المحور الأول · web view... questions 93-106 are incomplete sentences. beneath...

ثانوى – اعدادى – ابتدائى مدرسعام موجه – اول موجه – موجه – - ناظر وكيل – اول مدرس

: - ..............هى مواد ثالث فى تمتحن سوف A 01 العربية اللغة اللغوية الكفاءة P 02- 03 – 04 التربوية الكفاءة C 29 االنجليزية اللغة التخصص مادة فى الكفاءة

بالثالث تفتحها التى االلكترونية صفحتك على الوزارة لك ارسلت: ارقام

السر كلمة – القومى الرقم– الكود رقم تمارين عدة معها و فيها تمتحن سوف التى الموضوعات عناوين

عينات 10 : 1 من الصفحات فى هنا موجودة

الصفحات االنجليزية اللغة فى العشوائيات تمارين لك اضفنا و35 : 11 من

مذكرة فى العربى و التربوى عشوائيات *** تمارينمنفصلة

العربية 1 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عاماالسراء بنين –مكتبة الصنايع امام

اإلنجليزية اللغة معلمي كفايات ) حسب االنجليزية اللغة منها تتكون التى الموضوعات عناوين

( العشوائيات امتحانات1- Professional Competency

1.1- Theoretical Background I-General information on language acquisition and learning, including factors

affecting them: 1 -Familiarity with basic theories of first language acquisition:

- Behaviorist - Cognitive-Code learning

2- Knowledge about main factors that affect 2nd language learning:

- Amount of exposure- Motivation- Attitude- Aptitude

II- General Information on different language teaching methods: 1 -Grammar Translation Method

2 -Audio-lingual Method 3 -Communicative Approach

4-Community language learning 5-Eclectic method

III- Contrastive and Error Analyses:1-Transfer of first language2-Error identification and classification3-Remedial proceduresIV-Information on main type English language tests.- Proficiency- Achievement- Aptitude- Diagnostic

1.2- Practical Background:I- Techniques of teaching:

)A( Language Elements:-Pronunciation [Discrimination exercises, minimal pairs, production….] [Types of exercises: mechanical, meaningful communicative]-Grammar & Structure:


(Types of exercises; mechanical, meaningful, communicative ) -Vocabulary:

] Recognition and production :synonyms, antonyms, use of words in Sentences, guessing meaning from context….]

)B( Skills- Listening:

] Listening comprehension: sentences, dialogues, extended texts[- Speaking:

] Teaching dialogues, activities that promote speaking: pair work, team work, games[..……

- Reading: ] loud reading, intensive and extensive reading , reading strategies:

scanning, skimming[…… - Writing: [ copying , controlled, guided and free composition; mechanics and paragraph writing ] )C( General knowledge about learning-teaching

strategiesII-Techniques of testing:

-Techniques of testing students performance on English language elements and skills)sound system, grammatical structures, vocabulary, listening, speaking,

reading and writing(.

III- Use of educational aids in language teaching:

Visual aids: pictures, maps, graphs...etc Audio aids: radio, tape recorder, language labs...etc. Video recording and computers2. Linguistic Competency2.1. Competencies in Language Skills and Functions

2.1.1. Listening Comprehension:

Ability to:)1( understand face-to-face communication.)2( follow speech and conversations about most survival needs and limited social conventions.)3( follow an extended stretch of speech on general topics.

Level of performance:Vocabulary permits understanding of topics beyond basic survival needs such as personal history and leisure-time activities. Evidence of understanding all basic grammatical structures.


2.1.2. Speaking:

Ability to:)1( satisfy most survival needs and social demands.)2( initiate a conversation, and handle with confidence most social situations, including introductions and casual conversations about current events.)3( give a short presentation on a general topic.)4( reasonably describe and give precise information.

Level of performance: Articulation is comprehensible. Has sufficient working vocabulary to permit discussion of topics beyond basic survival needs. Has sufficient control of basic grammatical patterns.

2.1.3. Reading:

)1( Sufficient comprehension abilty to understand a passage for personal communication, information or recreational purposes.)2( Has ability to read with understanding social notes, letters and invitations.)3( Has ability to skim and scan texts to locate and derive main ideas of passages on familiar topics.)4( Is able to read aloud in a proper manner with correct pronunciation of English sounds, observing prosodic features such as stress and intonation.)5( Shows spontaneity in reading by ability to guess meaning from contexts.

Level of performance: Has a reasonable stock of passive vocabulary required to understand a text on a common topic. Has the knowledge of all grammatical structures needed for understanding any text of a general nature. Has a reasonable knowledge of common cohesive devices and their functions and meanings.

2.1.4. Writing:

)1( Has sufficient control of writing system to meet most survival needs and social demands.)2( Has ability to write simple social correspondence.)3( Has ability to take notes on familiar topics.)4( Has ability to write cohesive summaries, and resumes, short narratives and descriptions on familiar topics.

Level of performance: -Has sufficient writing vocabulary to allow a person to express himself in different life situations. -Shows good control of basic grammatical constructions.


2.1.5. Translation:)1( Has ability to translate a short and simple passage on a familiar topic from English into idiomatic Arabic and from Arabic into English.)2( Shows ability to translate short oral communications between English and Arabic.

Appendix

2.2. Language Components2.2.1.Competency in Pronunciation:

Ability to recognize and produce the following:IntonationStatements Falling Requests Wh-QuestionsYes/No questions Rising Confirmation Question Repetition Question Challenge Protest Long utterances sustained + Falling/ Rising Question TagStressPlacement of primary stress ) especially in bisyllabic words(Phrasal stress ) normal x for emphasis(RhythmStress timed x syllable timed )English vs. Arabic(Vowelsi: seat, seei x e sit x sete: latee let æ x a cat x father

above cut, mother

a fatheru: pool, fool u pull, full

xu pot x puto x boat, coal, sow bought, call, saw

ay high, lightau now, house

y boy, foilConsonants

p x b pin x bin b t d


k gč x š chair x share j x ž large x mirage f x v θ x s bath x bass )for speakers of some Arabic dialects( ð x z though x zoo ) = = = = = = = ( s z š fish ž measure , vision h m n x ng long l x l )clear x dark l( low x law r ) retroflex in American English( y and w yet, win-------------------------------------------------N.B. X means “in contrast with”Consonant clusters

Initial consonant clusters: especially s+consonant (+consonant) as in street , star, specialMorphophonemics Realization of the {Z} and {D}morphemes 1- {Z} plural, Possessive, 3rd Person. -s: /s/,/z/,/ iz/ ) books, figs, matches( 2- {D} past and past participle --ed: / t/, /d/, / Id/ ) looked, rubbed, seated(Allophonic Variants(Discrimination for comprehension)

I.Inter vocalic t and d : matter, ladder )in American English(II. Assimilation of t to )n( and )r( : center, twenty, thirty, forty )in American English(

Competency in Grammatical StructuresAbility to distinguish and use the following:Sentence typesTypes1- Declarative sentences ) affirmative and negative(2- Interrogative sentences ) affirmative and negative( 2.1 Yes/no questions 2.2 Question-word sentences 3-Imperative sentences ) affirmative and negative( 3.1 Commands 3.2 Polite requests4-Exclamatory sentences Short sentences1-Short answers )type: )Yes,( I am; )No,( I cannot( 2-Short questions )type: Are you? Can’t you( 3-Question-tags ) type: You aren’t afraid, are you?(


Sentence Types:1--Simple sentences, up to those containing two complements 2- Compound sentences: Co-ordination with and, but, or 3-Complex sentences: Sentences containing object-clauses, Subject- clauses )type: It is a pity that you cannot (, adverbial clauses of time, place, condition, cause/ reason, relative clausesVerbs 1- Main verbs ( see vocabulary list)2- Copula: BE Semi-copulas:BECOME (I may become a doctor) GET( He’s getting old) FALL( He’s fallen ill) FEEL ( I don’t feel quite well) REMAIN ( Will it remain dry today)STAY ( It won’t stay dry for long)3- Auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries:tense/aspect:HAVE: perfect and pluperfect BE: present continuous and past continuous BE GOING TO: future WILL future voice: BE periphrasis : Do modality : CAN: ability, capability, possibility, permission COULD: see CAN; also: suggestion BE ABLE TO: ability, capabilityBE GOING TO: intention ; futureMAY: uncertainty ; permission MIGHT: see MAYBE ALLOWED TO: permission BE SUPPOSED TO: permission MUST: logical conclusion ; obligation HAVE TO: obligation NEED )+ not(absence of obligation OUGHT TO: advisability; right/wrong SHALL:)in questions(: offer, suggestion SHOULD: right/wrong; disapproval

WILL: intention; request, capacity; futureWOULD: see WILL ; also enquiry, requestForms 1- Finite forms 2- Infinitive: 2-1 plain infinitive ) V inf(: with auxiliaries; with let’s, let me, I’d rather .

infinitive with ) V to(: with semi- auxiliaries ) have to, ought to, be going to, etc(; with main verbs ) hate, like, try, want(; with predicative adjectives )how nice, be sorry, be glad, be delighted) 3- Imperatives


4- Past participle ) V ed(: in perfect and pluperfect; in passive; after causative HAVE 5- Present participle/gerund ) V ing(: in continuous tenses; after come, enjoy, go, hate, like, remember; after prepositions

Voice:1-Active2-Passive Aspect :1-Simple2-Perfect3-ContinuousTenses:1-Present 2-Past ) including ‘ modal past’ of auxiliaries : COULD, MIGHT, OUGHT TO, SHOULD, WOULD (3-Future ) with will, be going to, and continuous tenses of verbs of motion(

NounsNumber:

1-Singular 2-Plural Function:1-Nouns as head of NP 2-Attributive nouns, especially material nouns

AdjectivesFunction:1-Attributive 2-Predictive

Form:1-Positive degree 2-Comparative degree ) -er, more (; irregular forms of those ‘irregular’ adjectives, such as better.

Superlative degree ) -est, most (; irregular forms of those ‘irregular’ ajectives such as best.

Comparison:1-Equality as ………….as 2-Inequality: not so… as; comparative + than; superlative Adverbs Forms: 1-derivation with –ly 2-Non-derived adverbs, eg soon, fast: see the vocabulary list.

Comparison:See under AdjectivesArticlesDefinite article: the Indefinite article: a )n(


Absence of definite article in cases such as to go to school, in summer, to have dinner Pronouns( including pronominal adjectives)1- personal: subject forms and object forms 2- possessive2.1 adjectives: my, your, their, etc 2.2 pronouns: mine, yours, theirs, etc; used as complement, used as subject 3- demonstrative3.1 adjectives: this, that, these, those, such 3.2 pronouns: this, that, these, those 4- interrogative4.1 adjectives: whose, what, which 4.2 pronouns: who, whom, whose, what, which

5- relative: who, whose, whom, which, that6- definite: someone, somebody, no-one, not … anyone, nobody, everybody, something, nothing, everything, all )as in: They all went home; and in: I want all of it ( some )as in Some of them went home (, any ) as in Have you got any money? I haven’t any money (, it ) as in: It is raining ( 7- emphatic: myself, yourself, etc. )example: I’ve done it myself( 8- prop-word: one ) example : I like the red one better( Numerals1-Cardinal: up to four digits, up to nine digits 2-Ordinal : up to two digits)first to 99th( Also : half, quarterWord orderBasic pattern:Subject-predicate complement(s)Derived patterns:Yes/no question pattern Wh-question pattern Negative sentence pattern with not Passive voice pattern Imperative pattern Indirect object replacement by to-adjunct Position of adverbials : initial position, final position, after auxiliaries Word formationAdverb-derivation with –ly

Compounds and derivatives 2.2.3. Competency in vocabulary Has a reasonable stock of passive vocabulary required tounderstand a written or heared a text on common topics.Has a reasonable stock of active vocabulary required to express himself in speaking and writing in topics beyond basic survival needs such as history and leisure time activities.Section Three : Grammatical StructureDirections : Questions 93-106 are incomplete sentences. Beneath each sentence you will see four words or phrases, marked )A(, )B(, )C(, and )D(. Choose the word or phrase that best completes the sentence.


Proficiency Test for English Language Teachers

1- I ------------- the book but when I heard what the critics said I changed my mind.

a) was going to buyb) would have boughtc) was buyingd) am going to buy

2 - She ------------- him before 1968.a) has seenb) sawc) had seend) seen

3 - It was snowing when the refugees ------------- .a) have arrivedb) arrivedc) had arrivedd) were arrived

4 - Mary is waiting ------------- the Queen.a) to seeb) for seeingc) for to seed) at see

5 - She doesn’t want ------------- her.a) anybody helpedb) that anybody helpingc) anybody to helpd) that any body helps

6 - In the year 2005,he ------------- working here for 50 years.a) will have beenb) will bec) has beend) had been

7 - You ------------- drive carefully. The roads are slippery.a) would betterb) would ratherc) had betterd) had rather

8 - He doesn’t smoke. -------------a) I don’t too.b) Neither I do.c) I don’t neither.


d) Neither do I.9 - It’s raining. We have to return home, ------------- ?

a) don't web) wouldn’t wec) didn’t wed) isn’t it

10 - He knew everything ------------- was going on.a) what b) wherec) whomd) that

11 - Students have to spend a lot of time studying ------------- their own.a) on b) byc) ford) in

12 - He is very famous ------------- Great Britain.a) wholeb) all overc) in alld) all of

13 - They’re staying with their parents ------------- the time being.a) duringb) forc) sinced) when

14 - ____________ all her efforts the party was ruined.a) In spite ofb) Neverthelessc) Althoughd) However

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ـــ

sentences with missing words or phrases. From the words or phrases below each choose the one that best completes the sentence.

بها عبارات الجمل او العبارات. ناقصة كلمات او الكلمات من عبارة أو كلمة افضل اختار ادناه الجمله تالواردة كمل .

15- Keep your children away from this medicine ! It’s -------------.a) deadb) deadlyc) deathd) dying

16- Shakespeare has written many poems. He is a ------------- poet.العربية 11 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام

االسراء بنين –مكتبة الصنايع امام

a) largeb) hugec) tinyd) great

17- This new pot is -------------. You can put it on the stove.a) waterproofb) heatproofc) bulletproofd) soundproof

18- The patient is now in a ------------- condition.a) seriesb) medicalc) criticald) psychological

19- The new Saudi ------------- are twenty and two hundreds.a) currenciesb) moneyc) coinsd) banknotes

20- I wish you a good result in your exam. When are you ------------- it ?a) passingb) takingc) leavingd) doing


ــــIn each sentence below replace the boldface word with the one that has

the nearest meaning to it ادناه جمله كل المكتوبة في الكلمة( مائلة الكبير بحروف عن (البنط واحدة ب هايستعاض كلمة

لها ) معنى (اقرب21 - The Roman armies were defeated in 622 A.D.

a) inscribedb) enlistedc) retreatedd) beaten

22 - Bad deeds are disgraceful.a) shamefulb) beautifulc) shyd) happy

23 - Birds expand their wings when they are flying.a) protectb) inflate


c) contractd) shrink

24 - The population in Saudi Arabia increased from eight millions to fourteen millions in the past ten years.

a) produced b) decreasedc) reducedd) ascended


ــــ

Read the following text carefully. Then answer the questions on the basis of what is stated or implied by the text. Choose the word or phrase

that best completes the sentence . على االسءله عن االجابه ثم بعناية التالي النص أقرأ . اختار النص عليها تنطوي التي أو ورد ما او الاساس كلمة

ان العبارة ال الجمله تافضل كمل1- Visitors to America are immediately struck by the tremendous numbers of automobiles filling the highways and crowding the city streets. The automobile, which has transformed the American way of life, is the most indispensable workhorse of the family. During the week, the father drives it to his job in the city, alone, or in a “car pool” arrangement with several of his fellow workers. When he leaves it at home, his wife uses it constantly to do errands, to haul groceries, to drive children to lessons or appointments, to shops or swimming pools. On weekends, the family drives out to the country for a picnic lunch or may take a trip of several hundred miles. On vacations, no corner of the country is beyond the family’s reach.2- All of America has felt the changes, which came with the automobile and with the network of highways that have been built to serve it. Farmers, who live far from their neighbors, are no longer isolated. Tractors of the work of the many farmlands they cannot afford to hire, Trucks carry their products to market, to storage elevators or to railroads.3- Traffic jams in cities and along the approaches to cities, especially at morning and evening rush hours and at the start and end of weekends, are difficult problems. How to find out enough parking space in the cities, even with underground parking lots and many-storied “pigeonhole” parking structures in another. More highways and wider ones are needed as fast as they can be built.

من لهئالها االعدادب الفور على يصطدمون اامريك الى زوارال – 1 . المدينة شوارع بها كتظتو السريعه الطرق سدت التى السيارات

ال شيىء اكثر ىه ، االمريكى الحياة اسلوب حولت التي ، السياره في عمله الى األب يقودها االسبوع ايام فى. لالسرة عنها غنى

من العديد مع ترتيبه السابقالسيارات" "مجمع في او ، وحده ، المدينة زوجته فان ، المنزل في هايترك عندما هو والعاملين. زمالئه

لدفع ، البقاله محالت إلى ، المهماتب لقيامل باستمرار هاستخدمت السباحه. وحمامات المتاجر الى أو ، تعييناتال او الدروس الى االطفال

الغداء طعام لتناول السيارة تركب االسرة ، االسبوع نهاية عطلة في فان االجازات فىاالميال. من مئات عدة تستغرق قد خلوية رحلة في

االسرة اليها تصل ان يمكن البلد اطراف جميع


ومع السيارات مع جاءت التي ، التغييراتب شعرت امريكا -- كل2 الذين خدمتهم. المزارعين في بناؤها تم التي السريعه الطرق شبكة

عملت . الجرارات ينمعزول وادوعي لم ، مجيرانه عن بعيدا يعيشون نقلل شاحنات استئجار يستطيعون ال أنهمل المزارع من العديد فى

الحديديه. والسككا لتخزينا مصاعد الى ، السوق الى ممنتجاته ، لها الموصلة الطرق طول وعلى المدن في المروريه -- االختناقات3

ونهاية بداية في الذروة وساعات المساء وفي الصباح في وخصوصا من يكفي ما تجد الصعبة. كيف المشاكل هي ، االسبوع نهاية عطلة تحت السيارات مواقف مع حتى ، المدن في السيارات لوقوف اماكن اخرى. ابنية في المهملة السيارات وقوف اماكن من - والعديد االرض. المستطاع بقدر سريعا لبنائها يحتاجون السريعه الطرق من المزيد

25- The main topic of this passage is ------------- .a) The network of highwaysb) The American highwaysc) Trucks and Tractors in Americad) Cars and the American Life

26 - The automobile has had ------------- on the American society.a) A little effectb) hardly any effectc) an obvious effectd) no effect whatsoever

27 - The American father -------------.a) always drives alone to work.b) may share his car with other colleagues.c) drives his children to lessons.d) drives his wife to haul groceries.

28 - The American family may spend the weekend -------------.a) abroad.b) in downtown.c) out of town.d) in a family gathering.

29 - Thanks to the automobile, all American States have become -------------.a) within reach.b) more isolated.c) beyond reach.d) torn apart.

30 - Most American families ------------- cars.a) cannot affordb) do not badly needc) do not haved) cannot do without

31 - The word ‘ which ‘ in the first line of the second paragraph refers to -------------.


a) all Americansb) automobilesc) changesd) traffic


ــــLinguistics and Pedagogy التربيه اللغو وعلم يات

32 - -------------- is a feature in human language that allows for the making and interpretation of an infinite number of messages.

a) Arbitrarinessb) Creativityc) Interchanged) Displacement

33 - The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis is associated with ------------- . a) the cognitive theoryb) the behaviorist theoryc) the native theoryd) none of the above

34 - ------------- validity refers to the correlation between test scores and a trustworthy external criterion.

a) empiricalb) contentc) faced) rational

35- In constructing language tests, items are said to be satisfactory if ------------- .

a) they are at suitable level of difficultyb) they discriminate among students c) they improve students’ proficiencyd) A & B

36 - Transformational grammar -------------.a) ignores the relationship between sentences with the same meaningb) generates only the grammatical sentences of a languagec) tries to modify the learner’s linguistic behaviord) is none of the above37 - ------------- suffixes do not usually change the grammatical class of the words

to which they are attached.a) Inflectionalb) Derivationalc) Morphologicald) Functional

38 - A native speaker can in most cases -------------.a) give an account of the rules of his language.


b) list all the possible sentences of his language.c) A & Bd) None of the above.

39 - The Critical Period Hypothesis presents strong evidence for the ------------- theory of language acquisition.

a) cognitiveb) behavioristc) nativistd) situational

40 - In the production of ------------- the passage of the air stream is relatively unobstructed.

a) vowelsb) nasalsc) sibilantd) fricatives

41 - In the grammar translation method, ------------- .a) elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given b) grammar is taught inductively c) there is little explanationsd) grammar is postponed to a later stage

42 - Within the cognitive approach, language acquisition is seen as ------------- .a) rule formationb) habit formationc) skill formationd) function formation

43 - The eclectic method of foreign language teaching necessitates that the teachers ------ .

a) apply the easiest from the various methods b) choose the best from the various methodsc) apply one method in each class periodd) apply at lest two methods in each class period

44 - The best course design is the one that ------------- .a) promotes a positive social climate in the classroomb) enhances student motivationc) makes teaching enjoyable for the teacherd) all of the above.45 - ------------- is such a natural and normal human activity that few aspects of it

really need much overt instruction.a) Listeningb) Speakingc) Readingd) B & C

46 - For students learning to read in a new language some previous ------------- ability is necessary.

a) written languageالعربية 16 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام


b) simple languagec) oral languaged) real language

47 - Teaching productive skills means teaching ------------- .a) speaking and listeningb) listening and readingc) speaking and readingd) writing and speaking48 - The technique of ------------- is an activity where a student needs information

from others to complete a particular task.a) filling in a blankb) information gapc) critical readingd) matching49 - The primary objective in teaching speaking is the development of -------------

ability.a) oral communicationb) phonologicalc) pronunciationd) good English

50 - Grammar teaching is the explicit teaching of language ------------- .a) forms b) wordsc) functiond) meaning

51 - Reading in a second language normally requires processes similar to reading in a ---------------- language.

a) firstb) secondc) thirdd) foreign

52 - In preparing a test for intensive reading we should note that ----------- texts should used.

a) short, simpleb) short, complexc) long, detailedd) long, complex53 - Process oriented writing instruction places more emphasis on the -----------

in producing a piece of writing.a) stages that writers go through b) knowledge that writers employ c) experience that writers have d) time that writers spend

54 - Good pronunciation requires the ability to correctly produce and use ----------- .


a) Sounds, stress, and intonation.b) Sounds, stress, and meanings.c) Sound, words, and meanings.d) Sound, words and production.

55 - A crossword puzzle helps students develop ----------- knowledge.a) readingb) orthographyc) lexicald) writing

56 - Teaching words in isolation is not recommended because -----------.a) some words have different meanings b) context helps to clarify the meanings of the wordc) the function of the word in a sentence helps to determine its meaning d) all the above

57 - Techniques for guessing meanings of the words from context include : -----------

a) activating background knowledge. b) Obtaining clues from structure and surrounding words.c) Understanding pronunciation and punctuation.d) All the above.

58 - Using technology in teaching helps teachers -----------.a) present demonstrationsb) enhance course contentc) provide additional illustrationsd) all the above

59 -Using multimedia software helps ------ students to increase their learning ability.

a) disabledb) shyc) weakd) all the above

60 - Road maps are generally used in the teaching of ----------- .a) grammatical structuresb) reading comprehensionc) listening practiced) A & B

61 - In effective language teaching, computers are best used as ----------- .a) substitutes for teachersb) aids to teachersc) means of entertainmentd) substitutes for textbooks

62 - In preparing material for language lab practice, it is best to ----------- .a) read from the textbook directlyb) use transcripts for the purposec) dictate to the recording person


d) memorize the material first63 - A good language teacher uses magazine pictures to -----------.

a) teach language skills and elementsb) decorate the classroomc) make teaching more enjoyabled) teach good pronunciation.

64 - Flash cards are more commonly used to teach ----------- .a) listeningb) vocabulary itemsc) writing exercisesd) reading aloud

65 - We can use both flannel boards and magnetic boards to display pictures and cards. However, ----------- .

a) flannel boards are more effectiveb) magnetic boards are easier to usec) they are similard) chalkboards are better than both66 -Composite pictures may be effectively used in the teaching of ____________ .a) speaking and writingb) reading comprehension onlyc) grammatical structures mainlyd) young learners only


ــــGrammatical Structure

Questions are incomplete sentences. Beneath each sentence you will see four words or phrases. Choose the one word or phrase that best completes the sentence.

النحويه التراكيب جمل لهئاسال . هى او كلمات اربع سترى جمله كل تحت ناقصه

عبارة. أو كلمة افضل اختار .تعبارات الجمله كمل67- I will have been there ----------- .

a( for 3monthsb( during 3 monthsc( since 3 monthsd( whilst 3 months

68 - I haven’t ----------- this week.a( much peopleb( anybodyc( no peopled( someone

69 - Send him to the baker’s ----------- some bread.


a( in order he buysb( for to buyc( to buyd( for buying

70 - ----------- the baby while I’am in the kitchen.a( Look to b( Take carec( Look afterd( Care

71 - It looks ----------- it’s going to rain.a( thatb( as ifc( asd( like that

72 - He was very angry -----------his wife.a( onb( toc( atd( upon

73 - When we arrived at the office we found that someone ----------- during the night.

a( had broken in b( has broken in c( broke in d( have broken in

74 - Studying English is hard at first , but you soon ----------- .a( are used to itb( get use itc( are use it d( get used to it

75 - Not only ------ to London , but she also visited other less well known cities in England.

a( she wentb( went shec( did she god( she did

76 - Now remember, you ----------- the test until the teacher tells you to.a( are not startingb( are not to startc( haven’t startedd( needn’t start


77 - ----------- had we started watching the film when our friends came round for a chat.

a( Hardlyb( Slightlyc( Littled( Rarely

78 - She was thought ----------- the car in London.a( to buyb( buyingc( to have boughtd( might buy

79 - Our house ----------- as soon as possible. It’s in an awful state.a( needs redecoratingb( to redecoratec( redecoratedd( is redecorated

80 - He eventually managed ----------- the door by kicking it hard.a( openb( openingc( to opend( to have opened


ــــVocabulary

Sentences with missing words or phrases. From the words or phrases below each choose the one that best completes the sentence.

المفرداتبها عبارات الجمل او العبارات. ناقصة كلمات او الكلمات من

عبارة أو كلمة افضل اختار ادناه الجمله تالواردة كمل .81- The initials G.C.C. -----------Gulf Cooperative Council.

a( look for b( account for c( make ford( stand for82- You don’t have to be worried about the journey to the airport. Your brother

is going to -------a( take you offb( see you offc( bring you upd( give you for


83 - My father and I have the same character, I ----------- him much more than my brother.

a( look at b( take off c( look upd( take after

84 - Stop thinking about it. Don’t let this result ----------- .a( get you offb( get you downc( get you ond( get you up

85 - Please make your check -----------to Saudi Business Machine.a( paymentb( paidc( payabled( pay


ــــ In each sentence below there is a word in boldface. From the words below each choose the one that has the nearest meaning to the boldfaced word.

ادناه جمله كل )في مائلة بحروف المكتوبة البنطالكلمةعن (الكبير واحدة ب هايستعاض لها )كلمة معنى (اقرب

86 - The Roman armies were defeated in 622 A.D.a( inscribedb( enlistedc( retreatedd( beaten

87 - Bad deeds are disgraceful.a( shamefulb( beautifulc( shyd( happy88 - He is an aggressive person. He does not care about other people’s feeling .a( passiveb( offensivec( attackingd( opponent

89- Sorry! The general director is not available today.a( active


b( passivec( aroundd( connected


ـــLinguistics and Pedagogy التربيه اللغز وعلم يات

90- ---------------------- Phonetics deals with the properties of sounds as represented in variations in the sound wave.

a( Acousticb( Articulatoryc( Auditoryd( Generative

91- When a speech sound undergoes a change in articulation in connected speech, becoming more like a neighboring sound, this process is known as

---------- a( Assimilationb( Aspirationc( Adaptationd( articulation

92- The strong version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis -------------- . a( attempts to predicat all errors produced by L2 learnersb( deals only with errors resulting from L1 interferencec( does not predict L2 errors but only explains themd( All of the above93- According to the nativist theory, the key factor that determines success in

first language acquisition is --------------- .a( child general inteligenceb( amount of exposure to languagec( imitation of parentsd( teaching techniques employed

94- In standardized test --------------- .a( the writing and evaluation of the test are done by the same person.b( the number of subjects tested is usually large.c( We make use of composition and short answer techniques.d( All of the above

95---------------- serve to indicate the extent to which an individual has mastered specific skills or body of information acquired in a formal situation.

a( Proficiency testsb( Aptiude testsc( Achievement tests


d( Objective tests96- Dictation is a useful testing technique that can be used to test ---------------

a( spellingb( listening comprehensionc( general proficiencyd( all of the above

97- Objective tests are those in which individual items --------------- .a( have only one correct answerb( can discriminate among examineesc( are balanced in length and difficultyd( have appropriate distractors

98- According to Dell Hymes, the knowledge of rules for the conduct and interpretaion of speech is known as --------------- .

a( distinctive competenceb( grammatical competencec( communicative competenced( linguistic competence

99- In my opinion the errors that L2 learners produce are .a( signs of imperfect learning and should be eradicatedb( natural by product of the learning processc( signs of poor teachingd( the result of L1 interference

100- The ideal linguistic input (i.e. speech addressed to L2 learners) for acquiring a second language should be ---------------.

a( comprehensibleb( relevant to the learners’ immediate interestsc( not too complesd( all of the above

101- Individualized instruction is basically the recognition that ---------------a( students have different needs and abilitiesb( a single method may not be successful or appropriate to all studentsc( students learn at different rates of speedd( all of the above102- Gardner defines integrative motivation as the learner’ desire to ---------------

a( be identified as a member of the target cultureb( get a high pay jobc( obtain a prestigious social statusd( B & C

103- In learning foreign languages, the critical period hypothesis stipulates that---

a( children are superior to adultsالعربية 24 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام


b( adults are superior to childrenc( children and adults are equald( None of the above.104- In the --------------- approach, there is dependence on mimicry, memorization

of set phrases, and overlearning.a( communicativeb( audiolingualc( cognitived( linguistic

105 - In the audiolingual approach, there is emphasis on--------------- . a( pronunciation.b( communicationc( intonationd( both A & C106 - Of the four skills of language ---------------in the one that is least understood.a( listeningb( speakingc( readingd( writing

107- Using monolingual dictionary work, and the key word method are widely used to teach --------------- .

a( speakingb( readingc( writingd( vocabulary

108- Teaching grammar goes into the following three stages : ---------------a( Presentation, demonstration and practice.b( Teaching rules, providing examples and doing exercise.c( Teaching, demonstration and homework .d( Reading, demonstration and writing.

109- A literate student can acquire the details of reading in a second language ---------------an illiterate one.

a( shower than b( as fast as c( as slow as d( faster than

110- Teaching receptive skills means teaching --------------- .a( speaking and readingb( listening and readingc( speaking and writingd( writing and speaking


111- Grammar teaching is concerned with explicit teaching of language --------------

a( forms b( meaning c( use d( words

112- When we ask students to read a text, evaluate it, and react to it, we are teaching--------------- .

a( thorough reading b( critical reading c( scanningd( skimming

113- The purpose of teaching speaking is to allow students to---------------

a( express themselvesb( repeat sentencesc( repeat what they heard in the classroomd( express language function114- A test that measures the learning of material in a particular course is called

a (n) --------------- test.a( closeb( multiple choicec( aptituded( achievement

115- --------------- are not based on a particular program.a( Progress Testsb( Placement Testsc( Achievement Testsd( Proficiency tests116- A test that requires filling in words in words that have been deleted from a

paragraph is called a (n) --------------- test.a( closeb( achievementc( multiple-choiced( true.valse

117- Testing experts consider dictation as a test of --------------- .a( spellingb( general language proficiencyc( listeningd( all the above

118- A close test is generally used to test the --------------- skill.العربية 26 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام


a( reading b( writingc( listeningd( speaking

119- Language test results are beneficial for --------------- .a( teachers and the administrationb( students and parentsc( curriculum and syllabus designersd( using word functions and meanings

120- While one prepares his test, one should --------------- .a( spend adequate time in developmentb( match his tests to the contentc( make his test valid, reliable, and balancedd( be all the above

121- The language lab is best used in the teaching of --------------- . a( good writingb( reading comprehensionc( free conversationsd( listening comprhension

122- An overhead projector can effectively be used to teach--------------- .a( reading and writing onlyb( speaking and other skillsc( listening comprehension especiallyd( grammatical structures mainly

123- Flash cards are commonly used to teach --------------- .a( grammatical structuresb( vocabulary itemsc( writing exercisesd( reading aloud

124- We can use both flannel boards and magnetic boards to display pictures and cards. However, --------------- .

a( flannel boards are more effectiveb( magnetic boards are easier to usec( they are similard( chalkboards are better than both

125- Composite pictures may be effectively used in the teaching of ---------------

a( speaking and writingb( reading comprehension onlyc( grammatical structures mainlyd( young learners only


126-Using technology in teaching help to --------------- .a( present demonstrationsb( enhance course contentc( provide additional illustrationsd( all the aboveــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــAdvanced Grammar Exercises Exercise 1

Fill in the gaps using the word(s) in the following list:

was - once - however - were - such - used to - that - owing to - 'd rather - since - little - not - do - so - to

1- I -------------------------- that you didn't drive so fast.2- Although fraternal twins are born at the same time, they do not

tend to resemble each other any more than ------------------other siblings.

3- Not -------------------I started school have I had so much spare time.

4- ----------------------afraid were the townspeople that they hardly ventured out of their neighbourhoods.

5- --------------------- did the soldiers know about the attack of the enemy.

6- --------------------- have not been invited to the party made her upset.

7- --------------------- unless I do my homework will my parents allow me to go to the party.

8- Caroline ------------------------ to have spent the entire summer sculpting, but she ended up working at a bank for a month.

9- Not ------------------ have I missed my English class this year.10- It ------------------ be my brother who did all the cooking, but now

we all help.11- --------------------- the fact that we had been burned by the sun,

we applied a soothing ointment to our faces.12- ---------------------- languages have many differences is obvious.13- He would send me a post card ------------------ he to know my

address.14- You can't move that stone ----------------------- strong you are.


15- The police thoroughly investigated the burglary. They concluded that only experienced thieves could have accomplished --------------- a heist.

Advanced Grammar Exercises Exercise 2Fill in the gaps using the word(s) in the following list:

whose - such - as - there - nothing - much - if - never - be - happen - nor - are - that - seem - is

1- If you ------------------- to meet Peter, tell him to phone me.2- The Colorado River is used so much for irrigation, urban water

supplies, electricity generation and many other purposes ------------- the water is often used up before it reaches its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico.

3- I wouldn't recommend this movie to any of my friends. -------------- would I recommend it to my enemies.

4- I --------------- to have forgotten my homework assignment. Oh, wait, here it is in my notebook.

5- A number of students ---------------------- taking the TOEFL exam today.

6- The number of female students in my class ------------------------ 13.

7- I can't believe the things he told me about his friend. In my opinion, he really shouldn't divulge ---------------- personal information.

8- The ordinary cold, which is our most common sickness, is a viral disease ---------------- cure has not yet been found.

9- Migraines are usually worse than tension headaches and can be so intense ------------------- to cause vomiting and vision problems.

10- -------------------- in all my life have I heard such nonsense.11- What ---------------- I came tomorrow instead of this afternoon?12- It's essential that the application ------------------- sent very

quickly.13- ----------------- is the matter with the car. You are just a bad driver!14- ----------------- happens to be a lecture going on.


15- It wasn't so ----------------- his appearance I liked as his personality.


But - to - that - even - should - there - do - as - so - had - rarely - much - of - that - until

1- Marine reptiles are among the few creatures that are known to have a possible life span greater than ---------------------- of men.

2- She works in advertising ------------------ does her husband.3- He didn't so ----------------- as say thank you after all we had done

for him.4- I had never before met --------------------- gentle a person.5- ------------------- the two books, this one is more interesting.6- Sam used to live in Arizona, but his company ------------------- him

transferred to a better position in Georgia.7- -------------------- dolphins catch diseases from humans is true.8- -------------------- will honeybees sting unless provoked.9- Not ----------------- I get my degree can I apply for this job.10- -------------------- have not been killed by the robbers when they

broke into the bank made the clerk very happy.11- If you -------------------finish your work early, give me a ring.12- Egyptian students score better on IQ tests than -----------------

Japanese students.13- ------------------- are thought to be more than 3,000 languages in

the world.14- He seems nice. -----------------so, I don't trust him.15- I was last ----------------- two in the race yesterday.



be - as - whose - so - that - not since - such - whoever - since - are - but - to - is - though - for

1- Was it out of pity -------------------- he let the old man move into his house?

2- His request that she -------------------- promoted was turned down.3- -------------------- I was in elementary school have I been to the

theatre.4- Plants are known to need about the same vitamins for growth and

development -------------------- do animals.5- The committee is thinking of raising the subscription. I would oppose

------------------ a decision.6- For ------------------- benefit were all these changes made?7- ------------------- told you that was lying.8- We have had -------------------- little success with the natural remedies

that we are considering using other techniques.9- ------------------- they had spent too much time considering the new

contract, the students lost the opportunity to lease the apartment.10- Especially important to many people -------------------- legislation

against pollution.11- Primary candidates for heart diseases -------------------- people who

exhibit impatience and hostility.12- Many missiles, -------------------- developed principally as weapons,

have been adapted for research.13- I can't help -------------------- wonder what's going to happen to us

all.14- -------------------------- us to fail now is a disaster.15- She's the only scientist -------------------------- have won three Noble

prizes.



to - after - ever - not - much - as - if - none - that - nonetheless - only - but - besides - likewise - unless

1- The profits, -------------------- a little slower than last year's, are still good.

2- None ------------------ a dedicated scientist would want to read such a detailed report.

3- The assistant was ------------------ too helpful. He didn't give us all the information we needed.

4- My brother goes to school. ----------------- this, he manages to work 20 hours a week.

5- The garlic should be minced; -------------------- is, you chop it into very small pieces.

6- Peter turned in his paper on Friday. John did ------------------.7- I know mountain climbing can be dangerous. I'd like to try it ---------.8- ------------------ purified, oil can't be used.9- ------------------ if my parents give permission, can I go on the

weekend trip.10- ---------------- have lost so many lives in the war is a tragedy.11- --------------- for anything would I leave this town.12- He was angry ------------------ the way she behaved at the party.13- We -------------- prefer the country to the town.14- How ------------- did you manage to start the car?15- If he so much -------------------looks at another woman, I'll kill

him.ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ1 .Specific objectives can be.…………

a. observable and measurable.b. difficult to be observed and measured.c. focused on the student's behavior during a long periodof time.d. 1 and 3

2 .The smallest meaningful unit in languageis..…………a. phoneme. b. morpheme. c. allophone. d. allomorpheme.

3 .Linguistic approach concentrates on..……………a. key role of self – esteem and sense ofmastery.b. value of talk in the development ofthinking.c. social interaction is the key to success inlearning.d. attention on complex nature of thinking.


4" .What about going to the cinema" is an example of ..………………a. advising b. warning c. offering help d. suggesting

5 .One of the following is not a type ofliterature:a. drama b. poetry c. fiction d. prose

6 .All the following may create discipline problems except………… a. using sarcasm b. insisting on apologiesc. making threats d. using classroom language that suitsthe level of students.

7" .To look quickly through a reading passage to findsomething" is called……………

a. skimming b. scanning c. silent reading d. comprehension8 .The man told his children a …………………… aboutfairies

a. tail b.tale c.taile d. teil9 .When the teacher allows students to think, and givesmore time,

the result will be..…………a. students responses becoming more thoughtful andcreative.b. less students offering to answer.c. students willing not to ask morequestions.d. students giving shorter answers.

10 "..………………" .refers to the actions of the organs ofspeech in the producing the sound of speech.

a. Acoustics b. Phonetics c. Articulation d. Phonics11 .One of the following is not a Shakespeare'splay:

a. Macbeth b. Volpone c. Twelfth Night d. King Lear12 .Two of the following are receptiveskills:

a. reading and speaking b .speaking andwritingc. reading and writing d. listening andreading

13 ".Kinesics" is the study of…………………a. sounds b. language c. gestures d. nature

14 .Can you close one of the windows, please? I'll catch acold sitting in this ……….all day.

a. flood b. breeze c. wind d. draught15 .Which abbreviation do you use when you want to

addsomething at the end of a letter?a. PS b. PTO c. PM d. PLZ

16 .I am very tired. ……………… over four hundred milestoday


a. I drive b. I've driven c. I've been driving d. I'm driving17 .How ……………….are you?

a. weight b. heavy c. high d. long18 .The prefix ante in the word ante meridiemmeans..………………

a. together b. against c. before d. byoneself19 .The stress in the word "comfortable" is on.……………

a. com b.for c. ta d. ble20 .In the dialogue:

Teacher : What day was yesterday ? Student : Tuesday. The teacher uses:

a. easy question b. complex questionc. open question d. narrow question

21 .No one suspects us?…………………… .……………… ,a. are they b. don't they c. do they d. aren'tthey

22 .Hardly ………… the receiver down than there was a knock at the door.

a. had I put down b. I put down c. put I down d. had Idowned23( .ELT )is an abbreviation for:

a. Education Language Teaching. b. Educated Learners & Teachers.c. .English Learning& Teaching. d. English LanguageTeaching.

24 .Words that differ by only one phoneme arecalled..…………a. nominal pairs b. almost pairsc. minimal pairs d. none of the above

25 .Peter has two brothers, but he doesn't speak to ……….of them.a. either b. any c. both d. neither

26 .The government ………………….. said that the Prim Ministerwas sick and tired of the papers disappearing from his office.

a. speaksperson b. speak person c. spoken person d. spokesperson27 .……… .refers to the ability to breakdown material into its

component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood.

a. Synthesis b. Analysis c. Application d. Evaluation28 .A reward or punishment that strengthens or weakensa

behaviour is called.…………… a. stimulus b. response c. reinforcement d. conditioning

29 .We had a great time ……………the awfulweather.


a. but for b. in spite of c. except d. inspite30 .I think it's in my left. .………………

a. pocket of trousers b. pocket trousersc. trouser pocket d. trousers pocket

31 .The type of the test that identifies the test – taker's strengths and weaknesses is called a ……… test.

a. diagnostic b. placement c. proficiency d. summative32 .I am going to go out and..………………

a. have cut my hair b. let my hair cutc. have my hair cut d. my hair be cut

33 .One of the following doesn't contain the sound /θ/a. mouth b. breathe c. tooth d. beneath

34 .I'm looking for ………………. to cut thisstring.a. a pair of scissors b. some scissors c. a scissors d. ascissor

35 .One of the following is not from the conditions ofmotivation.a. students are motivated if they live in a secureenvironment.b. students are motivated when the subject matter isinteresting.c. students are motivated when they experience morefailure and success.d. students are motivated when they feel the learning forthem not for the teacher.

36 "……………… " .is learners use of the first patternslanguage in second languagesentence.a. Transfer b. Correlation c. Attitude d. Languageacquisition

37 .I didn't like it in the city at first, but now …………………. here.a. I got used to living b. I am used tolivingc. I used to live d. I used to living

38 .The final " ed" in the verb talked is pronounced as:a. /d/ b. /id/ c. /ed/ d. /t/

39 . Safety should come first, …………. lives shouldn't beput at risk.

a. people b. people's c. peoples' d. peoples40 . It's ……….. funny film, I laughed all the way throughit

a. so b. extremely c. that much d. such a41 . The two parties have settled their differences bycompromise

after a long debate. The underlined word means:a. an acceptable middle coarse agreement b. negotiationc. raising awareness d. revising past records

هذه هى اجابات نموذج اللغة اإلنجليزية العربية 35 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام


1 (1 2 (2 3 (2 4 (4 5 (3 6 (4 7 (2

8 (2 9 (1 10 (3 11 (2 12 (4 13 (3 14 (415 (1 16 (2 17 (2 18 (3 19 (1 20 (4 21 (322 (1 23 (4 24 (3 25 (1 26 (4 27 (2 28 (329 (2 30 (4 31 (1 32 (3 33 (2 34 (2 35 (3

36 (1 37 (2 38 (4 39 (2 40 (4 41(1

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C11 لالبتدائى االنجليزية اللغة1- Which of the following is NOT a complete sentence?(a) He saw a fire and called the police.(b) I had a cheese sandwich for lunch.(c) All the girls in my class who sit in the back.(d) She studied very hard and got good grades.[ 004298]_______________________________________________ _________2- Choose the corrct answer:The picture________ to the museum.(a) being given(b) given(c) was given(d) gave[ 004290]__________________________________________________ _________3- Which of the following pairs has words that sound different?(a) wait - weight(b) tour - tower(c) site - sight(d) right - write[ 004284]__________________________________________________ _________C114- Which part of speech fits in the blank in the following sentence?The students went to school ________.(a) adjective(b) noun(c) adverb(d) verb[ 004322]__________________________________________________ _________5- Which of following is NOT a pair of antonyms (opposite inmeaning) ?(a) alive - dead(b) easy - simple


(c) absent - present(d) light - dark[ 004317]__________________________________________________ _________6- What is the part of speech of the underlined word?Playing sports is very healthy.(a) noun(b) verb(c) adjective(d) adverb[ 004282]__________________________________________________ _________C117- Which of the following is a pair of synonyms (similar in meaning)?(a) principal - teacher(b) door - window(c) end - continue(d) start - begin[ 004280]__________________________________________________ _________8- Choose the correct answer:Don't go up that ladder. It doesn't look ________.(a) safe(b) safely(c) safest(d) safety[ 004333]__________________________________________________ _________9- Which one of the following is a simple sentence?(a) I had a toothache, so I went to the dentist.(b) Mona washed the dishes and Soha dried them.(c) The girls who are at the back aren't paying any attention.(d) Karim and Adel have been studying Arabic and English for ayear.[ 004336]

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Sentence


Teaching is one of the easiest jobs in the world ...

...Teaching WELL is one of the most difficult !

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In linguistics, a sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words, bearing minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, often preceded and followed in speech by pauses, having one of a small number of characteristic intonation patterns, and typically expressing an independent statement, question, request, command, etc.[1] Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb, e.g. "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".

Components of a sentenceA simple complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject is typically a noun phrase, though other kinds of phrases )such as gerund phrases( work as well, and some languages allow subjects to be omitted. The predicate is a finite verb phrase: it's a finite verb together with zero or more objects, zero or more complements, and zero or more adverbials. See also copula for the consequences of this verb on the theory of sentence structure.

ClausesA clause consists of a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses: independent and subordinate )dependent(. An independent clause consists of a subject verb and also demonstrates a complete thought: for example, "I am sad." A subordinate clause consists of a subject and a verb, but demonstrates an incomplete thought: for example, "Because I had to move."

ClassificationBy structure

One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by the number and types of finite clauses:

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_clause

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_clause

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_sentence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_verb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbial

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(grammar)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_verb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0

A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both.

A complex sentence consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one dependent clause.

A complex-compound sentence )or compound-complex sentence( consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause.

By purpose

Sentences can also be classified based on their purpose:

A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: I am going home.

A negative sentence or negation denies that a statement is true: I am not going home.

An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information — When are you going to work? — but sometimes not; see rhetorical question.

An exclamatory sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement: What a wonderful day this is!

Major and minor sentencesA major sentence is a regular sentence; it has a subject and a predicate. For example: I have a ball. In this sentence one can change the persons: We have a ball. However, a minor sentence is an irregular type of sentence. It does not contain a finite verb. For example, "Mary!" "Yes." "Coffee." etc. Other examples of minor sentences are headings )e.g. the heading of this entry(, stereotyped expressions )Hello!(, emotional expressions )Wow!(, proverbs, etc. This can also include sentences which do not contain verbs )e.g. The more, the merrier.( in order to intensify the meaning around the nouns )normally found in poetry and catchphrases( by Judee N..[2]

PhraseFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In grammar, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.

For example the house at the end of the street )example 1( is a phrase. It acts like a noun. It contains the phrase at the end of the street )example 2(, a prepositional phrase which acts like an adjective. Example 2 could be


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(grammar)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclamation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_question

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negation_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex-compound_sentence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_sentence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_sentence_(linguistics)

replaced by white, to make the phrase the white house. Examples 1 and 2 contain the phrase the end of the street )example 3( which acts like a noun. It could be replaced by the cross-roads to give the house at the cross-roads.

Most phrases have a or central word which defines the type of phrase. This word is called the head of the phrase. In English the head is often the first word of the phrase. Some phrases, however, can be headless. For example, the rich is a noun phrase composed of a determiner and an adjective, but no noun.

Phrases may be classified by the type of head they take

Prepositional phrase )PP( with a preposition as head )e.g. in love, over the rainbow(. Languages that use postpositions instead have postpositional phrases. The two types are sometimes commonly referred to as adpositional phrases.

Noun phrase )NP( with a noun as head )e.g. the black cat, a cat on the mat(

Verb phrase )VP( with a verb as head )e.g. eat cheese, jump up and down(

Adjectival phrase with an adjective as head )e.g. full of toys( Adverbial phrase with adverb as head )e.g. very carefully(

Formal definitionA phrase is a syntactic structure which has syntactic properties derived from its head.

ComplexityA complex phrase consists of several words, whereas a simple phrase consists of only one word. This terminology is especially often used with verb phrases:

simple past and present are simple verb, which require just one verb complex verb have one or two aspects added, hence require additional

two or three words

"Complex", which is phrase-level, is often confused with "compound", which is word-level. However, there are certain phenomena that formally seem to be phrases but semantically are more like compounds, like "women's magazines", which has the form of a possessive noun phrase, but which refers )just like a compound( to one specific lexeme )i.e. a magazine for women and not some magazine owned by a woman(.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexeme


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbial_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectival_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adpositional_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpositional_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postposition

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preposition

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prepositional_phrase

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(linguistics)

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Simple sentences . . .

contain only one independent clause. Example: Mrs. Bergey enjoys teaching writing.

What are Compound Sentences?

They join two or more independent clauses )simple sentences(. Compound sentences join ideas of equal importance. Mrs. Bergey enjoys teaching writing. Mrs. Bergey wants her students to succeed.

becomes:

Mrs. Bergey enjoys teaching writing, and she wants her students to succeed.

A compound sentence contains two sentences joined by and, or, or but. These words are called conjunctions. Compound sentences express more than one complete thought.

What are Complex Sentences?

Complex sentences join one or more dependent clauses to the independent clause. Complex sentences are useful when your writing includes some ideas that are more important than others. Mrs. Bergey, a teacher at Twentynine Palms Elementary School, enjoys teaching writing.A complex sentence contains a clause )a statement( that is not a complete sentence. This is in addition to the complete sentence. "a teacher at Twentynine Palms Elementary School" is not a complete sentence and


http://www.midlakes.org/greatbeginnings/parts_of_speech.html#conjunction

would not stand on its own. )That is why it is sometimes called a "dependent" clause. It depends on the rest of the sentence.(

HINT for succesful writers: Use a variety of sentences styles in your writing!

The Structure of a Sentence

Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.

The Simple Sentence

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word:

Run!

Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:

Melt! Ice melts. The ice melts quickly. The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun. Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.

As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.

The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.


http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/modifier.html#modifier

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#predicate

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#subject

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentence

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldcls.html#clause

When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them to the surrounding sentences.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses )or simple sentences( joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":

Simple Canada is a rich country.

Simple Still, it has many poor people.

Compound Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.

Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing )and allowing an adult to interrupt(:

Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...

Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written work, your writing might seem immature.

A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast between two )or more( equally-important pieces of information:

Montéal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.

Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:

compound-complex The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the contents.


http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/conjunct.html#co-ordinating%20conjunction

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clause

The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:

Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober, however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.

Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:

The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.

The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following examples:

Simple My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

Compound My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

Complex Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.

In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

or even

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although"


http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/conjunct.html#subordinating%20conjunction

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#dependent%20clauses

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adverbs.html#conjunctive%20adverb

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html#semicolon

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/punct.html#punctuation

at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.

Written by David Megginson

INFLECTIONAL VS. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGYAnother important and perhaps universal distinction is the one between derivational and inflectional morphemes.

Derivational morphemes makes new words from old ones )Crystal, p. 90.( Thus creation is formed from create , but they are two separate words.

Derivational morphemes generally:

1( Change the part of speech or the basic meaning of a word. Thus -ment added to a verb forms a noun )judg-ment(. re-activate means "activate again."

2( Are not required by syntactic relations outside the word. Thus un-kind combines un- and kind into a single new word, but has no particular syntactic connections outside the word -- we can say he is unkind or he is kind or they are unkind or they are kind, depending on what we mean.

3( Are often not productive -- derivational morphemes can be selective about what they'll combine with, and may also have erratic effects on meaning. Thus the suffix -hood occurs with just a few nouns such as brother, neighbor, and knight, but not with most others. e.g., *friendhood, *daughterhood, or *candlehood. Furthermore "brotherhood" can mean "the state or relationship of being brothers," but "neighborhood" cannot mean "the state or relationship of being neighbors."

4( Typically occur between the stem and any inflectional affixes. Thus in governments,-ment, a derivational suffix, precedes -s, an inflectional suffix.

5( In English, may appear either as prefixes or suffixes: pre-arrange, arrange-ment.

Inflectional morphemes: vary )or "inflect"( the form of words in order to express grammatical features, such as singular/plural or past/present tense. Thus Boy and boys, for example, are two different forms of the "same" word; the choice between them, singular vs. plural, is a matter of grammar and thus the business of inflectional morphology. )Crystal, p. 90.(


Inflectional Morphemes generally:

1( Do not change basic meaning or part of speech, e.g., big, bigg-er, bigg-est are all adjectives.

2( Express grammatically-required features or indicate relations between different words in the sentence. Thus in Lee love-s Kim: -s marks the 3rd person singular present form of the verb, and also relates it to the 3rd singular subject Lee.

3( Are productive. Inflectional morphemes typically combine freely with all members of some large class of morphemes, with predictable effects on usage/meaning. Thus the plural morpheme can be combined with nearly any noun, usually in the same form, and usually with the same effect on meaning.

4( Occur outside any derivational morphemes. Thus in ration-al-iz-ation-s the final -s is inflectional, and appears at the very end of the word, outside the derivational morphemes -al, -iz, -ation.

5( In English, are suffixes only.

Some English morphemes, by category:

derivational inflectional

-ation -s Plural

-al -s Possessive

-ize -ed Past

-ic -ing Progressive

-y -er Comparative

-ous -est Superlative


The parts of speech


The eight parts of speech that form sentences and a description of each.

What is Grammar?

Grammar makes up all the words and structures in a sentence.

What are the parts of speech?

The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.

What is a noun?

A noun is used to name a person, place, thing, quality or idea. A few examples of each are Bill, Detroit, car, beauty and justice.

What are the two types of nouns?

The two types of nouns are proper nouns and common nouns.

What is a proper noun?

A proper noun is used to name a specific person, place or thing. Such as Bill Gates, New York and the Hudson River. A proper noun is always capitalized.

What is a common noun?

A common noun is used to name one or all members of a class or group. Such as a boat, woman, light and minutes. A common noun does not have to be capitalized. Common nouns can be concrete or abstract. Concrete nouns are used to name things people can use their senses to “see.” Abstract nouns are used to name intangible things such as qualities )sweetness( and ideas )freedom(.

What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase. There are many types of pronouns: personal, relative, interrogative, reflexive, intensive, demonstrative and indefinite.

Personal pronouns are used to refer to specific nouns. Such as: I, me, you, yours, they, he, it, and us.


Relative pronouns introduce dependent clauses. Such as: who, whom, that, which, what and whose.

Interrogative pronouns introduce a question. Such as: who, whose, whom, what and which.

Reflexive and intensive pronouns deal with the self. Such as: myself, herself, yourselves and themselves. The difference between them is that reflexive nouns name the receiver of an action and intensive pronouns emphasize a noun.

Demonstrative pronouns show which nouns perform or receive the action. Such as: this, these, that and those.

Indefinite pronouns are used to show an unspecific number of nouns. Such as: all, few, many, none, other, something, anyone and neither.

What is a verb?

A verb is used to show an action or a state of being. Such as: jump, run, cook and drive. There are three types of verbs.

What are the three types of verbs?

The three types of verbs are regular, irregular and linking. Regular verbs end in –ed or –d. Irregular verbs change forms, such as write changes to wrote. Linking verbs express a state of being, such as shows or appears.

What is an adjective?

An adjective is used to describe or specify a noun or pronoun. Such as: green, big, that, this and her only.

What is an adverb?

An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverbs. They show when, where, why and how. Such as: never, often, above, there, then, not, almost and perhaps.

What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word that is used with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase that shows where, when, how and why. They are commonly used to elaborate on the subject of a sentence. Such as: about, above, because, but, by, except, in, into, on, off, to, with, without and up.

What is a conjunction?


A conjunction is used to connect words and phrases to show order and ideas. Such as: and, but, or, nor, for, so and yet.

What is an interjection?

An interjection is used to show surprise or emotion. They are usually short phrases such as “oh no!” or “Good Lord!”


Inflectional and derivational morphology

Teaching is one of the easiest jobs in the world ......Teaching WELL is one of the most difficult !

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Inflectional morphology is a part of the study of linguistics.

To apply an inflection is to change the form of a word so as to give it extra meaning. This extra meaning could be:

Number Person Case Gender Tense Mood Aspect Politeness )as in the Japanese language(

Inflectional morphology manifests primarily in the form of a prefix, suffix, or vowel change. Circumfixes and infixes can also occur, but these are relatively rare.

An example of suffixes in inflectional morphology:

"I have an apple" - apple singular "I have apples" - apples plural


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infix

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumfix

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefix_(linguistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics

The word apples differs from apple only in the sense that the former indicates more than one fruit. This distinction is mandatory in English, optional in Korean, and impossible in Japanese. Yet other languages require the speaker to distinguish the number two of something, called the dual form of a noun. Forms for higher numbers, such a trial and paucal have also been recognized.

An example of vowel changes in inflectional morphology:

"I throw the pencil" - throw present tense "I threw the pencil" - threw past tense

Again, throw and threw are not different words. threw is the result of inflectional morphology being applied to the root word throw.

English is relatively poor in inflectional morphology. Other Indo-European languages have a richer system of inflection morphology. Latin is a typical example of a language with a very rich system of inflectional morphology.

Inflectional Morphology

Morphology that interacts with syntax )sentence structure( is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are:

person number gender noun class case tense

Inflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones: "Boston-ian-s" not *"Boston-s-ian". But some left-headed compounds have the plural "inside": "attorney-s-general", "mother-s-in-law". But there is a tendancy to re-analyze these compounds: "attorney-general-s".

English inflectional morphology

English has only three categories of meaning which are expressed inflectionally, known as inflectional categories. They are number in nouns, tense/aspect in verbs, and comparison in adjectives. Within these categories, English has a remarkably small inventory of affixes, by


http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html#affix%23affix

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_word

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual

comparison with languages such as Spanish or Russian. English does not always use affixes to express these categories )see the discussion of irregular morphology(.

Inflectional categories and affixes of English

Word class to which inflection applies Inflectional category Regular affix used to express

category

Nouns Number -s, -es: book/books, bush/bushes

. Possessive -'s, -': the cat's tail, Charles' toe

Verbs 3rd person singular present

-s, -es: it rains, Karen writes, the water sloshes

. past tense -ed: paint/painted

. perfect aspect -ed: paint/painted )'has painted( )past participle(

. progressive or continuous aspect

-ing: fall/falling, write/writing )present participle(

Adjectives comparative )comparing two items( -er: tall/taller

. superlative )comparing +2 items( -est: tall/tallest

Spanish, by contrast, inflects its nouns for number and gender, but not for possession )which is signalled by placing the particle 'de' between the possessed item and the possessor, as in 'la casa de mi madre', 'the house of my mother'. Spanish has far more inflectional categories — and affixes to mark them — for verbs than does English.

Spanish inflectional categories and affixes

Word class to which inflection applies

Inflectional category

Regular affix used to express category

Nouns Number '-s' mano/manos 'hand/hands'

. Gender'-a' Fem., '-o' Masc. hermana/hermano 'sister/brother'

The following table shows the verb suffixes for just one of the three classes


http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html#reg/irreg%23reg/irreg

of Spanish verbs: -ar class present imperfect preterite future conditional pres.

subjunctive imperf. subj.

I -o -aba -e -é -ía -e -ayou )sg.( -as -abas -aste -as -ías -es -as

s/he/it -a -aba -ó -á -ía -e -awe -amos -ábamos -amos -emos -íamos -emos -amosyou )pl.( -áis -abais -asteis -éis -íais -éis -ais

they -an -aban -aron -án -ían -en -an Regular and irregular inflectional morphology

Here are some ways English inflectional morphology is irregular:

Type of irregularity Noun plurals Verbs: past tense Verbs: past

participle

Unusual suffix oxen, syllabi, antennae , taken, seen, fallen,

eaten

Change of stem vowel

foot/feet, mouse/mice

run/ran, come/came, flee/fled, meet/met, fly/flew, stick/stuck, get/got, break/broke

swim/swum, sing/sung

Change of stem vowel with unusual suffix

brother/brethren/ feel/felt, kneel/kneltwrite/written, do/done, break/broken, fly/flown

Change in base/stem form )sometimes with unusual suffix(

,send/sent, bend/bent, think/thought, teach/taught, buy/bought

send/sent, bend/bent, think/thought, teach/taught, buy/bought

Zero-marking )no suffix, no stem change(

deer, sheep, moose, fish hit, beat hit, beat, come

More ways inflection can be irregular:


http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html#infl%23infl

Suppletion )instead of a suffix, the whole word changes(: be - am - are - is - was - were - been go - went - gone good - better - best bad - worse - worst some - more - most

Syntactic marking )added meanings are indicated by a separate word rather than marking with a suffix or change to the base(: Future of verbs: will go, will eat, will fight, etc. Comparative/superlative of adjectives: more intelligent, more expensive, etc.; most intelligent, most expensive, etc.

English derivational morphology

Below is a sample of some English derivational affixes. This is only a sample; there are far more affixes than presented here.

Some derivational affixes of English

AffixClass)es( of word to which affix applies

Nature of change in meaning Examples

Prefix 'non-' Noun, adjective Negation/opposite Noun: non-starter

Adj.: non-partisanSuffix '-ity' Adjective Changes to noun electric/electricity

obese/obesity

Prefix 'un-'

Verb Adjective

Reverses action opposite quality

tie/untie, fasten/unfasten clear/unclear, safe/unsafe

Suffix '-ous' Noun Changes to adjective fame/famous,

glamor/glamorousPrefix 're-' Verb Repeat action tie/retie, write/rewrite

Suffix '-able' Verb

Changes to adjective; means 'can undergo action of verb'

print/printable, drink/drinkable




Word formation processes: Ways of creating new words in English

1. Affixation: adding a derivational affix to a word. Examples: abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook. 2. Compounding: joining two or more words into one new word. Examples: skateboard, whitewash, cat lover, self-help, red-hot, etc. 3. Zero derivation: )also called conversion or functional shift(: Adding no affixes; simply using a word of one category as a word of another category. Examples: Noun-verb: comb, sand, knife, butter, referee, proposition. 4. Stress shift: no affix is added to the base, but the stress is shifted from one syllable to the other. With the stress shift comes a change in category.

Noun Verb cómbine combíne ímplant implánt réwrite rewríte tránsport transpórt

Noun Adjective cóncrete concréte ábstract abstráct 5. Clipping: shortening of a polysyllabic word. Examples: bro )< brother(, pro )< professional(, prof )< professor(, math )< mathematics(, veg )< 'vegetate', as in veg out in front of the TV(, sub )< substitute or submarine(. 6. Acronym formation: forming words from the initials of a group of words that designate one concept. Usually, but not always, capitalized. An acronym is pronounced as a word if the consonants and vowels line up in such a way as to make this possible, otherwise it is pronounced as a string of letter names. Examples: NASA )National Aeronautics and Space Administration(, NATO )North Atlantic Treaty Organization(, AIDS )Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome(, scuba )self-contained underwater breathing apparatus(, radar )radio detecting and ranging(, NFL )National Football League(, AFL-CIO )American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations(. 7. Blending: Parts )which are not morphemes!( of two already-existing words are put together to form a new word. Examples: motel )motor hotel( brunch )breakfast & lunch(, smog )smoke & fog(, telethon )television & marathon(, modem )modulator & demodulator(, Spanglish )Spanish & English(. 8. Backformation: A suffix identifiable from other words is cut off of a base which has previously not been a word; that base then is used as a root, and



becomes a word through widespread use. Examples: pronunciate )< pronunciation < pronounce(, resurrect )< resurrection(, enthuse )< enthusiasm(, self-destruct )< self-destruction < destroy(, burgle )< burglar(, attrit )< attrition(, burger )< hamburger(. This differs from clipping in that, in clipping, some phonological part of the word which is not interpretable as an affix or word is cut off )e.g. the '-essor' of 'professor' is not a suffix or word; nor is the '-ther' of 'brother'. In backformation, the bit chopped off is a recognizable affix or word )'ham ' in 'hamburger'(, '-ion' in 'self-destruction'. Backformation is the result of a false but plausible morphological analysis of the word; clipping is a strictly phonological process that is used to make the word shorter. Clipping is based on syllable structure, not morphological analysis. It is impossible for you to recognize backformed words or come up with examples from your own knowledge of English, unless you already know the history of the word. Most people do not know the history of the words they know; this is normal. 9. Adoption of brand names as common words: a brand name becomes the name for the item or process associated with the brand name. The word ceases to be capitalized and acts as a normal verb/noun )i.e. takes inflections such as plural or past tense(. The companies using the names usually have copyrighted them and object to their use in public documents, so they should be avoided in formal writing )or a lawsuit could follow!( Examples: xerox, kleenex, band-aid, kitty litter. 10. Onomatopoeia )pronounced: 'onno-motto-pay-uh'(: words are invented which )to native speakers at least( sound like the sound they name or the entity which produces the sound. Examples: hiss, sizzle, cuckoo, cock-a-doodle-doo, buzz, beep, ding-dong. 11. Borrowing: a word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to the borrowing language's phonological system to varying degrees. Examples: skunk, tomato )from indigenous languages of the Americas(, sushi, taboo, wok )from Pacific Rim languages(, chic, shmuck, macho, spaghetti, dirndl, psychology, telephone, physician, education )from European languages(, hummus, chutzpah, cipher, artichoke )from Semitic languages(, yam, tote, banana )from African languages(.

Source:

3.5 Semantics

3.5.1 Basic Notions of Semantics

A perennial problem in semantics is the delineation of its subject matter. The term meaning can be used in a variety of ways, and only some of these correspond to the usual understanding of the scope of linguistic or computational semantics. We shall take the scope of semantics to be restricted to the literal interpretations of sentences in a context, ignoring phenomena like irony, metaphor, or conversational implicature.


A standard assumption in computationally oriented semantics is that knowledge of the meaning of a sentence can be equated with knowledge of its truth conditions: that is, knowledge of what the world would be like if the sentence were true. This is not the same as knowing whether a sentence is true, which is )usually( an empirical matter, but knowledge of truth conditions is a prerequisite for such verification to be possible. Meaning as truth conditions needs to be generalized somewhat for the case of imperatives or questions, but is a common ground among all contemporary theories, in one form or another, and has an extensive philosophical justification,.

A semantic description of a language is some finitely stated mechanism that allows us to say, for each sentence of the language, what its truth conditions are. Just as for grammatical description, a semantic theory will characterize complex and novel sentences on the basis of their constituents: their meanings, and the manner in which they are put together. The basic constituents will ultimately be the meanings of words and morphemes. The modes of combination of constituents are largely determined by the syntactic structure of the language. In general, to each syntactic rule combining some sequence of child constituents into a parent constituent, there will correspond some semantic operation combining the meanings of the children to produce the meaning of the parent.

3.5.2 Practical Applications of Semantics

Some natural language processing tasks )e.g., message routing, textual information retrieval, translation( can be carried out quite well using statistical or pattern matching techniques that do not involve semantics in the sense assumed above. However, performance on some of these tasks improves if semantic processing is involved. )Not enough progress has been made to see whether this is true for all of the tasks(.

Some tasks, however, cannot be carried out at all without semantic processing of some form. One important example application is that of database query, of the type chosen for the Air Travel Information Service )ATIS( task . For example, if a user asks, ``Does every flight from London to San Francisco stop over in Reykyavik?'' then the system needs to be able to deal with some simple semantic facts. Relational databases do not store propositions of the form every X has property P and so a logical inference from the meaning of the sentence is required. In this case, every X has property P is equivalent to there is no X that does not have property P and a system that knows this will also therefore know that the answer to the question is no if a non-stopping flight is found and yes otherwise.

Any kind of generation of natural language output )e.g., summaries of financial data, traces of KBS system operations( usually requires


semantic processing. Generation requires the construction of an appropriate meaning representation, and then the production of a sentence or sequence of sentences which express the same content in a way that is natural for a reader to comprehend, . To illustrate, if a database lists a 10 a.m.\ flight from London to Warsaw on the 1st--14th, and 16th--30th of November, then it is more helpful to answer the question What days does that flight go? by Every day except the 15th instead of a list of 30 days of the month. But to do this the system needs to know that the semantic representations of the two propositions are equivalent.

3.5.3 Development of Semantic Theory

It is instructive, though not historically accurate, to see the development of contemporary semantic theories as motivated by the deficiencies that are uncovered when one tries to take the FOPC example further as a model for how to do natural language semantics. For example, the technique of associating set theoretic denotations directly with syntactic units is clear and straightforward for the artificial FOPC example. But when a similar programme is attempted for a natural language like English, whose syntax is vastly more complicated, the statement of the interpretation clauses becomes in practice extremely baroque and unwieldy, especially so when sentences that are semantically but not syntactically ambiguous are considered . For this reason, in most semantic theories, and in all computer implementations, the interpretation of sentences is given indirectly. A syntactically disambiguated sentence is first translated into an expression of some artificial logical language, where this expression in its turn is given an interpretation by rules analogous to the interpretation rules of FOPC. This process factors out the two sources of complexity whose product makes direct interpretation cumbersome: reducing syntactic variation to a set of common semantic constructs; and building the appropriate set-theoretical objects to serve as interpretations.

The first large scale semantic description of this type was developed by . Montague made a further departure from the model provided by FOPC in using a more powerful logic )intensional logic( as an intermediate representation language. All later approaches to semantics follow Montague in using more powerful logical languages: while FOPC captures an important range of inferences )involving, among others, words like every, and some as in the example above(, the range of valid inference patterns in natural languages is far wider. Some of the constructs that motivate the use of richer logics are sentences involving concepts like necessity or possibility and propositional attitude verbs like believe or know, as well as the inference patterns associated with other English quantifying expressions like most or more than half, which cannot be fully captured within FOPC


For Montague, and others working in frameworks descended from that tradition )among others, Partee, e.g., Krifka, and Groenendijk and Stokhof, the intermediate logical language was merely a matter of convenience which could in principle always be dispensed with provided the principle of compositionality was observed. )I.e., The meaning of a sentence is a function of the meanings of its constituents, attributed to Frege, For other approaches, )e.g., Discourse Representation Theory, an intermediate level of representation is a necessary component of the theory, justified on psychological grounds, or in terms of the necessity for explicit reference to representations in order to capture the meanings of, for example, pronouns or other referentially dependent items, elliptical sentences or sentences ascribing mental states )beliefs, hopes, intentions(. In the case of computational implementations, of course, the issue of the dispensability of representations does not arise: for practical purposes, some kind of meaning representation is a sine qua non for any kind of computing.

3.5.4 Discourse Representation Theory

Discourse Representation Theory )DRT(, as the name implies, has taken the notion of an intermediate representation as an indispensable theoretical construct, and, as also implied, sees the main unit of description as being a discourse rather than sentences in isolation. One of the things that makes a sequence of sentences constitute a discourse is their connectivity with each other, as expressed through the use of pronouns and ellipsis or similar devices. This connectivity is mediated through the intermediate representation, however, and cannot be expressed without it.

3.5.5 Dynamic Semantics

Dynamic semantics takes the view that the standard truth-conditional view of sentence meaning deriving from the paradigm of FOPC does not do sufficient justice to the fact that uttering a sentence changes the context it was uttered in. Deriving inspiration in part from work on the semantics of programming languages, dynamic semantic theories have developed several variations on the idea that the meaning of a sentence is to be equated with the changes it makes to a context.

Update semantics approaches have been developed to model the effect of asserting a sequence of sentences in a particular context. In general, the order of such a sequence has its own significance. A sequence like:

Someone's at the door. Perhaps it's John. It's Mary!

is coherent, but not all permutations of it would be:

Someone's at the door. It's Mary. Perhaps it's John.


Recent strands of this work make connections with the artificial intelligence literature on truth maintenance and belief revision

Dynamic predicate logic extends the interpretation clauses for FOPC )or richer logics( by allowing assignments of denotations to subexpressions to carry over from one sentence to its successors in a sequence. This means that dependencies that are difficult to capture in FOPC or other non-dynamic logics, such as that between someone and it in:

Someone's at the door. It's Mary.

can be correctly modeled, without sacrificing any of the other advantages that traditional logics offer.

3.5.6 Situation Semantics and Property Theory

One of the assumptions of most semantic theories descended from Montague is that information is total, in the sense that in every situation, a proposition is either true or it is not. This enables propositions to be identified with the set of situations )or possible worlds( in which they are true. This has many technical conveniences, but is descriptively incorrect, for it means that any proposition conjoined with a tautology )a logical truth( will remain the same proposition according to the technical definition. But this is clearly wrong: all cats are cats is a tautology, but The computer crashed, and The computer crashed and all cats are cats are clearly different propositions )reporting the first is not the same as reporting the second, for example(.

Situation theory has attempted to rework the whole logical foundation underlying the more traditional semantic theories in order to arrive at a satisfactory formulation of the notion of a partial state of the world or situation, and in turn, a more satisfactory notion of proposition. This reformulation has also attempted to generalize the logical underpinnings away from previously accepted restrictions )for example, restrictions prohibiting sets containing themselves, and other apparently paradoxical notions( in order to be able to explore the ability of language to refer to itself in ways that have previously resisted a coherent formal description


Teaching Strategies


"All students are ELL )English Language Learners(!" All students are LEP )Limited English Proficient( at some point in their education )especially when faced with a new concept and vocabulary(. What procedures and ideas can you provide that will help all students in the classroom as well as ESOL students? Good teaching strategies are good for everyone.

Indeed, good teaching strategies are good for everyone! This question in particular refers to "Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English" or SDAIE, that is, the academic classes taught by qualified teachers who are "endorsed" or "certified" in teaching methods for content area classes in which English Language Learners or ELL’s participate.

As explained in other questions, ELL’s must be provided equal access to the academic curriculum and to all educational opportunities, curricular and extracurricular, available at a school. ELL’s must be enrolled in academic classes appropriate for their grade level or age. In addition, ELL’s must receive English Language Development )ELD or English-As-A-Second Language/ESL( instruction and primary language support, as needed, to insure equal opportunity for academic achievement and to prevent any substantive academic deficits.

In SDAIE classes ALL students can participate: English-only speakers and ELL’s at all stages of language acquisition: ELL’s at Pre-Production, Early Production, Speech Emergence and Intermediate Fluency levels, and former ELL’s now re-designated as Fluent English Proficient )FEP( students.

What are the methods, techniques or strategies that a teacher can use to successfully promote content area concept development with such a heterogeneous group of students?

STRATEGIES USED IN SDAIE

1. Emphasis on the Academic Language: This is the key instructional component in SDAIE. It is NOT to develop general English language skills, but to develop the use of, and proficiency in, the academic language of the content areas. This key component of SDAIE is the same for ALL students, English-only speakers and English Language Learners. Teachers must make sure that the academic language is mastered, otherwise teachers cannot obtain evidence of learning. To facilitate mastery teachers must implement two essential "best instructional practices:" Posting the academic language: ALL words, not just a few key words. Words need to be organized by meaning categories, for example, "clean, tidy, neat, spotless, immaculate, impeccable, scrubbed, disinfected, sterilized, pristine, etc." THEN POST THE CATEGORY!!!!! Consciously using


the academic language constantly, and requiring that all students express themselves using the academic language, too. That is why all academic language words must be posted: For teacher and students TO ALWAYS REMEMBER to use them!

2. Active Learning: Students must be constantly giving the teacher EVIDENCE OF LEARNING. To provide the teacher with evidence of learning, students must DO some observable action or behavior that the teacher has requested. Throughout the lesson, the teacher must plan educational activities that give students opportunities to:Observe, Recognize, Locate, Identify, Classify, Practice, Collect, Distinguish, Categorize, Repeat, Match, Show, Select, Construct, Assemble, Arrange, Put Things In Order, Etc. Name, Recall, Give Examples, Draw, Organize, Decide, Describe, Tell, Imagine, Restate, Create, Appraise, Dramatiza, Contrast, Compare, Question, Map, Discriminate, Etc. List, Underline, Review, Interprete, Compose, Dictate, Point Out, Record, Report, Predict, Express, Plan And Evaluate. Relate, Generalize, Demonstrate, Outline, Summarize, Suppose, Estimate, Judge, Explain, Debate, Illustrate, Infer, Revise, Rewrite, Assess, Interprete, Justify, Critique, Etc. All of the above are observable actions that help teachers obtain EVIDENCE OF LEARNING.

3. Assessing/Tapping Prior Knowledge: Teachers must become very familiar with the background knowledge that students bring to the learning situation so they can ALWAYS emphasize what students already know, have experienced, are familiar with, and build on those bases that prior knowledge, experience and familiarity provide. Visuals, realia, posted academic language from previous lessons, all kinds of connections to prior knowledge, experience and familiarity need to become essential components of all lessons.

4. Building New Knowledge: Each and every lesson must result in the acquisition of new knowledge by students. To determine if new knowledge has been acquired as the result of a lesson, it is only necessary to check on the acquisition of new academic language. EACH WORD IS A CONCEPT. A student who has acquired and begins to use appropriately new academic language at the end of each lesson is a students who has acquired new knowledge. If at the end of an instructional day the students go home without mastery of at least one new academic word, no new knowledge has been provided or mastered during that entire instructional day. It was a nice school day for reviewing what students already knew. But it was a day when students did not BUILD any new knowledge.

5. Collaborative Problem-Solving; Cooperative and Other Groupings: Teachers need to plan instruction through educational activities that provide for flexible groupings of students to meet specific


purposes. In SDAIE there are many levels of language proficiency. ELL’s may be at different stages of language acquisition: Pre-Production, Early-Production, Speech Emergence, Intermediate Fluency. Fluent English speakers may be English-only speakers or former ELL’s now redesignated Fluent English Proficiency )FEP( students. Teachers need to implement varied instructional activities where heterogeneous students can work productively. 7

6. Cultural Affirmation / Multicultural Perspectives: English Language Learners )ELL’s( and English-only students all bring to each and every lesson their prior knowledge, their own experiences, their cultural backgrounds. ELL’s may come from many different countries and English-only students may come from many parts of the United States or the English-speaking areas of the world. Each and every student brings something unique to the learning situation. SDAIE content area teachers need to acknowledge that, and need to affirm the value of each student to the cooperative effort of the lesson by acknowledging the individual contributions of each student. SDAIE content area teachers also need to expand the limited experiences and knowledge of each student to include the contributions of many individuals from many backgrounds to the advancement of knowledge.

7. Demonstration and Modeling: Here is the most crucial instructional component in ALL lessons, but particularly in SDAIE lessons. The key role of the teacher is to demonstrate and model all the behaviors to be learned in the lesson, ESPECIALLY THE VERBAL BEHAVIORS EXPECTED TO BE MASTERED BY THE STUDENTS, that is, the language of the content areas. ALL teachers must remember that for most students, and especially for ALL English Language Learners, TEACHERS are the ONLY role models that students will ever come in contact with for the language of the content areas. In today’s world, few parents have the time or the energy –or the knowledge—to discuss the concepts of the content areas using the language of the content areas at home. ONLY TEACHERS can provide that.

8. Graphic Organizers: The language of the content areas, the language of a new reading selection students are about to begin reading, all words students DO NOT KNOW that are used in what students are about to listen or read, all those words MUST BE UNDERSTOOD BEFORE students listen or read. Thus, the SDAIE and the ESL/ELD teachers, cooperatively, must help students acquire, practice, develop, learn, and master 95-100% of the new vocabulary BEFORE they listen or read. Instructional activities that, through visuals, manipulatives, realia, dramatization, or any other means, help students master the new academic vocabulary


BEFORE the content area lesson begins, are very important. Graphic organizers can be used to help students become aware of what they know and the new words they are about to learn. Graphic organizers that group words in categories by MEANING are the most effective means to introduce new words. WORD DEFINITIONS, or looking up the meaning of words in a dictionary, ARE NOT the most effective means to introduce new words. For younger ELL’s and for ALL young learners, graphic organizers can be used with pictures instead of printed words.

9. Integrating Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum: If all instructional strategies described above )1- 8( for the implementation of effective practices in Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English )SDAIE( for ALL students, both English-only and English Language Learners, have indeed been implemented, then it follows that students would have had ample opportunities:)I( To listen to the new academic language of the lesson as the teacher uses visuals, manipulatives, realia, and other means to physically convey the meaning of the academic language,

)II( To speak the new academic language through active learning instructional activities,

)III( To see –in posted graphic organizers or categories—the new academic language. Now students are ready to read the textbook or parts of the textbook or reading selection, and they will do so with 100% understanding the first time around! And then students can write about what they have learned –expressive writing—or answer the textbook questions IN THEIR VERY OWN WORDS. Only when students have been provided fully integrated visual, listening, speaking, reading and writing instructional activities would they be able to provide ample evidence of learning the language of the content areas.

10. Higher Order Thinking Skills: In SDAIE Strategy Number 2, above, we indicated that students must be engaged in Active Learning and suggested a series of observable behaviors that students can perform to give evidence of learning. That series of observable behaviors, )listed in 2 above( describe simple to complex or higher order thinking skills. Students who can perform these observable behaviors are giving evidence that they are operating and developing from simple to complex or higher order thinking skills.

11. Questioning techniques: The most effective tool a teacher has to promote all of the above SDAIE Strategies is the question. Every time a teacher asks a question the student must actively respond – active learning. Through questions, teachers can monitor student use of the language of the content areas. Questions help assess


prior knowledge and provide the most effective tool to obtain evidence of learning. Through questions teachers can provide new information to students while demonstrating and modeling the use of the academic language. Questions can be asked at the lowest –knowledge—and the highest –evaluation—levels of thinking skills. Questions give teachers the best opportunity to provide opportunities for students to listen and to speak. In fact, questioning techniques allow a teacher to keep control of )h(is/er classroom while helping students succeed. How? By controlling the level of LANGUAGE difficulty of the questions. The following four questions all have the exact same answer. Thus, a teacher can choose which question to ask a student depending on how much knowledge the student has. By choosing the right question appropriate for each student, teachers can promote learning while at the same time allow students to experience success.

1. Who was the 22nd President of the United States?2. Who was the 22nd President, was it Nixon, Cleveland, John Quincy Adams or Zachary Taylor?3. Who was the 22nd President, was it Abraham Lincoln, Reagan, John Adams or Cleveland?4. Cleveland was the 22nd President of the United States, right?

12. The Teacher is a Facilitator of Learning: Because a teacher must be constantly interacting with students, teachers in SDAIE content area classes have a primary role of facilitators. Through visual aids and manipulatives, verbal and non-verbal cues, teachers guided students into practicing the academic language as they acquire the concepts represented by the words. These twelve instructional strategies characterize effective lessons in Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English for ALL learners.


Section 2

20th CENTURY APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING

))Be a hero, Be a learner

Touch the future, Be a teacher((


There are four other approaches to language teaching that have been widely used in 20th century. )Cognitive approach, Affective Humanistic approach, Comprehension Based approach, Communicativa approach(

Anthony:

Approach to language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm a theory. The broadest term of the three.

Method is a set of procedures, i.e. a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a language. Methods are more specific than approaches.

Technique is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest term of the three concepts.

A( Grammar Translation Approach )extension(

1. Instruction is given in native language 2. Little use of target language 3. Focus on grammar )the form and inflection of words( 4. Early reading of difficult texts 5. Translation from target language into mother tongue 6. There may be inability to use language for communication 7. Teacher doesn’t have to be able to speak the target language

B( Direct Approach )a reaction to GMT. and its failure of communication(

1. No use of mother tongue 2. Lesson begins with dialogs and anecdotes in modern conversational

style 3. Literary works are read for pleasure and there is no grammatical

analyse 4. The target culture is also read inductively 5. Actions and pictures are used for meaning 6. Grammar is learned inductively )tümevarımsal( 7. Teacher must be native speaker or have native like proficiency

C( Reading Approach )a reaction to impracticality of direct approach(

1. Grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught 2. Vocabulary is controlled first, then expanded 3. Translation is intensive 4. Reading is the only language skill emphasized 5. Teacher doesn’t need to have oral profciency


D( Audiolingualism )a reaction to the lack of oral aural )sözel işitsel( skills in reading approach. It is like Direct Approach but adds from structural linguistics and behavioral psychology(

1. Lessons begin with dialogs 2. Mimicry and memorization for habit formation 3. Grammatiacal structures are sequenced and rule are taught inductively 4. Skills are sequenced )listen, speak, read, writing postponed( 5. Pronunciation )telaffuz( at the beginning 6. Vocabulary is limited at the beginning 7. Preventing from learner errors 8. Language use without regard tocontext meaning 9. Teacher must be proficient in thr structures, vocabulary

E( Situational Approach )a reaction to the lack of oral aural skills in Reading Approach. It draws much from direct Approach but adds from Firthian )İskoç( Linguistics and language pedagogy((

1. Spoken language is primary 2. Language is practiced orally. After an oral base in lexical and

grammatical forms reading and writing comes. 3. Target language should be used 4. Most general and useful lexical items are to be ensured. 5. Grammatical structures are graded from simple to difficult 6. Lexical and grammatical items should be given in situations )i.e. at the

bank, etc.(

F( Cognitive Approach )a reaction to behaviorist features of Audiolingual Approach(

1. Rule acquisition not habit formation 2. Individualized instruction 3. Grammar must be taught but it can be both deductively )rules first

practice later( and inductively )rules after practice( 4. Pronunciation isn emphasized a little 5. Read and write as well as listen and speak 6. Vocabulary instruction is important especially in intermadiate and

advanced levels 7. Errors are inevitable and useful for learning 8. Teacher must have general proficiency and analyzing ability of target

language

G( Affective Humanistic Approach )a reaction to the lack of affective considerations of Audiolingua-lism and Cognitive code(

1. Individual feelings of each student and teacher العربية 66 اللغة منهج مكونات المعلم –محاضرات كادر تخصصات جميع –عام


2. Meaningful communication 3. Instruction in pairs and small groups 4. Class atmosphere is more important than materials or methods 5. Peer support and interaction 6. Learning a foreign language is a self realization 7. Teacher is counsellor or facilitator 8. Teacher must be proficient both in target and student’s native

language since translation may be used for student’s good feeling

H( Comprehension Based Approach )a researh of foreign language learning is like first language acquisition(

1. Listening comprehension is very important. It develops speaking, reading and writing.

2. Listening meaninful speech and respond nonverbally 3. Not speaking until being ready 4. Meaningful input 5. Error correction is unnecessary, understanding is most important 6. Teacher must be native )or near native( sapeker. If not audiotapes or

videotapes.

I( Communicative )konuşkan( Approach )Anthropologic and Firthian linguistics (

1. The goal is learner ability to communicate 2. Content of language not just linguistic structures but semantic nations

and social functions 3. To transfer meaning work in pairs and groups 4. Adjusting the use of target language in different social contexts by role

plays and dramatizations 5. Authentic materials 6. All skills from the beginning for learners are edicated and literate 7. Teacher primarily faciliate the communication secondarily correct

errors 8. Teacher uses the target language fluently and appropriately

Cognitive Approach: language is rule governed cognitive behaviour )not habit formation(

Affective Humanistic Approach: language learning is a process of self realization and relating to other people

Comprehension Approah: language acquisition appears when learner comprehends meaninful input


Communicative Approach: purpose of language is communication

Understanding the concepts of APPROACH, METHOD and TECHNIQUE

Approach is general )e.g. Cognitive(, Method is a specific set of procedures more or less compatible with an approach )e.g. Silant Way(, Technique is a very specific type of learning activity used in one or more methods )e.g. using rods(.

Grammar Translation Approach,

Direct Approach

Audiolingual Approach Structual syllabus )organized courses, teaching

Cognitive Approach materials around grammar(

Some methods following Comprehension Approach

Reading Approach → Text based syllabus )around texts and vocabulary items minor grammar(

Situational Approach → Dual objective syllabus )around various situation with structure and vocabulary(

Communicative Approach → communicative syllabus )around notions like location, agei degree and functions like asking for information(

Affective Hum. Approach → Learner Generated syllabus )learner decide what to learn, what to do( ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Error analysis in language teaching


Teaching is one of the easiest jobs in the world ......Teaching WELL is one of the most difficult !

In language teaching, error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors. Errors are classified[3]according to:

modality )i.e. level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening(

linguistic levels )i.e. pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style( form )e.g. omission, insertion, substitution( type )systematic errors/errors in competence vs. occasional

errors/errors in performance( cause )e.g. interference, interlanguage( norm vs. system

Speech errorFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A speech error is a speech pattern that differs from some standard pattern. Speech errors are common among children, who have yet to refine their speech, and can frequently continue into adulthood. They sometimes lead to embarrassment and betrayal of the speaker's regional or ethnic origins. However, it is also common for them to enter the popular culture as a kind of linguistic "flavoring".

Speech errors may be used intentionally for humorous effect, as with Spoonerisms.

Within the field of psycholinguistics, speech errors fall under the category of language production. Types of speech errors include: exchange errors, perseveration, anticipation, shift, substitution, blends, additions, and deletions. The study of speech errors contributes to the establishment/refinement of models of speech production.

Types of speech errors Grammatical - For example children take time to learn irregular verbs,

so in English use the -ed form incorrectly. See Words and Rules. Mispronunciation Vocabulary Young children make category approximations, using car

for lorry for example. See hypernym.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernym

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mispronunciation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Words_and_Rules

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irregular_verb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoonerism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlanguage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transfer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listening

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_analysis#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_teaching

Examples "Antartica" )Antarctica( <- elision "particuly" )particularly( <- elision "syntaxically" )syntactically( <- vocabulary

Language has a very specific structure, rules and vocabulary. When we see movies or read books, the characters seem to speak perfectly. Time the words just right, no hesitations, no repetitions of words, appropriate intonation, right speed, pitch and volume. But ideal delivery is purely hypothetical. We strive for it but it’s impossible because we’re always at maximum capacity while speaking and errors are inevitable.

Speech production

The production of spoken language involves three major levels of processing [1]. According to current models of the production lexicon, the first is the processes of conceptualization that connects the intention to speak and the concepts to be verbally expressed. The second is the process of formulation, which is the creation of the linguistic form of the idea meant to be expressed. This process can be broken down into the processes of grammatical encoding, which is the selection of semantically appropriate lexical items and the generation of a syntactic frame, and phonological encoding, which is the choosing of a phonetic form for the intended utterance. The third level is the processes of articulation, involving the retrieval of the phonetic plan, as well as the initiation and execution of articulation [2](.

A conversation can be viewed a as a sequence of conversational moves )[3]( used by the speaker to convey his meanings and intentions. People tend to improvise using slang words, repeated words, pause, and use what [4]( called performance additions: they offer support, sometimes interrupt, and challenge the sentence goals. They also have preconditions that specify context for their appropriate use. These performance additions are used in are one of the main differences between spontaneous speaking and writing.

Why do we feel the need to use these spontaneous additions while talking and in what way do they serve our purpose? These questions will be discussed in this article through several different views. Performance additions have been viewed in 3 different approaches: the fist approach, endorsed by traditional linguistics, views them as “errors” that are not part of the language and so should not be researched within the linguistic science. The second approach views the performance additions as errors as well but claim they should be researched for what they reveal about our process of language production. And lastly, the third approach views that at least some performance additions are a part of language )[5](.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pause


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slang


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptualization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_language


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision

Error Correction in the ESL Classroom

Some teachers correct every mistake made by their students. Other teachers rarely or never correct their students' mistakes. In Teacher Joe's experience, both approaches have serious weaknesses. The first approach makes students nervous and leads to a lack of fluency. The second approach can lead to students who speak but whose English is hard to understand.

It is better to avoid either extreme. ESL teachers should try to find a middle approach. We need to choose the right time to correct and the right time to let students speak freely. Corrections should only be made when students will receive the most benefit. Here are some times when you should correct students:

1. Correct students when they can't find the right way to proceed. When they are searching for the right word, phrase, or grammar, you can help them.

2. After several students have made the same mistake, make a note of it and plan an activity for a LATER lesson. Don't interrupt what they are doing, but don't ignore the mistake either.

3. Correct students when there is a real possibility for misunderstanding, for example if a student is talking about a past event but uses the wrong verb tense which could confuse the listener. You must explain this mistake when it happens, otherwise it will lead to other misunderstandings in the future.

The next question is, HOW should we correct students mistakes? Here, too, Teacher Joe has an opinion. There are two things you should include in any correction: 1. Explain why it is a mistake - how does it lead to miscommunication? Will this word choice lead people to believe something that is false? When talking about one thing, will using plural nouns by mistake lead to false assumptions? When students understand why, they are more motivated to remember correct English.

2. ALWAYS show students a better way! Don't just tell them they are wrong, give them an example, in a sentence, to reinforce your correction. Sometimes, two or three examples are helpful. If it's a particularly difficult point, you can even have the whole class practice the correct sentences out loud so that everyone gets it.

Three ways to - correct students' speaking


The constant dilemma: to correct and encourage accuracy or not to correct and encourage fluency. Interrupting your students when they make mistakes risks making them nervous and hesitant speakers. Not doing so may deprive them of a valuable learning opportunity.

In general, it is often worth avoiding interrupting students as much as you can. Immediate correction can be useful when you are interacting with the class but when students are involved in pair or group activities, delayed correction is better. Listen while the students are working and make mental notes of the most important mistakes. Let them complete the activity. Then you draw attention to the mistake and invite the student to correct it. Most mistakes in speaking are what we call 'slips'. Slips are mistakes which the student can correct if you draw attention to the mistake.

The techniques below may be used for both immediate and delayed correction.

1. Asking for repetition without indicating the mistake.

Many teachers use a rolling movement of the hand to ask the student to repeat without indicating where the mistake falls. In many cases students will be able to self-correct when you have indicated there is a mistake.

2. Drawing attention to mistakes and prompting self-correction.

Many teachers use their fingers to indicate the position of mistakes and prompt the student to self-correct. For example, if a student wants to say:

'The motorcycle was invented in 1885.'but the student actually says: 'The motorcycle was invent in 1885.'

The teacher puts up three fingers and touches the first finger and says IN, then touches the second finger and says VENT, and finally touches the third finger and looks at the student with a questioning facial expression.

Or, if the student is trying to say:'Mount Everest was first climbed in 1953.'And the student actually says:'Mount Everest was first clime bed in 1953.'

The teacher first indicates where the problem exists:

The teacher then indicates the link between the two syllables, saying 'clime-bed' and then bringing the two fingers together.


3. Peer correction

Sometimes the student cannot self-correct )although they should always be given the opportunity(. In this case you can prompt another student to provide the correction. After doing this, return to the original student to get the self-correction.

Beware of allowing two or three students in the class to become the ones who always provide peer correction. Correction of mistakes should be a task shared by all the students in the class.

[Illustrations from Mistakes and Correction by Julian Edge - Longman 1989, now out of print.]


Behaviorism What is Behaviorism?

School of thought popular in psychology and related fields in the 1930’s-1950’s

Holds that objectively observable behavior is the only acceptable means of data analysis

Emphasizes the role of environment in learning and development )nurture(

Learning consists of habits constructed through stimulus-response associations

Who is Bloomfield?

1887-1949 “Father of American Linguistics”—descriptive tradition,

structuralist, behaviorist Trained as IEist, but went on to Tagalog and Algonquian

languages Passage from Language )1933(, 22-26

A. A. Practical events preceding the act of speechB. B. SpeechC. C. Practical events following the act of speech


S R )speechless reaction(S r . . . . . . s R )reaction mediated by speech( What elements of Behaviorism did you find in the Bloomfield passage?

Speech is the practical reaction )response( to some stimulus Object of study: observable events )behavior(

Language learning seen setting up stimulusàresponse pairs, a.k.a. habits

Babbling sets up stimulusàresponse pairs: you make certain movements with your mouth and hear certain sounds

“Imitation” is just a response to the aural stimulus Association of vocal patterns and objects also

stimulusàresponse pairs Adult emotion of “asking or wanting” a more advanced

stimulusàresponse pairs In addition, Bloomfield claimed that child receives reinforcement

for more correct vocal/object pairsContrastive Analysis Hypothesis

)Lado 1957( Based in behaviorist thinking:

SLA seen as the development of a new set of habits Positive vs. Negative transfer )of habits(

Main tenants of CAH )strong version(:

Main source of errors in L2 due to transfer of L1 habits Errors can be predicted by a contrastive analysis of the L1 and L2 The greater the difference between L1 and L2, the more errors

that will occur Problems with CAH:

Errors occur that are not due to L1 )see ex )3-9(( Errors don’t occur when they are predicted )see exs )3-10(-)3-12(( Problems operationalizing the contrastive analysis—how do you

measure “difference” and “distance” Paradigm shift from behaviorist to mentalist views in psychology

and linguisticso o Errors in child language part of rule formation and not part of

child’s linguistic environment )see ex )3-6((


o o Imitation and reinforcement/correction don’t seem to be important to language acquisition )see ex )3-7(-)3-8((

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****المحور الأول**** · web view... questions 93-106 are incomplete sentences. beneath...

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المحور الأول · web view... questions 93-106 are incomplete sentences. beneath...