:
when we apply our categories to reality we are aware that we have to deal with an opposition
... between standard or focal or prototypical instances
... and non-standard or ‘fringe’ instances
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birds
ostrich
Natural categories have borderline cases
sparrow
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... they have a kernel/penumbra structure
kernel of focal
instances
penumbra of borderline cases
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animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
every cell in every common-sense partition is subject to this same kernel-penumbra structure:
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Dürer
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What is common-sense reality?
the mesoscopic space of everyday human action and perception
– a space centered on objects organized into hierarchies of species and genera
... and subject to prototypicality
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but more:
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in addition to objects (substances),
which pertain to what a thing is at all times at which it exists:
cow man rock planet
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the common-sense world contains also accidents
which pertain to how a thing is at some time at which it exists:
red hot suntanned spinning
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An accident
= what holds of a substance per accidens
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Accidents, too, instantiate genera and species
Thus accidents, too, form trees
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quality
color
red
scarlet
R232, G54, B24
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and they are distinguished as between tokens and types
(which is to say: between genera and species on the one hand,
... and instances on the other)
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Accidents: Species and instances
this individual accident of redness (this token redness – here, now)
quality
color
red
scarlet
R232, G54, B24
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quid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
Nine Accidental Categories
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= relations of inherence(one-sided existential dependence)
John
hunger
Substances are the bearers of accidents
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Aristotle 1.0
an ontology recognizing:substance tokensaccident tokenssubstance typesaccident types
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Aristotle’s Ontological Square
Substantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
83
Aristotle’s Ontological Square
Substantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
84
Aristotle’s Ontological Square
Substantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
85
Aristotle’s Ontological Square
Substantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
86
Aristotle’s Ontological Square
Substantial Accidental
Second substance
man
cat
ox
Second accident
headache
sun-tan
dread
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
87
Alberti’s Grid c.1450
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Some philosophers
accept only part of this ontology
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Standard Predicate Logic – F(a), R(a,b) ...
Substantial Accidental
Attributes
F, G, R
Individuals
a, b, c
this, that
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
90
Bicategorial Nominalism
Substantial Accidental
First substance
this man
this cat
this ox
First accident
this headache
this sun-tan
this dread
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
91
Process Metaphysics
Substantial Accidental
Events
Processes“Everything is flux”
Uni
vers
alP
artic
ular
92
Aristotle 1.0
in fact however we need more than the ontological square
What is missing from Aristotle 1.0 asan ontology of common-sense reality?
93
Is everything in common-sense reality either a substance or an accident?
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well, what about artefacts ?
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Shoes
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Temple at Corinth
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Pipe
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Standard Aristotelian theory of artefacts:
artefacts are mereological sums of substances
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Positive and negative parts
positivepart
negativepartor hole
(made of matter)
(not made of matter)
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Shoes
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Temple at Corinth
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Pipe
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Some entities consist entirely of negative parts
places, spatial regions
institutions
laws, constitutions
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quid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
Nine Accidental Categories
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Places
For Aristotle the place of a substance is the interior boundary of the surrounding body
(for example the interior boundary of the surrounding water where it meets a fish’s skin)
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Places are holes
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Places are holes
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Places are holes
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Places are holes
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niches, environments are holes
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and holes can also be otherwise quite important
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and holes can also be otherwise quite important
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and holes can also be otherwise quite important
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and holes can also be otherwise quite important
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The metaphysics of holes
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A hole in the ground
Solid physical boundaries at the floor and walls
but with a lid that is not made of matter:
hole
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Holes involve two kinds of boundaries
bona fide boundaries which exist independently of our demarcating acts
fiat boundaries which exist only because we put them there
118
Examples
of bona fide boundaries:
an animal’s skin, the surface of the planet
of fiat boundaries:
the boundaries of postal districts and census tracts
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Mountain
bona fide upper boundaries with a fiat base:
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Architects Plan for a House
fiat upper boundaries with a bona fide base:
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where does the mountain start ?
... a mountain is not a substance
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nose
...and it’s not an accident, either
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Aristotle 1.5
an ontology ofsubstances + accidents+ holes (and other entities not made of matter)+ fiat and bona fide boundaries+ artefacts and environments
is true
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it’s truthmaker
= those parts and dimensions of reality which we call the common-sense world
knowledge of this common-sense world is, in relation to prototypical instances of the relevant species and genera, quite easy to come by
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corrected
partition
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folk biology
Aristotelian folk biology, folk physics, folk psychology, etc., are true of the common-sense world as it currently exists
(they have nothing to offer regarding its pre-history, its long term evolution, its position in the cosmos)
127
reference vs. theory
They have not much to offer, either, by way of good explanatory theories of the entities in their respective domains,
but they are transparent to those domainsnonetheless
128
reference realism vs. theory realism
this distinction applied not only to science (against T. S. Kuhn et al.) but also to common sense (against sceptics of various stripes)
the sun exists, and has existed for a long time – the very same object
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Both scientific partitions and common-sense partitions
are based on reference-systems which have survived rigorous empirical tests
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Criteria of quality of partitions
serves communiction
learnable (including via scientific training)
sensitive to nuances
serves prediction
131
The $64000 Question
How do those parts and dimensions of reality which we call the common-sense world
... relate to those parts and dimensions of reality which are studied by science?
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Aristotle 2000
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Universe/Periodic Table
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fishfolk biology
partition of DNA space
134
Universe/Periodic Table
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
both are transparent partitions of one and the same reality
135
many transparent partitions
at different levels of granularity
will operate with species-genus hierarchies
and with an ontology of substances (objects) and accidents (attributes, processes)
along the lines described by Aristotle
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relative hylomorphism
substances and accidents reappear in the microscopic and macroscopic worlds of e.g. molecular biology and astronomy
(Aristotelian ontological zooming)
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we do not assert
that every level of granularity is structured in substance accident form -- perhaps there are pure process levels, perhaps there are levels structured as fields
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Perspectivalism
PerspectivalismDifferent partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other
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An organism is a totality of molecules
An organism is a totality of cells
An organism is a single unitary substance
... all of these express veridical partitions
An organism is a totality of atoms
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all express partitions which are transparent,
at different levels of granularity,
to the same reality beyond
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Coarse-grained Partition
what happens when a fringe instance arises ?
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Coarse-grained Partition
what happens when a fringe instance arises ?
Aristotle 1.0: you shrug your shoulders
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Aristotle 2000:you go out to find a finer grained partition which will recognize the phenomenon in question as prototypical
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The advance of science
is not an advance away from Aristotle towards something better.
Provided Aristotle is interpreted aright, it is a rigorous demonstration of the correctness of his ontological approach
145
It still remains the case, that:
all sciences are perfect, to the extent that Aristotle treated of their subject-matters
146
Kantianism
there is some unknown x, beyond all that can be grasped by our partitions
as our partitions get better and better they will approximate ever more closely to this x, but x itself will never be arrived at
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Summary of the argument against Kantianism
each coarse-grained partition gives only a partial view (no complete map)
but it is a partial view which is already transparent to reality: the objects themselves already fall within our grasp
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THE END
1
149
Open problems
how deal with ethical structures in the mesoscopic level -- to what do they correspond on the lower levels?
can the granularity based theory of vagueness be made to work here? (Brogaard)
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Open Problems
how deal with institutions, and other holistic structures on higher levels?
mind-body problem
freedom of the will
151
Good conceptualizatons
Philosophical ontologists are interested in:
1. transparent conceptualizations, veridical perspectives on reality
2. which are at the same time interesting
= science, and what else
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Problem with process metaphysics
arises only if it comes along with the claim to be complete
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Multitree
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Multitree
any directed acyclical graph which satisfies: the descendants of any node form a tree
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two trees sharing the same set of leaves, for example the Dewey Decimal and the Library of Congress classification systems
As Furnas and Zacks note, genealogies, although frequently called "family trees", are in fact multitrees. Multitrees offer a natural notion of context (displaying ancestors) and content (displaying descendants), and are therefore very well suited for reusing hierarchical structure.
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Aristotle 2000
closed, open universe -- different layers of partitions. relative hylomorphism, plus a load der/die/das)‚ multitrees
157
there are too many individuals ...
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siamese
mammal
cat
organism
substancespecies, genera
animal
instances
frog
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Common nouns
pekinese
mammal
cat
organism
substance
animal
common nouns
proper names
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siamese
mammal
cat
organism
substancetypes
animal
tokens
frog
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substance
one substantial categoryJohn, man
nine accidental categorieshunger, your hunger, being hungryyour sun-tanyour being taller than Mary
accidents
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substance
place (in the Lyceum)
time (yesterday)
position (is sitting)
possession (has shoes on)
action (cuts)
passion (is cut)
quantity (two feet long)
quality (white)
relation (taller than)
John
accidents
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substance
Substances are the bearers of accidents
accidentsBearers
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substance
Substances are the bearers of accidents
accidents
John = relations of inherence(one-sided existential dependence)
Bearers
hunger
165
s
substance
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Aristotelian Ontology of Weather
Substance = earth
Accidents = wind, thunder
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substance accidents
Substance + Accident = State of Affairs
States of Affairs
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Substance + Accident = State of Affairs
setting into relief
States of Affair
s
169
Not in a SubjectSubstantial
In a SubjectAccidental
Said of a SubjectUniversal, General,Type
Second Substances
man, horse, mammal
Non-substantial Universals
whiteness, knowledge
Not said of a Subject Particular, Individual,Token
First Substances
this individual man, this horse this mind, this body
Individual Accidents
this individual whiteness, knowledge of grammar
Aristotle’s Ontological Square (full)
170
Lake Tahoe Land Cover
171
Lake Tahoe Land Cover
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Cerebral Cortex
173
Mouse Chromosome 5
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Constitutions of 158 States
world’s first database
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Prototypicality amongsub-categories
some sub-categories of a given category are more typical, standard, than others
canary is more typical than ostrich
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instances
Prototypicality among instances too
albino frogalbino frog
177
What is missing from Aristotle?
Gibson: affordancesnichesgeometry of surface layout
178
Places
For Aristotle a place is a hole filled by a substance
The place occupied by you is the boundary of the surrounding air where it meets your body
179
Varieties of Controlled Airspace
180
Question:
Are mountains bona fide or fiat objects?
Did mountains exist before human cognitive agents came along?
181
Filled Holes
182
Superficial Objects?
183
184
Fields
185
Cognition imposes upon fields a division into objects
Are all objects fiat objects
186
Aggregates
187
Der Bevölkerung
188
Dem Deutschen Volke
189
Dem Deutschen Volke
190
Business Objects
191
Summer Forms, Winter Forms
192
Alps
193
Alps
194
Alps
195
Alps
196
Mountain is the most prominent kind of geographic thing in the common-sense ontology. But it is absent from the scientific ontology as a kind of thing.
Scientific ontology = topography as a field, represented by sampled values and interpolation functions, or by simple geometric forms such as triangles. The scientific ontology includes slope steepness and direction at every point, but even hillslopes are represented as fields.
197
Process vs. Form in Geomorphologywith thanks to Bernard Bauer
The interest of geomorphologists in processes is motivated by attempts to understand form (morphe = Greek ‘form’)
Form has to do with boundary conditions
Forms = mountain, river, valley, bay, etc.
198
Process vs. Form in Geomorphology
Hypothesis:
1. Processes occur at small scales (examples: entrainment and transport of sediments, groundwater effluxes, weathering, etc.)
2. Eventually they manifest themselves as forms (which exist at larger scales and change much more slowly through time)
199
Process vs. Form in Geomorphology
Question: Is the dynamics of how a particular form changes through time (e.g., how a meander bend shifts or how a hillslope degrades) to be considered ‘process’?
200
Process vs. Form in Geomorphology
We can after all interpret sedimentary strata and make inferences about changing meandering patterns and flood sequences – floods are then the 'processes' that lead to the form known as a floodplain
Form and process at different levels of granularity
201
Process vs. Form in Geomorphology
Microprocesses (erosion) involvingMicroforms (gravel)
Macroprocesses (flooding) involvingMacroforms (rivers)
202
Process vs. Form in Geomorphology
Object Process
floodplain
valley
delta
flood
glacial motion
sedimentation
this floodplain
this valley
this delta
this flood
this glacial motion
this sediment transportT
oken
Typ
e
203
Different ways of slicing up reality
Fields vs. Objects
1. landscapes are continuous (fields) – view of contemporary geomorphology
2. landscapes consist of assemblages of objects falling under natural kinds – view of ordinary cognitive agent
What is the relation between these two ?
204
Cognitive Contexts:
language-communitiesorganizationssciencesreligionsinformation systemsbusiness firms
205
= a system of concepts pertaining to a given domain
... concepts that are more or less coherently specified
Each involves a certain conceptualization
206
‘An ontology is a specification of a conceptualization’ (Tom Gruber, SRI)
Tom Gruber’s Definition
... designed to provide a stable forum for translation and interoperability asbetween different conceptualizations
Ontolingua = Esperanto for Information Systems
207
Ontology, for Gruber, starts with our conceptualizations, and sees how far we can push through from there to a description of a corresponding domain of objects
conceptualizations are associated with:stories, sciences, organizations, etc.
208
Ontology, for Gruber,
deals with surrogate created worlds
with ‘models’
... with the generated correlates of both good and bad conceptualizations
209
Two sorts of conceptualizations
bad = those which relate merely to a created, surrogate world
good = those which are transparent to some independent reality beyond
210
Not all conceptualizations are equal
Bad conceptualizations: ... lying, story-telling, dreaming, astrology, metaphysical error ...
Good conceptualizations: sciencewhat else?
211
Scientific conceptualizations
= those based on reference-systems which have survived rigorous empirical tests
Referential realism
vs. Theory realism
212
Are there transparent conceptualizations outside science?
213
The Empty Mask (Magritte)
214
Good conceptualizatons
Philosophical ontologists are interested in:
1. transparent conceptualizations, veridical perspectives on reality
2. which are at the same time interesting
= science, and what else
215
Internet Ontology
Die Welt löst sich auf in unseren Datentabellen. Welt und elektronische Erfassung sind untrennbar.
Die Medien der e-Erkenntnis sind undurchsichtig
216
Kantian Idealism
Die Welt löst sich auf in unseren Bewußtseinsakten. Welt und Erfahrung sind untrennbar.
Die Medien der Erkenntnis sind undurchsichtig
(die Wirklichkeit ist verschleiert)
217
hard vs. soft categories
Kant: wir prügeln die Wirklichkeit, bis sie unseren Kategorien entspricht
Aristoteles: Die Kategorien in der Welt sind offene (sanfte) Kategorien, d.h., sie werden auch Grenzfällen gerecht
218
But what about science ?
219
... are our scientific partitions truly transparent to an independent reality ?
(second Kantian argument)
220
D’Espagnat: Die verschleierte Wirklichkeit
die Heisenberg’scheUnschärferelation
(die Medien der Erkenntnissind im Grundbereich der Physik undurchsichtig ...)
221
There are no veridical (transparent) partitions at the quantum level
222
concepts vs. categories
on the Kantian reading species are concepts
on the Aristotelian reading the world itself exhibits a species-genus structure independently of how we conceive it