08_bochnak analecta umbones.pdf

8/12/2019 08_Bochnak Analecta Umbones.pdf

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A N A L E C T A A R C H A E O L O G I C A R E S S O V I E N S I A

TOM 1 RZESZW 2006

To masz Bochnak

Early Circular Umbones of the PrzeworskCulture. The Role of Local Tradition and CelticInfluences on the Diversity of Metal Partsof Shields at the Beginningof the Late Pre-Roman Period

In the late Pre-Roman period, the people o the Przeworsk

culture used two basic types o shields with metal errules1

. Te firsttype includes shields modelled upon Celtic weapons, reinorced witha vertical rib and erruled with band-shaped umbones (with opencalottes), whereas the second type includes flat-sheet shields, erruledwith umbones with closed, circular calottes and with circular orrectangular edges. Te described diversity is, in the opinion o theauthor o this paper, a undamental criterion or typological analysiso shield errules. Tis paper is devoted to the genesis and diversityo older umbones with closed calottes; however, it is also necessary topresent the basic statements reerring to band-shaped umbones.

Genesis of Shields with Ribs

Te emergence o shields with ribs in the environment o the Prze-worsk culture is commonly believed to be o Celtic influence. A largeshield reinorced by a rib erruled with a metal band-shaped umbo ap-pears in the Celtic environment approximately during the L B phase(Haffner 1976, 27, 110; Domaradzki 1977, 62; Brunaux, Lambot 1987,130), even though older presentations o similar pieces o armament

are known rom the Villanova culture (Stary 1981, 292, 303, 304). It isbelieved that the Celts could have adopted the manner o using largeshields rom the Mediterranean peoples (Brunaux, Lambot 1987, 97).A significant role in the shaping o the deensive armament o the Celtswas probably played by contact with Illyrian tribes and the peoples in-

1 Te history o studies on shield errules used in Europe (with parti-cular attention given to Polish lands) in the period o Celtic domination waspresented in a separate paper (Bochnak 2005, 103106); thereore, this paperomits this issue and concentrates on the subject determined in the title. Te

paper reerred to above also discusses finds o band-shaped umbones rom thearea o the Przeworsk culture, which are lef out o this article.


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162 | Tomasz Bochnak

habiting the Apennine Peninsula, in particular the Samnites. On thebasis o archaeological data and accounts o ancient authors, it is be-

lieved that the large Samnite shields could have been borrowed by Cel-tic tribes, and most probably this was also a beginning o the shieldsused by Roman legions (Stary 1979, 104, 105; 1981, 297). Te sheet oCeltic shields remained flat, whereas Roman shields were convex. Tisdifference is difficult to explain. A. Rapin supposed that a convex shieldcould have protected better rom thrusts, whereas a flat one could haveprovided a more efficient protection rom slashes. In his opinion, flatshields were ofen used in the antiquity by the cavalry (Brunaux, Rapin1988, 15). It seems that apart rom Illyrian and Samnite impacts, the in-fluence o Greek civilisation on the Hallstatt culture also had a certainshare in the development o Celtic weaponry. Proo o this is providedby a scene presented on a sheath rom Hallstatt, dated rom the 5thcen-tury B.C. Te warriors presented there are equipped with shields, hel-mets and sometimes with shin guards, which could indicate the impacto hoplite armament. An element typical o Greek civilisation is alsoa curve shaped decoration adorning the shields. It is very significantthat the Celts did not take over rom the Greeks the double-point seto grips (hoplon)2, which allowed or significant reedom o movement.Te hoplites had shields with two grips, one o which was attached to

the orearm, and the second was held by the hand. In this manner, theshield was supported on the orearm, and i it was necessary, the lefhand could be used to a limited extent; i.e., to hold a javelin. In thecase o the Celtic shield, its weight made any prolonged use tiring, andthe lef hand could not ulfill any additional unctions (Picture No. 1).Tereore, it is also necessary to notice that the use o shields witha one-point set o grips was a significant hindrance during horse-rid-ing. On the other hand, the Celtic shield made it possible to protectonesel by bending the outstretched hand, which deflected thrusts.

Iconographic sources (including representations on the Hallstatt

sheath and on the errule o a belt rom Vele Ledine) and numerousfinds o Roman art (Biekowski 1928) show that large, oval shields wereused both by inantrymen and by cavalry. Tere are also a ew exam-ples confirming the use o shields by warriors fighting rom carts. Onesuch proo is a coin showing Lucius Hostilius Saserna I (the so-calledSaserna I type), whose reverse presents a Celtic warrior equipped witha shield standing on a cart (Ostrowski 1999, 156, picture No. 92b). Most

2 Presentations o Celtic warriors holding a hoplon-stylised shield are

common in Romantic art, yet incorrect rom an archaeological point o view(Brunaux 1986, 60, 106).


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Early Circular Umbones of the Przeworsk Culture. The Role of Local Tradition and Celtic Influences...| 163

Picture No. 1. Differences in using a single and double point set of grips, based ona model of a Celtic shield provided with a rib (1-3) and a Greek shield (4-6): 1 de-flecting a thrust by means of bending the outstreched arm; 2 pushing the shieldfurther out increased the field of protection; 3 movement of the wrist allowed forrelatively quick maneuvers of the shield ; 4 shield movements are within one level ;5, 6 bending the forearm makes quick attack possible. (according to Brunaux ; Ra-

pin 1988, 20 ; Picture No. 10).


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probably, various manners o fighting influenced the diversity o struc-tures and sizes o shields, yet it seems that until the eve o the La ne

period, there was no special equipment intended exclusively or inan-trymen or cavalrymen3(Brunaux, Lambot 1987, 97).

Genesis of Shields with Circular Umbones

Shields with circular umbones in the central section were commonlyused in Europe in the Hallstatt period and at the beginning o theLa ne period. Tis is testified to by iconographic and archaeologicaldata rom the area o the British Isles, the Iberian Peninsula4, the

Apennine Peninsula and present-day Austria (Couissin 1926, 144, 145;Stary 1981, 293, 294, 298, 300, 301, Abb. 1; 1981a, 164, a. 1; Lorrio1997, 192194; Birkhan 1999, 1120). Some o the discussed shieldswere round, others were oval; or example, shields presented on a situlacurrently stored in Providence (Rhode Island, USA). Statues o warriorsrom Este (Ita-ly) dated rom the Hallstatt C (Ha C) period and figureso carts rom Strettweg (Austria) also have oval shields with circularumbones (Stary 1981, 293, 304, Egg 1996).

Similar shields were also used on Polish lands, which is confirmedby presentations on ceramic dishes o the peoples inhabiting these areas

(Fogel 1982, 102). A vessel o the Lusatian culture rom Sobiejuchy(grave No. 45 Kujawsko-pomorskie province, Poland), dated romthe end o the Ha C period or the beginning o the Ha D period, bearsengravings interpreted as presentations o metal shields o the Ognicatype or leather shields (similar in appearance) (Gediga 1970, 112, PictureNo. 35, Bukowski 1971, 177180, Picture No. 1; Sylwestrowicz 1979,28). Similar drawings are also present on ace urns o the Pomeraniaculture; e.g., a drawing o a shield with concentric circles visible onan urn rom Strzelno (or Samostrzel) in the Kujawsko-pomorskieprovince (Bukowski 1971, 183, 184, Picture No. 5.5). Elements o fi-gurative presentations on urns rom Gdynia-Redowo, Glicz Nowy,Grabw Bobowski and Lubieszw czewski are considered to be ima-ges o shields (all these places are located in the Pomorskie province)

3 Tere are premises which allow us to assume that in the Roman army,various types o shields were quickly differentiated. Tis phenomenon may beconfirmed by itus Livius, who mentions that itus Manlius, preparing ora fight, took up an inantry shield (History, VII, 10).

4 Te tradition o using round shields by the peoples inhabiting the

Iberian Peninsula is mentioned by Polibius (History III, 114) and Diodor oSicily (Historical Library, V, 33).


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(La Baume 1920, 1934, 1935, 1950, 159; uka, 1971, 47, Picture No. 14;Bukowski 1971; Sylwestrowicz 1979, 2931, Picture No. 23, 26; Fogel

1982, 102). It is necessary to underscore the act that distribution oshields with circular umbones in the Hallstatt period was probably nota result o inter-cultural contacts, but constituted a typical example othe concurrent development o the orm.

Te genesis o metal circular umbones which appeared in Europe inthe period o Celtic domination has not yet been clarified (uczkiewicz2004, 5). Some researchers consider them a local product o peoplesinhabiting the Central European Barbaricum (Jahn 1916, 165, 166;Schnberger 1952, 41); however, in the opinion o others, umbones othis type were developed as a result o the evolution o the La ne bandorms, and the finds o the Przeworsk culture are an imitation o Cel-tic specimens (Klindt-Jensen 1950, 4648; Woniak 1970, 160; Doma-radzki 1977, 70, 71; Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 66, 67, Picture No. 33; Rapin1983/1984, 78). Te advocates o the evolutionary theory o the genesiso umbones with closed calottes point to the existence o a sequenceo band-shaped orms in archaeological sources, in which the calotteis gradually closed, which, in their opinion, led to the emergence ocircular umbones (Picture No. 2). Important intermediate links in thisevolutionary sequence are umbones o the Bartodzieje type and orms si-

milar to the specimen rom grave No. 92 rom the Belgrade-Karaburmanecropolis (Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 66, 67, Picture No. 33). However, thistheory is burdened with two serious inadvertences. Whilst analysing thechronology o orms constituting individual elements o the discussedsequence, it turns out that the discussed concept is not corroborated bycorrectly dated specimens rom the area o the Przeworsk culture andthe Celtic circle. Studies on the transormations o shield errule ormsin the Celtic environment are significantly hindered due to the changesin burial ritual, which took place rom the end o the latter section othe middle La ne period (L C1) and which led to the disappearance

o burial orms discernible by archaeological methods (Domaradzki1977, 53, 54). A small number o shield errules rom the L C2 andL D phases in comparison with the previous periods makes it difficultto carry out a typological and chronological analysis. Studies on theconstructional transormations have to be based on insufficient findsrom the area o the Balkan Peninsula, northern Italy and Gaul. Amongthe younger umbones, dated rom the L C2 phase and deriving roma sanctuary rom Gournay-sur-Aronde, there are no orms with clearlyclosed calottes, even though there are specimens with an-spanned

edges (ype VII, according to A. Rapin) (Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 82).Finds rom burial grounds in Arqua di Petrarca and Clusone, located in


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Picture No. 2. Evolution outline of umbones from spindle-shaped to circular forms,synchronised with transformations in buckle forms and circular clasps with projec-

tions. (according to Brunaux, Rapin 1988, Picture No. 33).

northern Italy, confirm the occurrence o band-shaped umbones withclosed calottes in the Celtic environment (Picture No. 2.B) only in theL D1 and D2 phases (Gamba 1987, 250252, 265, Picture No. 11:2,

20:1, Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 66, Picture No. 33). Analogous umbones(the so called Arqua-Mokronog type) are similarly dated in the area


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o present-day Slovenia (Gutin 1991, 57, 58, Abb. 30). A bronzespecimen rom Karaburma (grave No. 92) provided as an example o

the subsequent stage in the evolution o band-shaped orms (PictureNo. 2.C) is dated rom the last ew decades beore Christ (odorovi1972, 77; Gutin 1984, 341).

Te dating o specimens, which documents the evolutionary cha-racter o development o circular umbones, shows that there are nospecimens older than the oldest orms with closed calottes derivingrom the area o the Przeworsk culture. In the areas occupied by thePrzeworsk culture, the first umbones with circular edges emerge in theA1 phase o the early Pre-Roman period (~end o L C1 and L C2phase). Combining the distribution o umbones o this type in the areao Central Europe with Celtic influences is, accor-ding to the author othis article, dubious, because the specimens with hemispherical calottesare also ound in the basin o the Elbe River and on Bornholm Island;i.e., areas where La ne influences are less visible than in the area oc-cupied by the settlements o the Przeworsk culture.

Apart rom the reservations presented above, which reer to thechronology o umbones and which are believed to orm a sequenceleading to the emergence o orms with closed calottes, the second in-advertence is the omission o important elements related with the pro-

duction technology o umbones and the structure o the shield. As men-tioned earlier, there are two basic types o shields those reinorced bya rib (ofen erruled) or those devoid o this element and the existenceo intermediate orms is almost impossible5. Advocates o the theory onthe emergence o round umbones rom band-shaped orms ofen con-centrate on a seeming similarity o metal errules, omitting the entirelyundamental, in the authors opinion, issue o shield structure, whicha given umbo was erruling. An outline describing the evolution oband-shaped umbones suggests that circular umbones emerged as a re-sult o modification o band-shaped orms. Tese modifications were

gradually perormed by crafsmen producing metal shield errules, andtheir consequence was the ormation o ull umbones with closed ca-lottes. However, it is necessary to point out that the production techno-logy o band-shaped umbones significantly differs rom the manner oproducing a specimen with a closed calotte. Tese differences go backto the very beginning o processing iron, and the subsequent stages oorming band-shaped umbones cannot lead to circular umbones. Teemergence o subsequent orms with closed calottes is the result o de-

veloping the process o orging a band-shaped umbo; yet in order to ob-

5

Te problem o hybrid structures and combining certain elements oboth types o shields is presented in a urther section o this paper.


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tain an umbo with a closed calotte, it is necessary to use different tech-niques, starting rom the early stage o metal processing. A crafsman

producing an umbo has to determine its type at the very start, and thiswill influence his subsequent activities6.

Where, thereore, should one look or the genesis o a circular umbowith a closed calotte? I it is assumed that the idea o an umbo derivesrom the tradition o the late Pre-Roman period, then it is possible topresume that its shape constitutes a certain reerence to the orms oshield reinorcement used in that period, yet it is necessary to remem-ber the natural conditions related with attempts to imitate analogousorms using a different material. In other words, introduction o newtechnologies and materials is ofen linked with attempts at imitating

older, well-known orms with the use o new resources, yet due to thenatural properties o such resources and the processing possibilities re-lated with them, such a transer is not always possible.

Older finds o shields (or their ragments) rom the areas o Europelocated beyond the sphere o Mediterranean culture are known romKvrlv (Martens 2001, 135142) and Hjortspring (Rosenberg 1937;Randsborg 1995). Both the wooden umbo rom Kvrlv, radiocarbondated rom 760410 B.C., and the specimens rom Hjortspring, whosechronology was determined to be rom the end o the 4th/ beginning othe 3rdcentury B.C., have spindle-shape orms and slightly resemble thesignificantly reduced ribs (spinae) o La ne shields. Tese umboneswere attached to flat boards using wooden pins (Kvrlv) or resin(Hjortspring). I one was to look or prototypes o metal umbonesamong the above-mentioned Scandinavian finds, it could be concludedthat the older metal finds should also be spindle-shaped. However, itis necessary to notice that the elongated shape o wooden umbonesdepends on the fibrous structure o wood. I an umbo was bored intowood, it was given a spindle shape in order to avoid the cracking o themore delicate parts; i.e., those which were shaped whilst cutting across

wood rings. It is understandable that whilst orging an iron sheet,it is possible to omit these aspects, yet providing a metal umbo witha spindle shape, however doable, requires a set o proper, specialisedtools. Tereore, it can be assumed that the older iron umbones werenot an imitation o earlier wooden umbones. However, it cannot beruled out that circular umbones were created as a result o adapting ironin place o other organic substances used beore (e.g. leather). A shieldhardened by means o wax and hot water excellently protects against

6 Te author would like to thank Mr. Wojciech Sawiski, a blacksmith

rom Grodzisk Mazowiecki, or technical explanations regarding the produc-tion process o band-shaped and circular umbones.


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thrusts, which was proved during a series o experiments (PictureNo. 3) (Ziemacki 1964, 133, 134; Coles 1977, 199206). A shield made

entirely o leather dated rom the Bronze Age is known rom Clonbrinin Ireland (Coles 1962, 160; 1977, 204; Eogan 1964, Pl. XXVIII).Wooden items were discovered in the British Isles which are supposedto be orms o a last, used or giving a wooden shield its desired shape.Items o this type derive rom Cloonlara, Co. Mayo, Churchfield andKilmahamogue, Co. Antrim in Ireland (Coles 1962, 160, 161, 181;Pl. XXVI; Eogan 1964, Pl. XXVIII). A shield made entirely o woodand leather also derives rom Ireland, rom Clonoura (Stead 1985, 45,Pl. XI; Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 19, 21, Picture No. 8; Rafery 1983, 107).Due to natural actors, finds o this type are very rare, and their absencein the area o Poland does not mean that similar shields were not usedhere (Fogel 1982, 102). Te existence o similar traditions in the Polishlands could be indicated by a ew finds o the Ognica/Herzsprung

Picture No. 3. Circular shields from Bronze Age and early Iron Age. 1 bronze shieldfrom Ognica, V BA (according to Bukowski 1971, Picture No. 3); 2 modern replica ofa leather shield (according to Coles 1977, Photo No. 16); 3 presentation of a shieldon a face urn from Strzelno (or Samostrzel) (according to Bukowski 1971, Picture No.

5.5); 4 decoration detail of a bronze ferrule of a horn from Wismar (Germany), V BA(according to Bukowski 1971, Picture No. 4).


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type shields, specimens o which were ound in West Pomerania,in Holstein and in southern Germany (Bukowski 1971, 81). Te manner

o producing shields rom thin bronze sheets makes it in principleimpossible to use them effectively in a fight and seems to indicate theirgala character, even though their shape corresponds closely to leathershields. In the central section o the Ognica/Herzsprung type shields,similarly to the leather specimens rom the British Isles, a hemisphericalprotrusion was marked, under which a grip was placed. It is necessaryto notice that the hemispherical shape o this umbo constitutes theonly orm with numerous symmetry axes which was possible to obtain.Te protrusion has a shape similar to a low cupola, and the transer othis shape onto a metal object is relatively easy and does not requirespecialised tools. Te manner o processing leather and a sheet o metal iso course undamentally different, yet these materials are similar to eachother as ar as the possibilities o shaping are concerned. Tis similaritycould have been a cause or which a sheet o iron was processed ina manner emulating leather umbones and not wooden ones.

Older Circular Umbones in the Przeworsk Culture

Low hemispherical umbones type 1 according to D. Bohnsack

(type 1 according to the recently proposed typology o . Bochnak) constitute the oldest orm o circular errules o shields in Polishlands, and they are the orm which began the development cycle oumbones used by the people o the Przeworsk culture during thelate Pre-Roman period and the period o Roman influences (PictureNo. 4). Tey are considered one o the determinants o phase A1 inthe Przeworsk culture (Hachmann 1956/57, map No. 3; 1961, 52, 56,57, 77, 240, 241, Abb. 18; Peschel 1977, 270, 271, Abb. 3; Dbrowska1988a, 28, 56, Breakdown No. 13). So ar, no finds o umbones withhemispherical calottes are known in the context which would allow orthe determination o their chronology at the very beginning o phaseA1, which is connected with the occurrence o long brooches that aredevoid o ornamentation (type A according to J. Kostrzewski) and long,ornamented fibulas type B (Dbrowska 1988a, 27, 28). Such umbonesoccur in complexes containing specimens which are younger romthe determinants o the beginning o phase A1 o the late Pre-Romanperiod. A complex rom Gobiewo (grave No. 47) could provide a good

7 In a paper devoted to the armament o the peoples o the Przeworsk cul-

ture in the Polish lands during the Early Pre-Roman period, wrongly deter-mined as Gobiewo, grave No. 1 (Bochnak 2005, 228).


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example here, where the hemispherical umbo was discovered with atype C fibula according to Kostrzewski (Picture No. 5) (Kostrzewski1919, 258). It is not out o the question that the long C type broochwas also among the accessories ound in grave No. 3 in Becze in theLubuskie province (Dbrowska 1988a, Breakdown No. 13, Lewczuk1997, 84). ype 1 umbones are also known rom areas neighbouring thezone o closelyknit settlements o the Przeworsk culture. Specimens withhemispherical calottes are known rom the areas occupied by people othe Oksywie culture, areas over the Elbe River and other cultural entitiespartially connected with German settlements; e.g., the Kobyly group(Bohnsack 1938, 56; Mhling 1944, 55, 99, Abb. 27; Hachmann 1956/57,Map No. 3; Wogiewiczowie 1963, 53, 54, Picture No. 8; Peschel 1977,270, 271, 277279; Frey 1986, 46, 47, Abb. 1; Seidel 2000, 99; Bockius,uczkiewicz 2004, 77, 79, 189, 190, Abb. 12.3). An exceptional find o

a type 1 umbo comes rom Bornholm (Hachmann 1956/57, Map No.3, 1961, 192; Frey 1986, 46, 47, Abb.1). Finds o various orms with

Picture No. 4. Umbones type 1. 1: Lachmirowice 2 Bartodzieje (grave No.) (accor-ding to Bohnsack 3: Przyborowo (grave No.).


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hemispherical calottes in the lands neighbouring the area occupiedby the settlements o the Przeworsk culture are considered to be prooor inter-cultural impacts and contacts with the zone o the Przeworskculture (Hachmann 1957; Peschel 1977; Frey 1986, 46). Fragments o anumbo similar to type 1 come rom the grave o the Poienesi-Lukaevkaculture rom Rctu in Romania (Babe 1993, 117, able No. 44.10). Itis necessary to stress that in the areas which were not inhabited by thepeople o the Przeworsk culture, type 1 umbones appear most ofen inchronological stages synchronised with the A2 phase (~L D1) o thelate Pre-Roman period.

ypological and chronological analysis indicates that separationo different types o umbones (resembling the common model witha hemispherical calotte and narrow edge) took place very quicklyafer the application o technological assumptions to the production

technology o type 1 umbones. Tese are umbones with hemisphericalcalottes and rectangular edges (determined as the Bartodzieje type,

Picture No. 5. Gobiewo (grave No. 4) (according to Gaerte 1929).


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type 2 according to . Bochnak typology), specimens with hemisphericalcalottes supported on a trimmed (type 3 according to . Bochnak) or

cylindrical collar (type 2 according to D. Bohnsack, type 4 accordingto . Bochnak) and errules with hemispherical calottes and wide edges(type 10 according to D. Bohnsack, type 5 according to . Bochnak).

Te Bartodzieje type umbones deserve a more comprehensivedescription. Sometimes they are considered, as was noted above, anintermediate stage in the supposed evolution rom the band-shapedorms to the circular orms (Adler 1993, 231). Te issues o theiremergence and origin are widely discussed in modern literature (Bockius1996; Kleemann 2002; Bockius, uczkiewicz 2004, 7679; uczkiewicz2004, 131; Bochnak 2005, c. previous literature). It is necessary tounderscore the act that the discussed errules are in act umbones withclosed calottes and rectangular edges or edges resembling a rectangle(Dbrowska 1988a, 55, 56), and due to this, they were sometimesconsidered a type 1 variant according to Bohnsack (Hachmann 1961,53, 54, Abb. 13). Te rectangular edge could have acted as an additionalreinorcement or the shield structure. Only two specimens o umboneso the described type are known, and both o them derive rom thePolish lands rom grave No. 7 in Bartodzieje in the Dolnolskieprovince (Jahn 1931, 56, 57, Abb. 48, 50; 1937; Pescheck 1939, 201,

202) and rom Wymysowo in the Wielkopolskie province (grave No.290) (Jasnosz 1951, 195, 195, Picture No. 295:3, 5) (Picture No. 6). theragmentary status o both finds significantly hinders reconstruction otheir original shape. Tis remark reers to, first o all, the specimen romWymysowo, due to the act that the picture presenting the umbo beoreconservation does not allow or an explicit determination whether itscalotte was closed. It seems that the reconstruction o the umbo romBartodzieje, published numerous times, is correct (inaccuracies mayreer to the hypothetical shape o the edge, yet the presence o the closedcalotte does not seem to be subject to any doubts, on the condition that

its edge was correctly interpreted). M. Jahn considered the find romBartodzieje as proo o Rhetic influences, and his opinion was quotedin papers regarding cultural diversity on Silesian lands in the last agesbeore Christ (Jahn 1931, 5659; 1937, 108110; Pescheck 1939, 201,202; Woniak 1970, 161). However, it is necessary to stress that M. Jahnormulated the thesis on the Rhetic reerence o the specimen romBartodzieje on the basis o the similarity o this find to an umbo romgrave No. 100 rom the Persona burial ground in Ornavasso (PictureNo. 7.1) (Bianchetti 1895, Picture No. VII: 12; Graue 1974, 65, 66,

Abb. 31:58). Te author o this paper is convinced that this analogy iseasy to undermine, because it is limited to the similarity in horizontal


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projections o these finds and does not take into account the mostimportant eature, which is the type o shield erruled by the umbo.

Te find rom Bartodzieje represents a group o umbones with closedcalottes, and, without doubt, it erruled a shield devoid o ribs; on the

Picture No. 6. Umbones with rectangular edges. 1 Wymysowo (grave No. 290); 1a Wymysowo (grave No. 290) (reconstruction proposal) (according to Jasnosz 1951);2 Bartodzieje (grave No. 7) one of the preserved umbo fragments; 2a Bartodzieje(grave No. 7) reconstruction proposal (according to Jahn 1931); 3 Jeszkowice (ac-

cording to Jahn 1931).


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other hand, the specimen rom Ornavasso needs to be included in thegroup o so-called butterfly-shaped umbones8, which are classified

among shields with ribs (Picture No. 7.2). Moreover, the specimenrom Ornavasso is much younger than the Silesian one. On the basiso dating a situla E.22 (variant Bargeld) which derives rom the samegrave, J. Graue determined the age o grave No. 100 rom the Personaburial ground as phase III, synchronised with the twilight o the late Lane period (Graue 1974, 65).

During the last ew years, attempts have been made to incorpo-rate the Bartodzieje type umbones into a wider horizon o finds andcomprising materials rom the area o Austria, Hungary, Slovenia andNorthern Italy (Bockius 1996, 144150, Abb. 13, Bockius, uczkiewicz2004, 7679). J. Kleemann attempted to polemicise with the hypothesiso R. Bockius, justly indicating the weak preservation status o the findswhich were supposed to be southern European analogies or the findso the Przeworsk culture. J. Kleemann thought that Bartodzieje typeumbones should be treated as derivatives o hemispherical umbones(Kleemann 2002, 221223).

Just as mentioned above, the author o this article believes that theconcept according to which umbones with closed calottes and rectangu-lar edges are supposed to be proo o contacts with Southern Europe is

8 Te term butterfly-shaped umbo was used here in the context appliedby P. Biekowski (Biekowski 1928, 139, 140) and not A. Rapin, who used thesame name or band-shaped bosses with wings spreading in a an-like manner(Brunaux, Rapin 1988, 82), similar to type II 2A, according to M. Domaradz-

ki (Domaradzki 1977, 61) or the Skorba type, according to M. Gutin (1991,5658, Abb. 29, 30).

Picture No. 7. 1 butterfly-shape umbo from Ornavasso (grave No. 100) (accordingto Jahn 1937), not to scale; 2 presentation of a shield ferruled with such an umbo

(according to Biekowski 1928), not to scale.


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based on very weak premises. Te majority o the seven points markedon the map in the paper o R. Bockius (1996, 151, Abb. 3), which are

supposed to depict the spreading o Bartodzieje type umbones, markspecimens o various orms. Apart rom marks denoting sites in Bar-todzieje and Wymysowo, according to R. Bockius, Bartodzieje typeumbones were also ound in Piotrkw Kujawski and Jeszkowice9. In re-ality, the umbo rom Piotrkw Kujawski needs to be included amongthe band-shaped orms (Bochnak 2005, 106, 181, able No. XXXI:1),whereas the umbo rom Jeszkowice is known rom a sketch and shortreerences in literature (Jahn 1931, 58, 60; Abb. 60), yet very ofen it iswrongly connected with other specimens deriving rom the same place,which conuse it with the cone-shaped umbo type J.5 (Jahn 1924, 35).It is necessary to underscore that it does not ollow rom the sketch in-cluded in the paper o M. Jahn that the find rom Jeszkowice has a cir-cular, closed calotte (Picture No. 6.3). Te remaining umbones quotedby R. Bockius are specimens in very bad shape. Tere is no data al-lowing or a clear statement that the specimen rom Este had a closedcalotte, and in the opinion o the author o this paper, the preservationstatus o this find does make such a statement possible (Picture No.8.2) (Bockius 1996, 148, 149, Abb. 2:2). Te umbones rom Puszta Gc,Ngrd and Este counties are preserved in ragments, and on the basis

o other well preserved specimens rom Hungary and northern Italy,it is possible to propose different reconstructions o these finds, cor-responding to band-shaped umbones o Mokronog-Arqua and Skor-ba types, which were common in this area (Picture No. 8.1, 3, 3a, 4,9.3, 4) (Gutin 1991, 5658, Abb. 29, 30). Finds rom eurnia (Lippert1992) and Wenns (Egg 2002), quoted in the paper o R. Bockius andP. uczkiewicz (2004, 7679), are specimens o band-shaped umboneswith extended calottes (Picture No. 9.1, 2). Tese umbones have opencalottes; thereore, they must have erruled shields with ribs and notflat shields, as in the case o specimens rom Bartodzieje (grave No. 7)

and potentially rom Wymysowo (grave No. 290). With respect to thisdifferentiation, the issue o similar arrangement o rivets on umbonesrom Wenns and Wymysowo, brought to attention by R. Bockius andP. uczkiewicz (Bockius, uczkiewicz 2004, 76), has marginal signifi-

9 Comparing umbones rom the area o Poland, R. Bockius made use oa map published by . Dbrowska (Dbrowska 1988, 62; Abb. 8), where band-shaped umbones along with Bartodzieje orms are marked with one sign de-scribed as Bartodzieje type umbones. A description o the same sign on ananalogous map in a monographic paper devoted to the early stages o the Prze-

worsk culture (Dbrowska 1988a, 72, map 5) reads rectangular umbones,which is not an incorrect term.


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Picture No. 8. Umbones indicated as analogies for Bartodzieje type umbones. 1 Puszta Gc; 2 Este; 3 Reka (grave No. 7) (13 according to Bockius 1996, Abb. 2);

3a Reka (grave No. 7) (according to M. Gutin 1991, Abb. 29), 4 Roje pri Moravach(according to Knez 1977; Table No. 8.3).


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Picture No. 9. Umbones indicated as analogies for Bartodzieje type umbones. 1 Enns (according to Bockis, uczkiewicz 2004, Abb. 12.1); 2 Teurnia (according toLippert 1992, Abb. 3 KLM 1999); 3 Vevey (grave No. 26) (according to Brunaux, Ra-pin 1988), 4 Odak, (according to Todorovi 1965, Table No. 1); 5 Mihovo (accor-

ding to Bockius, uczkiewicz 2004, Abb. 12.2).


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cance in the opinion o the author o this article. Te finds rom eur-nia and Wenns cannot play an important role in deliberations about the

chronology o shield errules, because they do not derive rom sacri-ficial sites the so-called Brandoperpltze used over a long period otime (c. Egg, 2002; Gleirscher 2002, urther literature). Te chrono-logy o the Brandoperpltze rom eurnia comprises the L C2 L Dperiod (Lippert 1992, 294299).

In principle, the only umbo outside the area o the Przeworsk cul-ture, which could constitute an analogy or the find rom Bartodzie-

je (and possibly rom Wymysowo), is a specimen rom Mihovo, deri-ving rom a grave where fibula, A.23610 was ound (Picture No. 5)(Bockius, uczkiewicz 2004, 77, 78, Abb. 12:2). However, it is necessaryto pay attention to the act that the published drawing o this umbo is

very schematic and the openings or rivets were not marked on it. It isalso not known whether the drawing reflects the actual status o preser-

vation or whether it is a reconstruction. In act, a horizontal projectiono the umbo rom Mihovo seems to suggest that the calotte was open(the convexity o the calotte is not circular), whereas the profile clearlyindicates that it was open.

In relation to the above, it is possible to state that in the light o theavailable archaeological sources, the umbo rom Bartodzieje (grave No.

7) does not have any close analogies in the Celtic world and probablyis a local product. It is quite possible that the umbo rom Wymysowo(grave No. 290) is an analogy or the Silesian specimen, yet its statuso preservation makes unambiguous determination impossible in theopinion o the author o this article. However, it cannot be ruled outthat in the uture the above determinations will have to be adjusted isimilar umbones with closed calottes and rectangular edges are disco-

vered in territories occupied by the Celtic culture11.It is possible that the significant sizes o the edge constituted an

additional element reinorcing the structure o the shield board. In the

10 R. Bockius and P. uczkiewicz, reerring to the Ph.D. dissertation (un-published) o H. Windl and devoted to the materials rom Mihovo, empha-sise that the site was examined at the end o the 19 th / beginning o the 20thcentury and the contemporary methods o explorations do not give certaintyas ar as the homogeneity o the separated complexes is concerned (Bockius,uczkiewicz 2004, 78).

11 Te potential oreign provenance o the specimen rom Wymysowomay be confirmed by bronze rivets which, according to S. Jasnosz, were sup-posed to attach the umbo to the shield (Jasnosz 1951, 194, 195, Picture 295.4).

Te people o the Przeworsk culture used copper alloys in a very limited ex-tent, which allows one to presume that items made o bronze might have been


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opinion o the author o this paper, the appearance o the umbo romBartodzieje indicates reerences to band-shaped La ne umbones; yet

these influences did not lead to the use o shields with ribs, but wereonly reflected in attempts o making an umbo with a closed calottesimilar to Celtic specimens. Te discussed specimen (and possibly alsoan umbo rom Wymysowo) most probably proves the reception andtransormation o Celtic influences according to the shield makingtechnologies prevailing in the Przeworsk culture. Despite the act thatBartodzieje type umbones constitute a orm which is typologicallyyounger than hemispherical umbones with round edges, they areconsidered one o the determinants o phase A1 o the late Pre-Romanperiod (Dbrowska 1988a, 56). Determining a more precise chronologyo Bartodzieje umbones is problematic. In the opinion o . Dbrowska,the discussed type o errules should be dated rom the older section ophase A1, which can be synchronised with the end o L C1 phase, eventhough this researcher allows or the determination o their origin romthe phase corresponding to the L C2 stage (Dbrowska 1988a, 56). Inthe opinion o the author o this paper, the second possibility is moreplausible due to the act that so ar there is no date allowing or the da-ting o specimens with hemispherical calottes at the very beginning oA1 stage, and Bartodzieje type umbones probably constitute a orm

typologically younger than umbones with a circular edge. Tis datingis not contradicted by the presence o a long fibula type C discovered ingrave No. 7 in Bartodzieje.

Reception of Metal Shield Ferrules in the Culturesof Central Europe. Subject to La Tne Influences andCeltic Culture

As it has been emphasised a number o times, the impact o theLa ne culture has resulted in the taking over o various elements oCeltic armament by the people o the Przeworsk culture, and one o thebasic elements connected with the Celtic impact is the popularisationo iron. Without doubt, double-edged swords with metal sheaths andspurs have to be included in the Celtic heritage. Te heads o polearms used by the people o the Przeworsk culture are also considereda testimony to the impact o the La ne culture, yet this remark reersmainly to heads whose edges were cut in the orm o leaves. In the

imported. On the other hand, the author o this paper is not amiliar with ex-

amples o attaching the iron umbo with bronze rivets rom other cultural cir-cles rom the period o Celtic domination.


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armament o people inhabiting Polish lands during the late Pre-Romanperiod, there are categories o weapons produced locally. Popularisation

o single-edge swords, typical or the Baltic Sea basin though ofenencountered in areas occupied by the Przeworsk culture, points to thedevelopment o local arms production which omits Celtic traditions.Te shields used by the people o the Przeworsk culture in the late Pre-Roman period probably derived rom two separate traditions. On thebasis o archaeological sources, it is possible to differentiate a smallgroup o shields reinorced by ribs erruled with band-shaped umbonesand a more numerous group o shields erruled with circular umbones.Shields with band-shaped umbones, based on Celtic models, occur atthe beginning o the Przeworsk culture, yet there is no basis on whichto believe that in the Polish lands they are older than shields withoutribs. It is difficult to point out reasons or such a limited reception o theCeltic shield model. Probably shields erruled with circular umbones,which are rom local tradition, were better adapted to the local mannero fighting than the bigger and heavier Celtic shields reinorced witha vertical rib. It is probable that the reduction o shield size is relatedwith conditions o the natural environment and the dominant mannero fighting. A change in the conditions o the natural environment is,according to J. Harmand, a cause or a reduction o the size o the shield

o the Roman soldier during the Gallic war (Harmand 1967, 6769).A large shield o a Roman legionary, presumably deriving rom theSamnite scutum, ulfilled its task very well during fighting in northernItaly and in the de-orested areas o Gaul. Te significant shield sizemade it possible to lock the shields together over the warriors heads12and also provided the necessary protection against projectiles (Caesar,Te Gallic War, II, 6; V, 3849; VII, 6890). However, when the legionsentered the orested areas o Gallia Belgica13, their tactics had to bechanged. Te Gauls, plaguing the Roman army, made use o landorms and orests to prepare ambushes, with respect to which deensive

techniques o the legionaries working out in the open turned out to beineffective (Deyber 1987, 148). Smaller shields perormed their tasksbetter on orest paths; they were easier to maneuver and more useul incombat. Such shields were most probably used by the Germanic tribeled by Ariovist, even though it is necessary to remember that this tribealso used a ormation described by Caesar as a phalanx (creatinga wall which protected the warriors) (Caesar, Te Gallic War, I, 52).

12 Devising this tactic is ascribed to the Celts, and it was described by Livy(History o Rome rom its oundation, V, 43).

13

Caesar mentions orests in the area o Gaul numerous times (Caesar,Te Gallic War, II, 18, 19; III, 28, 29, 38; VI, 5).


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Picture No. 10. Shield elements combining characteristics of circular specimens andspecimens with ribs. 1 Mehrum type (according to Kaczanowski 1995); 2 spindle-shaped umbo (according to Kaczanowski 1995); 3 shield image on an altar from

Nmes (according to Dechelette 1914).


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It is possible that the natural conditions o the Polish lands was aninfluence on meagre popularity o large shields reinorced by ribs in the

Przeworsk culture. Presumably, smaller shields, similar to those used inthis area or centuries, turned out to more useul. Indirect proo or thecommon use o small shields may be the diversity o weapons. It is wellknown that the type o deence strictly depends on the type o weaponsused by the enemy. I the two fighting sides belong to a single culturalcircle, the type o arms used is quite established, because changes areintroduced most ofen as a consequence o clashes with enemy fightingin a different manner or as a result o technological progress (e.g. thepopularisation o iron). Among the militaria o the Przeworsk culture,there prevail weapons used in fighting in clashes, and archaeologicalsources allow or the conclusion that the role o projectiles was slight(though probably underestimated). Tis diversity o weapons is bettermatched by shields o smaller sizes, which prove useul in hand-to-hand combat, whereas more massive and larger orms are more efficientwhen the enemy uses projectile weapons (Fogel 1982, 103). Tereore,it can be surmised that during armed conflicts between groups o thePrzeworsk people, the Celtic manner o fighting with swords was mainlyapplied; nevertheless, single-edged swords were also used or thrus-ting and slashing. Due to the act that the use o projectiles was limited,

the basic method o deence could have been shields whose size wassmaller than the Celtic shield. Tis type o deense constitutes a logicalsupplement or weapons used by the Przeworsk culture. In light o theabove determinations, the comparison o sets o weapons o Romanlegionaries and Celtic warriors (with respect to whom there are nume-rous accounts rom ancient historians and iconographic presentations)is quite interesting. Weapons used by the Roman legions were compiledin a manner that made it difficult to choose appropriate shields provi-ding protection during a fight. In hand-to-hand combat with an enemyusing large shields and fighting in a close ormation, usually short wea-

pons are suitable and can be used or precise thrusts over the shield(Hazell 1981, 78, 79). Te legionaries used hurled weapons in a fight,the best protection against which was provided by large shields; yetduring hand-to-hand fighting, they used short gladius swords, whichwere much more effective than the long Celtic swords. It was alsomore difficult to shield onesel rom their thrusts. Modifications o theRoman armament resulting rom fighting in the Iberian Peninsula andthe borrowing o weapons rom the Celtic and Iberian environmentcombined with the organisation and discipline o the legions made the

Gallic war relatively short in comparison with previous Celtic Romanconflicts, even though the Gauls made organised resistance attempts.


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Te chronology and dynamics o the distribution o umbones withclosed calottes in the La ne culture indicates that these errules caught

on in the Celtic environment relatively slowly (Stead 1985, 37). Te firstspecimens o this type appear in the area o the La ne culture at theend o the L C / beginning o the L D phase; i.e., later than in thePrzeworsk culture, where the older umbones with closed calottes aredated rom phase A1 o the late Pre-Roman period and are synchronisedwith the period comprising the end o L C1 and L C2. Among theoldest finds o this type are the isolated finds rom Mokronog and Rojepri Moravah (Domaradzki 1977, 62; Stead 1985, 37). In Domaradzkisopinion, the majority o circular umbones rom the area o the Balkansrelated with the La ne culture should be dated rom the L D phase(Domaradzki 1977, 62). Te umbones rom graves Nos. 169 and 187rom Nove Mesto (Knez 1987, 105, a. 23; 1992, 60, 63, . 61.2, 67.3)are dated rom the later section o this phase. Te concept o a shielddevoid o a rib was slowly adopted by the Celtic environment. In thearea o Bavaria, individual umbones with circular edges appear in thecourse o the L D1 phase (Krmer 1952, 334; 1962, Abb. 1) and duringthe D2 phase in the middle Rhine basin (Decker 1968, 51; Polenz1971, 49; 50; Joachim 1974, 163165). Among the oldest specimenswith closed calottes (deriving rom Gaul) is the umbo with a short

spike discussed above and ound in Alise-Ste-Reine and historicallydated rom 52 B.C. Tis umbo, having its closest analogies in the areaso Denmark, Germany and Poland, is believed to be an import in theCeltic environment and is connected with members o Germanic tribesled by Ariovist who stayed in the territory o Gaul (Duval 1987, 62;Sievers 1995, 151, 152, Abb. 38.1; Sievers 2001, 139, 153, 154; Bochnak,in printing). Also, a figure o a warrior or a god, discovered in the areao the Saint-Maur sanctuary (Oise department, France), with a shieldwith a circular umbo is believed to be a product created under theimpact o Germanic influences due to the lack o eatures typical o

the Celtic culture (Brunaux 1986, 78). Circular umbones in the area oGaul do not appear until the L D phase (Schnelder 2002, 5456).Introduction o shields devoid o ribs and erruled with umbones withclosed calottes did not lead to an immediate disappearance o typicalCeltic orms with band-shaped umbones, which can be testified to bya find rom Heimbach-Weiser dated rom the end o the 1stcentury B.C.,where specimens o both types were included among rich cremationburial accessories (Joachim 1973, 3334, 41, Abb. 11). It cannot beruled out that the shields erruled by them had varied sizes and were

used in slightly different situations. One should also remember that thepresented picture o diversity with respect to chronology and distribution


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o circular umbones is significantly hindered by a sudden decrease in thenumber o Celtic materials dating rom the 2ndand the 1stcentury B.C.

and resulting rom changes in the burial ritual o the La ne culture.It is difficult to determine the character o influences which led

to the re-introduction o umbones with closed calottes in the Celticenvironment. Without doubt, the expansion o the Roman state in theCeltic area had undamental significance or the cultural situation.Also, the contribution rom Germanic tribes should not be disregarded,which began to play an important role in the politics o Rome startingrom the end o the first hal o the 1st century B.C. Te presence oGermanic tribes on the lef bank o the Rhine is confirmed by writtenand archaeological sources. Nevertheless, the tradition o using shieldswith circular umbones, which persisted in extensive areas o Europeat the beginning o the La ne period (the Apennine and the IberianPeninsula), should also be taken into consideration (Couissin 1926,144, 145; Stary 1981, 293, 294, 298, 300, 301, Abb. 1; Lorrio 1997, 192194). Tis tradition survived in the Iberian Peninsula until the 2ndcentury B.C. which is testified to by written sources (Polybius, History,III, 114, Diodor o Sicily, Historical Library, V, 33). Sporadic applicationo round shields with circular umbones in the Celtic environment iscorroborated by stele presentations rom Clunia, dating rom the period

o the reign o Octavian Augustus or an earlier period (Blazquez 1963,412414, Picture No. 8, 9). It cannot be ruled out that the relativelyquick reception or reintroduction o shields with circular calottes inthe Celtic environment is a result o the continued existence o localproduction traditions and usage o this type o armament. It is necessaryto emphasise that at the beginning o the period o Roman influence,a group o hybrid shields appeared, combining certain eatures o thetwo separate structural concepts which were used in the La ne period(i.e. shields erruled with umbones with closed calottes and with opencalottes reinorcing the vertical rib). Certain specimens o shields o one

type have eatures characteristic o the second type. An example hereis provided by a shield with a rib, yet erruled with a circular umbo,which is presented on an early Roman altar rom Nmes (Picture No.10.3) (Dechelette 1914, Picture 496). Without doubt, in this case theumbo divides the rib into two parts, weakening the shield structure.An important example depicting how the two concepts o shieldstructure overlapped may be early Roman umbones o the Mehrum type(Picture No. 10.1) (Gechter, Kunow 1983, 466; Abb. 16, 13; Zieling 1989,132; Kaczanowski 1992, 61, 62, Picture No. 15.1; Waurick 1994, 8, 11,

Abb. 7.3) and the so-called spindle-shaped umbones (Picture No. 10.2)(Bockius 1989; Kaczanowski 1992a, 62, Picture No. 15.2; Waurick 1994,


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8, 22, 23, Abb. 7.7; 14.4). Te Mehrum type umbones, known only romthree locations, are umbones with circular edges and circular calottes

with a marked rib (Picture No. 10.1). In the opinion o P. Kaczanowski,the described umbones did not comprise the legionaries armament,yet they were used by the auxiliaries; i.e., units in which representativeso individual ethnic groups inhabiting the Roman provinces served(Kaczanowski 1992, 62; Waurick 1994,passim). Tese could have beenCelts or members o the Tracian tribes (Kaczanowski 1992, 62). Tespindle-shaped umbones reer to the errules o Celtic shields, yet therib which they reinorced was so delicate that most probably it did nothave any major unctional significance. Dating o these specimens,younger both with respect to typical specimens with open and closedcalottes, indicates that they cannot be considered intermediate ormsbetween the two basic types o shield structure. Tese relics can becompared to the Bartodzieje type umbones, which are two centuriesolder and which also combined certain eatures typical or circular andrectangular umbones.

Recapitulation

Circular and band-shaped umbones represent different traditions,

and there are no relations o genetic character between them. Techaracteristics o the older types o umbones used by the people othe Przeworsk culture in the late Pre-Roman period, which havebeen presented above, clearly indicates that the finds o band-shapedumbones, deriving rom the Celtic environment, remain in a clearminority with respect to umbones with closed calottes. Tereore, itcan be assumed that the people inhabiting Polish lands at the beginningo the late Pre-Roman period more ofen used shields without therib reinorcing the structure. Umbones with closed calottes errulingthem were known in the Polish lands since phase A1. Tereore, thesefinds demarcate the older horizon o errules rom the times o Celticdomination in Europe and, at the same time, constitute a beginningstage o evolution o metal umbones, which were used in the area o theBarbaricum in the late Pre-Roman period and in the period o Romaninfluence. Te emergence o hemispherical umbones may be considereda result o the usion o local traditions related with the applicationo hypothetical leather umbones and impacts rom the Celtic circlemaniested in the popularisation o iron processing.


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Wczesne umba koliste kultury przeworskiej.

Rola tradycji lokalnych i wpyww celtyckichna zrnicowanie metalowych czcitarczy w pocztkach modszego okresuprzedrzymskiego

Streszczenie

Artyku omawia genez i zrnicowanie najstarszych umb koli-stych, przedstawiono rwnie skrtowo podstawowe dane dotyczceumb tamowatych. Omwiono zasadnicze rnice konstrukcyjne po-midzy tarczami z eberkiem okutym umbem tamowatym oraz tar-czami o paskiej pycie, wzmocnionymi umbem z zamknit kalot.Umba koliste byy powszechnie uywane w Europie w okresie halszta-ckim i w pocztkach okresu lateskiego i naley przypuszcza, e wy-ksztaciy si one niezalenie w rnych czciach Europy; na PwyspieIberyjskim, Apeniskim, na Wyspach Brytyjskich oraz w Europie rod-kowej. Problem genezy metalowego umba kolistego, ktre pojawio siw Europie rodkowej w okresie dominacji celtyckiej, nie zosta dotych-

czas wyjaniony. Cz badaczy uwaa je za miejscowy wytwr ludnocizamieszkujcej rodkowoeuropejskie Barbaricum, zdaniem innych na-tomiast, umba tego typu powstay jako wynik ewolucji lateskich ormtamowatych. W artykule przedstawiono argumenty przemawiajceza pierwsz z opcji, oraz podwaono hipotez przeciwn, m.in. zwraca-

jc uwag na akt, e pierwsze metalowe umba koliste s starsze od umbuwaanych za ormy porednie midzy tamowatymi a kolistymi.

Zdaniem autora, najstarsze metalowe umba koliste powstay w wy-niku zaadaptowania nowego surowca elaza w miejsce innych uy-wanych wczeniej substancji organicznych, np. skry. Skrzane tarcze

z kolistymi umbami znane s z Wysp Brytyjskich, a na stosowanie zbli-onych oson na ziemiach polskich wskazuj rda ikonograficzne.Skrzane umba maj ksztat zbliony do niskiej kopuy, a przeniesienietego ksztatu na wyrb metalowy jest stosunkowo proste i nie wymagawyspecjalizowanych narzdzi. Sposb obrbki skry i blachy metalowejoczywicie rni si od siebie zasadniczo, jednak materiay te s zbli-one do siebie, jeeli chodzi o moliwoci modelowania wybranychksztatw. Wspomniane podobiestwo mogo by przyczyn, dla kt-rej blach elazn obrabiano naladujc umba skrzane, a nie drewnia-

ne. Naley bowiem zauway, e wyduony ksztat najstarszych umbdrewnianych ze Skandynawii (Kvrlv, Hjortspring) jest uwarunkowany


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wknist struktur drewna. Gdy drono w drewnie umbo, nadawanomu ksztat wrzecionowaty, by zapobiec pkaniu najbardziej delikatnych

partii, tj. tych, ktre ksztatowano tnc w poprzek sojw. W artyku-le przedstawiono rwnie zrnicowanie najstarszych umb z zamknitkalot, w tym tzw. umb typu Bartodzieje, ktre zdaniem autora naleyuwaa za orm lokaln, typow dla kultury przeworskiej.

08_bochnak analecta umbones.pdf

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