© tefko saracevic 1 the phenomenon of information nature and multifaceted characteristics tefko...

© Tefko Saracevic 1

The phenomenon of INFORMATION

The phenomenon of INFORMATION

Nature and multifaceted characteristics

Tefko Saracevic

Rutgers University


What is information?What is information?

We don’t know!! But: What is energy, matter,

gravity, life, intelligence ... ? All - information included -

are basic phenomena How to study them?

All studied in terms of:

MANIFESTATIONS

BEHAVIOR

EFFECTS


Dictionary (Oxford)Dictionary (Oxford)

INFORM: to form (the mind...) esp. by

imparting, learning, instruction

to impart knowledge of some fact or occurrence; to tell (one) something

INFORMATION: the action of informing; the

action of telling or ... being told of something

that of which one is apprised or told; intelligence, news


InterpretationsInterpretations

Information: a complex phenomenon spectrum of views; variety of

interpretations in differing contexts

research in many fields from philosophy to neuroscience

complex relation to other phenomena e.g. knowledge & processes e.g. communication

strong intuitive & context - dependent understanding


Views of information:polarization - spectrumViews of information:

polarization - spectrumOne end:

Exists in structure of material world -- would be there if we exist or not

Inf. as a basic phenomenon in universe as energy & matter Inf. as a basic aspect of living systems “Life is a knowledge process” Miller

Other end:

Material world can only become inf. when acted upon by a knower

Inf. as a cognitive phenomenon only Related to (& restricted to) cognitive processes


Relations: increase in complexity of cognitive

processing

Relations: increase in complexity of cognitive

processing

Data

Information

Knowledge

Wisdom/ insight

Symbols with some meaning

Conversion, interpretation

Integration, embedding in private & public

Connections, higher interpretations


“Information journey”“Information journey”

From Data to Information to Knowledge to Wisdom/insight

Increased complexity requiring cognitive skills, past intellectual history, intelligence ...

Processing into new patterns, relationships

Under contextual and cultural dependency

Interplay between private and public knowledge - RECORDS


Scholarly treatment - theories of informationScholarly treatment -

theories of information

Variety of theories, reflecting– different points of view,

departure– different focus & restrictions on

given characteristics Restrictions provide framework

for theory, interpretation ...– Common approach in science

Any restriction, interpretation has limitations, critics

No comprehensive theory yet But knowledge on behavior,

effects advancing


Theories ... characteristic, restriction emphasized

Theories ... characteristic, restriction emphasized

Uncertainty - inf. theory– concentration on probability of

signals– link to entropy (Shanon)

Uncertainty - psychology– contemplated actions (Rapaport)

Uncertainty - inf. science– effects of processing (Hayes)

Truth - logic, philosophy– propositions (Belknap & Anderson)

– sentences (Fox)

Meaning - semantics, logic– Texts and contexts (Bar-Hillel &

Carnap)


Theories ...Theories ... Effectuation, feedback -

cybernetics– role in communication (Wiener)

Propagation - epidemic theory of communication– changes in population

(Goffman)

Changes in mind - inf. science– effect on structure (Shreider,

Belkin)

Changes in knowledge - inf. science– effect on knowledge (Brooks)

Decision making - management– role in process (Yovits)


Information: mind & brainCartesian dilemma

Information: mind & brainCartesian dilemma

Descart: rational mind & physical brain

Cognitive science - mind Neurophysiology - brain Convergence: how does brain

process information? Theory of consciousness:

– distributive memory, interacting systems

– regions in brain where concepts are stored & processed

– brain as an “indexer organizing inf. into categories”


Characteristics of the notion in information science

Characteristics of the notion in information science

1. Part of human cognition

2. Has a meaning, content

3. Produced by a generator

4. Recorded, any medium

5. Represented , value-added

6. In context of communication

7. Basis for social interaction

8. Requested, needed; retrieved

9. Effects the recipient (user)

10. A process - transformation ...

11. A thing, commodity; has value (After Belkin, Buckland)


Inf. as a PROCESSInf. as a PROCESS

Information is: Expandable

– addition, change over time Compressible

– represented, integrated ... Transportable

– various media, speeds Diffusive

– among populations; “leaks” Shareable

– repeated use by many

Inf. systems use these attributes


Inf. in inf. science ...Inf. in inf. science ...

Information treated as with these characteristics

Each subject of research, models, experimentation

Basis for operations in inf. systems, inf. industry

Each related to professional practice, education

Technology applied to a number

But: at times some treated in isolation, as if others don’t exist - a dangerous mistake


Inf. in information science (cont.)

Inf. in information science (cont.)

Again: intuitively well understood, but formally not well stated– Several viewpoints, models emerged

Shannon: source-channel-destination– signals not content – not really

applicable Cognitive: changes in cognitive

structures– content processing & effects

Social: context, situation – information seeking, tasks


Shannon's information theory

Shannon's information theory

Developed a general model for communication systems, and a set of theoretical tools for analyzing such systems, by measuring information in terms of probabilities (numbers)


Shannon … uncertaintyShannon … uncertainty

Defined information in terms of probabilities – developed measure of the information

we get from observing the occurrence of an event, BUT ignored any particular features of the event

» e.g. flipping a fair coin once will give us events h and t each with probability 1/2, and thus a single flip of a coin gives us - log2(1/2) = 1 bit (Binary digit) of information (whether it comes up h or t)

Information measured in bits is the reduction in uncertainty in the mind of the receiver

information (in bits) is the amount of uncertainty a measure eliminates


Shannon’s impactShannon’s impact

Had great impact in treating of digital information as signals – e.g maximizing capacities of

channels; coding Had disappointing impact

(despite many tries) where information is connected with meaning, context, humans, values– the ideal to measure

information in human terms is elusive

– but keep trying …


Cognitive – basic idea:Cognitive – basic idea:

K(S) + ΔI = K(S + ΔS) (Brookes)

Information when operating on a knowledge structure produces an effect whereby the knowledge structure is changed

“Information is differences that make a difference” (find who said it!)

Actually, it only states the problem –– “unoperational” in information systems– involves cognitive, mental events only– constructivists rejected it


Inf. manifestations (Buckland)Inf. manifestations (Buckland)

Information as a process– what someone knows is changed when

informed; “the action of informing” (similar as Brookes)

» refers to cognitive changes + process of doing it

Information as knowledge– knowledge communicated about x

» uncertainty removal a special case» refers to that which is being

communicated - intangible

Information as a thing– data, documents with quality of imparting

information - tangible» refers to potential information conveyed

from objects


Three senses (from narrowest to broadest)

1. Information in terms of decision involving little or no cognitive processing - Shannon

– signals, bits, straightforward data - computing, telecommunication, economics,

2. Information involving cognitive processing & understanding - Brookes

– understanding, matching texts

3. Information also as related to context, situation, problem-at-hand, process – Buckland to some extend

– users, use, tasks

For information science (including information retrieval):

third, broadest interpretation necessary

Senses of inf. in inf. scienceSenses of inf. in inf. science


What is in a book?What is in a book?

for discussion in class


Cover page of a book:

What is in it?

What is in it?


A chapter in that book


Here is also a cover page of a book:

What is in it?

What is in it?


A chapte

r in that book


Adequacy?Adequacy?

None of the theories about information are adequate to cover fully information as a phenomenon

Each covers a bit or simply describes manifestation

Shannon’s theory is testable, but reduces “information” to signals only

A scientific theory is one that can be refuted – tested for confirmation, rejection (Popper)


ConclusionsConclusions Inf. - a complex phenomenon

but with recognizable & definable properties

Researched in many fields, from many angles – communication not good

Attributes used in many applications & inf. systems– often with intuitive

understanding of properties Slow convergence of ideas Work on information of

increasing importance - social dimensions


So we went to studySo we went to study

Human information behavior “how people need, seek,

manage, give, and use information in different contexts” (Pettigrew )

many models, theories, studies on a variety of aspects

extends to study of web behavior Bibliometrics

“the study, or measurement, of texts and information” (Norton)

many studies and formal statements about structure & patterns of literatures, citations, authors, journals, texts … Bradford’s law, Lotka’s law


to be continued …to be continued …

We cover these in other lectures and courses

and two 2005 books cover very nicely the topics of

theories of human information behavior

and

integration of information seeking and information retrieval in context– highly recommended

© tefko saracevic 1 the phenomenon of information nature and multifaceted characteristics tefko...

Documents

critics n

interpretations information

basic phenomena n

views of information

information journey

news slide

w effectuation

knowledge processes