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Psychology of beauty and

philosophy of art

Rolf Reber

Department of Psychosocial Science

University of Bergen

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A Tour through the Talk

A perceptual fluency theory of beauty is presented.

First, beauty is defined. I then explain the theory

and some of the core findings. I am going to

discuss what this new theory explains what

traditional theories of beauty can not explain,

presenting recent data from our laboratory. Finally,

I discuss the interaction of the psychology of

beauty and the philosophy of art.

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BeautyThe philosopher George Santayana defined beauty as „value positive, intrinsic, and objectified“. Value positive and intrinsic mean that beauty provides pleasure without any reasoning about expected utility. Objectified means that people experience beauty as an attribute of an object, not as a personal preference, like a cold drink on a hot day.

There are basically three views to answer the question „What is beauty?“:

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Beauty

(1) Several theorists tried to define beauty by

objective features, like symmetry or

balance. Beauty in this sense is based on

biological equipment of the perceptual

system.

This view of beauty was so dominant in 16th century

that artists introduced pattern books with pictorial

elements that artists could copy and combine with each

other in order to create beauty.

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Beauty

(2) Another view is that beautiful is what

pleases the senses; what pleases the

senses is different from person to person so

that „beauty is in the eye of the beholder“ or

„de gustibus non est disputandum“ (taste

cannot be debated). Beauty in this sense

may also be socially constructed.

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Beauty

(3) Finally, the sense of beauty can emerge

from patterns in the way people and

objects relate. It is the interaction of

characteristics of the perceptual system

and the object that determines aesthetic

experience, like in the processing fluency

theory of beauty (Reber et al., 2004)

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

Reber, Schwarz, & Winkielman (2004)

presented a theory of beauty that is based on

processing fluency. Processing fluency means

the ease with which stimulus materials can be

processed.

We found that objective speed at different

perceptual stages contribute jointly to the

phenomenal experience of fluency.

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

The proposed theory is based on four basic assumptions:

(1) Objects differ in the fluency with which they can be

processed;

(2) Processing fluency is itself hedonically marked;

(3) Processing fluency feeds into judgments of aesthetic

appreciation;

(4) The impact of fluency is moderated by expectations

and attribution.

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

(1)

Objects differ in the fluency with which they can

be processed. Variables that facilitate fluent

processing include all objective features of

stimuli, like goodness of form, symmetry, figure-

ground contrast, as well as experience with a

stimulus, for example repeated exposure or

prototypicality.

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

(2)

Processing fluency is itself hedonically marked and

high fluency is subjectively experienced as positive

(Reber, Winkielman, & Schwarz, 1998), as

indicated by psychophysiological findings

(Winkielman & Cacioppo, 2001).

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Perceptual Fluency and Affect

One theoretical account (Bornstein & D‘Agostino,

1994) claimed that the link between mere

exposure and affect is mediated by

perceptual fluency:

Several studies found effects of repeated stimulus

exposure on affective preference (e.g., Zajonc,

1968).

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Perceptual Fluency and Affect

One theoretical account (Bornstein & D‘Agostino,

1994) claimed that the link between mere

exposure and affect is mediated by

perceptual fluency:

Several studies found effects of repeated stimulus

exposure on affective preference (

Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980; Zajonc, 1968).

Contributor

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Perceptual

Fluency

Judgments

of Disliking

Positive

Repeated

Exposure

of Stimuli

Other Variable

(e.g., figure-

ground contrast)

Judgments

of Liking

Perceptual Fluency and Affect

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Perceptual Fluency and Affect:Physiological Evidence

The authors replicated studies from Reber et al. (1998).

In addition, they measured elektromyographic activity of the

Zygomaticus Major which indicates expression of a positive affective

reaction.

The study of Winkielman and Cacioppo (2001):

Experiments so far: Ratings

Additional evidence for effects of perceptual fluency on affective

judgments may come from physiological data which shows affective

reactions to perceptual fluency.

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Perceptual Fluency and Affect:Physiological Evidence

ZygomaticusMajor

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Perceptual Fluency and Affect:Physiological Evidence

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Zeit (s)

4 s

Judgment

6 s

Dependent variables were judgment of liking and activity of the Zygomaticus Major (t2 - t1).

Hypothesis: The longer the exposure duration, the more positive the judgment, and the higher the activity of the Zygomaticus Major .

t1: 3 s t2: 2 s EMG-Measurement

Picture

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2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3

300 500 700 900Exposure duration

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Judgment

Zygomaticus(t2 - t1)

Perceptual Fluency and Affect:Physiological Evidence

(Winkielman & Cacioppo, 2001)

Liki

ng ju

dgm

ent

Activity of Z

ygomaticus

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

The proposed theory is based on four basic assumptions:

(1) Objects differ in the fluency with which they can be

processed;

(2) Processing fluency is itself hedonically marked;

(3) Processing fluency feeds into judgments of aesthetic

appreciation;

(4) The impact of fluency is moderated by expectations

and attribution.

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

(3)

Processing fluency feeds into judgments of

aesthetic appreciation because people draw on

their subjective experience in making evaluative

judgments, unless the informational value of the

experience is called into question.

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

(4)

The impact of fluency is moderated by expectations and

attribution. On one hand, fluency has a particularly strong

impact on affective experience if its source is unknown and

fluent processing comes as a surprise, in line with findings

by Whittlesea & Williams (1998).

On the other hand, the fluency-based affective experience is

discounted as a source of relevant information when the

perceiver attributes the experience to an irrelevant source

(Van den Bergh & Vrana, 1998).

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

Phenomena that a perceptual fluency framework of

affective preference can explain better:

• Preferences for prototypical and for extreme forms.

• The contradiction between inborn preferences and

acquired preferences is resolved (Sollberger & Reber,

in preparation).

• Parallel effects of familiarity on affective preferences

(Reber et al. 1998) and on judgments of truth

(McGlone & Tofighbakhsh, 2000; Reber & Schwarz,

1999).

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Grammar used by Buchner (1994)

Grammatical: TSSXXVPS

Ungrammatical: TSPXVVPS

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Grammar Used In Our Experiments

bc#

c#

b

f#f#

b

Example grammatical melody c b c# c# c c c

Example ungrammatical melody c1 c f# c1 f# f# c

Example random melody c c# b c b c1 b

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Participants were exposed to 20 grammatical melodies with the instruction to memorize them. A control group heard random melodies.

Then, they heard 40 melodies consisting of 7 tones:

- 20 grammatical new- 20 ungrammatical

Participants had to provide two judgments:

- Grammaticality- Liking

Method

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The Acquisition of Musical Taste: Grammaticality

6,38

5,83

4,95

5,48

4

5

6

7

Experimental Control

Gramm

Ungramm

Grammaticality

Sollberger & Reber (in prep.)

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The Acquisition of Musical Taste: Liking

5,65

4,88

5,094,93

4

5

6

Experimental Control

Gramm

Ungramm

Liking

Sollberger & Reber (in prep.)

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Preference for certain musical

structures can be learned through

exposure to this structure.

It is not necessary that melodies are

exactly the same. They must just obey

the same underlying rules.

The Acquisition of Musical Taste:Conclusion

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A Perceptual Fluency Theory of Beauty

Phenomena that a perceptual fluency framework of

affective preference can explain better:

• Preferences for prototypical and for extreme forms.

• The contradiction between inborn preferences and

acquired preferences is resolved (Sollberger & Reber,

in preparation).

• Parallel effects of familiarity on affective preferences

(Reber et al. 1998) and on judgments of truth

(McGlone & Tofighbakhsh, 2000; Reber & Schwarz,

1999).

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Perceptual Fluency and Judged Truth

The study of Reber and Schwarz (1999):

Repeated statements are judged as being more truthful than

new statements (e.g., Brown & Nix, 1996; Hasher et al., 1977).

Some of these findings have been interpreted as an attribution

of processing fluency to judged truth.

Reber and Schwarz tested this assumption directly: They

presented 32 statements (e.g., „Osorno is in Chile“) one by

one in different contrast to the background, making them well

or moderately well readable.

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If perceptual fluency is misattributed to judged truth,

an effect of contrast is predicted: Well readable

statements are more likely to be judged as being true

than moderately readable statements.

Osorno is in Chile

Osorno is in Chile

Perceptual Fluency and Judged Truth

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Osorno is in Chile

Osorno is in Chile

8,09

8,36

8

8,1

8,2

8,3

8,4

Judg

ed t

ruth

Readability

Moderate

Well

Perceptual Fluency and Judged Truth

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Conceptual Fluency and Judged Accuracy of Aphorims

The study supports the notion that perceptual fluency increases

judged truth.

However, there are other sources of experienced fluency that are

more relevant in the context of judged truth of statements, such

as conceptual manipulations.

Mc Glone and Tofighbakhsh (2000) tested this assumption

by manipulating rhyming of aphorisms as a measure of

fluency.

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They presented four kinds of aphorisms:

(1) Extant rhyming aphorisms e.g., Caution and measure will win you a treasure

(2) Non-rhyming modifications of (1) e.g., Caution and measure will win you riches

(3) Extant non-rhyming aphorisms Fools live poor to die rich

(4) Non-rhyming modifications of (3) Fools live poor to die wealthy

Conceptual Fluency and Judged Accuracy of Aphorims

6.17

5.26

5.79

5.51

Judgment

p <.05.

n.s.

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Illusions of familiarity (Jacoby & Whitehouse, 1989; Whittlesea, 1993)

Affective judgments (Lee & Labroo, 2004; Reber et al., 1998)

Judgment of truth (Reber & Schwarz, 1999)

Feeling of knowing (Werth & Strack, 2003)

Judgments of time (Witherspoon & Allan, 1985)

Judgments of size (Reber, Zimmermann, & Wurtz, 2004)

The authors concluded that processing fluency influenced judged

accuracy of aphorisms.

These findings are in accodance with other findings on the role of

processing fluency in judgemental tasks:

Conceptual Fluency and Judged Accuracy of Aphorims

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We have now began a research project that examines the effect of percpetual fluency on emotionally positive or negative materials.

Does high fluency of emotionally negative objects (e.g., guns) decrease or increase negative affect?

Moreover, we examine the role of question focus in evaluating emotionally negative objects. Does focus on form decrease and focus on function increase negative affect when perceptual fluency increases?

Future Directions

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Criticisms of Our Theory of Beauty

It has absolutely nothing to do with beauty in

art; maybe you should tell your story at

business schools;

This is Disney aesthetics;

Psychologists can‘t tell what art should be;

It has absolutely nothing to do with art.

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Criticisms of Our Theory of Beauty

It has absolutely nothing to do with beauty in

art; maybe you should tell your story at

business schools.

Yes, I tell that business schools; however, this

criticism implies that beauty in advertisement and

beauty in art are of different quality. There is not yet

empirical evidence for two kinds of the experience of

beauty.

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Criticisms of Our Theory of Beauty

This is Disney aesthetics.

One issue here may have to do with the opinion that

beauty in art is in some kind superior to beauty in

Disney products. Again, there is no evidence for

different kinds of beauty.

Another issue pertains to different aesthetic qualities:

One is beauty, but there is also an aesthetic of the

sublime, eroticism, cuteness or even disgust,

dependent on what a picture arouses.

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Criticisms of Our Theory of Beauty

Psychologists can‘t tell what art should be:

This is right, our findings are descriptive, without normative

conseqeunces. Unfortunetaly, some psychologist do not know

that.

For example, Colin Martindale, then president of the International

Association of Empirical Aesthetics, in a Presidential Address on

„Bouguereau is back“. He argued – based on empirical research

on liking representational versus abstract modern art – that

„modern art will eventually be reduced to a footnote and that art

history will be rewritten as the history of representational

painting.”

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Criticisms of Our Theory of BeautyAdolphe William Bouguereau (1825 – 1905).

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Criticisms of Our Theory of Beauty

It has absolutely nothing to do with art:

It is worth stressing that beauty can be a feature of

art, but does not need to be. There are other

aesthetic qualities, like the sublime. Good art can be

ugly, and beautiful pictures may have no artistic

merit.

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Can Psychology of Art Influence Art?

Yes, if artists aim at some effect. If artists see it as

they want to see it, they may easily overestimate that

viewers see the same effect.

Georg Baselitz in an interview with Henry Geldzahler:

I have always seen my paintings as independent from meanings

with regard to contents – and also independent from associations

that could result from them. If one pursues the logical conclusion

of that thought, then it follows that if one needs a tree, a person,

or a cow in the picture, but without meaning, without contents,

then one simply takes it and turns it upside down.

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Can Psychology of Art Influence Art?

Georg Baselitz,born 1938

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Can Psychology of Art Influence Art?

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