bring some dried fruit (e.g., apricots, cherries, and raisins) to class. invite the students to eat...

Animal, Plant & Soil Science

E9-2Growing Forage Crops

Interest Approach

Bring some dried fruit (e.g., apricots, cherries, and raisins) to class. Invite the students to eat some. Ask them if the fruit is as nutritious as fresh fruit. Ask why fruits are dried. Maneuver the discussion to animal feed, and then draw comparisons between dried fruit and forages.

Objectives

1 Describe how forage crops are established and maintained.

2 Identify pests that affect forages, and examine management practices that may be used to prevent or minimize damage.

3 Determine the steps involved in the hay-making process, and identify equipment that is used in hay production.

4 Describe the forage quality standards, and explain their importance.

5 Identify equipment and structures used to handle, transport, and store forage products.

Terms

acid detergent fiber balers conditioners crude protein curing dry matter content hay making hay rakes in vitro dry matter disappearance inverters metabolizable energy mowers tedders total digestible nutrients windrow

How are forage crops established and maintained?

A plan for establishing forage crops and maintaining them is essential for achieving maximum yields.


The forage grasses should be selected based on use and the climate in which the forage crops are to be grown.

Forage grasses can be established using a number of methods: seeding, sprigging, and specialized methods.


Forage grasses can be planted into existing vegetation. This method of establishment

causes minimal soil disturbance. Preparing a seedbed, which would

include disking or plowing, is common for crops to be used as hay or silage.

Permanent pastures require yearly maintenance. Nitrogen fertilizers are often needed

for forage grasses. Pesticide use, mowing, and irrigation

may also be necessary.


The first step in establishing forage legumes is the choice of legume. The legume chosen should be climate appropriate and should meet the consumer’s needs. Like forage grasses, forage legumes can be grown in prepared and existing seedbeds. However, it is important for the soil to contain rhizobia bacteria so nitrogen fixation can occur. Maintaining forage legumes is similar to maintaining forage grasses. Maintenance is determined by the needs of the specific field. Pesticide application, grazing, and mowing may all be used as maintenance activities.

What pests affect forages? What management practices are used to prevent or minimize damage?

Common forage legume pests include:› alfalfa weevils› clover leaf weevils› sweet clover

weevils› variegated cutworms› grasshoppers

› green cloverworms› potato leafhoppers› meadow spittlebugs› spotted alfalfa

aphids› pea aphids


Common forage diseases include:› Bacterial wilt› Black stem› Yellow leaf blotch› Downy mildew› Target spot› Powdery mildew› Anthracanose› Rusts


Management of forage pests begins by selecting varieties with resistance to diseases and insects.

Selection is often the best control, but cultural practices can alleviate problems. For instance, harvesting alfalfa early, when

practical, is an effective way to minimize the risk of weevil damage.

Following a three-year rotation of alfalfa with row crops also reduces problems.

Herbicides and insecticides may be used to control some pests.

What are the steps involved in the hay-making process? What equipment is used in hay production?

Hay is an economical source of nutrients in livestock feed.

Hay making involves the cutting, curing, and storing of high-quality, nutritious feed.

Hay that is green, fine stemmed, free of weeds, and cut before it reaches full maturity makes the best quality hay.


Most forage grasses and forage legumes can be used to make hay.

Soybeans and cereal grains are also used.

Hay can be a mixture of legumes and grasses or may be pure.


Hay should be cut at the boot growth stage.

Cutting at this time will ensure the highest quality hay.

Some plants may produce several hay cuttings per growing season.


Hay has to be cured before it is used. Curing is the drying of hay to a moisture

level that makes it safe for storage. Hay should not be cut soon after rain

or stored wet because it can mildew or may create a fire due to spontaneous combustion.

Hay should be baled or stored while it still has the sweet smell caused by the curing process.


Cut hay can be conditioned to speed the curing process.

Conditioning is the crushing of the stems to allow moisture to evaporate more quickly.

Sunshine or artificial drying can be used to speed evaporation. After hay is cured, it is baled into small or large square bales or round bales.

The bales should be stored in dry areas, and hay that is stored outside should be covered.


Machines of many designs are used for the different steps of the hay-making process.

Machines used include:› Mowers› Conditioners› Tedders› Inverters› hay rakes› balers


Hay making begins with mowers that cut the forage.

Two types of mowers used to cut hay are sickle bar and disc or rotary. The sickle bar mower provides a neat,

clean cut of the forage and can be powered by smaller tractors.

The disc or rotary type mower is good to use when crops have lodged, but it requires greater power to operate.


The conditioners roll and crimp the cut forage.

This step speeds drying. Usually the conditioner is a part of the mowing

machine. By using rubber rolls or steel rolls, the

conditioners break open the waxy covering over the hay stems and allow the moisture inside to evaporate more rapidly.

The flail, impeller, or tine conditioner machines cut the forage with a scuffing action, leaving a ragged cut.


Tedders are machines that spread the hay on the field for better air circulation.

Inverters flip the swath over so the damp bottom is exposed to the sun and air for drying.


Tedder


Inverter


Hay rakes gather and roll the partially dry hay into a windrow, which is a long row of cut hay.

Rolling the hay exposes the underside of the hay to the air and allows the baler to efficiently pick up the crop for harvest.

Three types of hay rakes are parallel bar, rotary, and wheel. The parallel bar has the lowest amount of hay

loss, particularly with legumes. Rotary rakes can be used to rake or ted the hay Wheel rakes operate at a higher speed than

other rakes.

Hay Rakes

Parallel Bar Rotary

Wheel


Balers gather the dried forage and compress it into bales that may be rectangular or round.

Bale sizes vary because of different machines. Small rectangular bales weigh

approximately 38 -40 pounds. Round bales can vary from 500 to 2,000

pounds. Some large rectangular balers make bales

that weigh a ton or more.

Balers

What are the forage quality standards? What is their importance?

Variations in quality are common among feeds. However, forages vary more widely than grains and most other feedstuffs.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture has used the recognizable characteristics of quality in hay as a basis for determining the federal grades. In 1985, hay quality designations

were refined and established.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/USDA_logo.svg


The USDA formed the Hay Reporting Task Force to address the need to improve report uniformity and to enhance the effectiveness and quality of the Federal-State market news reports.

New guidelines were developed by the USDA to reflect changes in hay marketing nationwide. The changes in the classification help in comparing hay prices from one U.S. region to another.


The updated USDA classification system reflects the best practices of the commercial hay industry.

However, since there is no official grading of hay, these classifications will become nonexistent for some portions of the hay market.

Widely accepted standards allow hay buyers and sellers to more efficiently negotiate sales.

Market news reporters from the USDA and the State Department of Agriculture are now using the revised guidelines in market reporting across the country.


The test measurement most prominent in a grade area and visual characteristics are used to determine hay quality.

The guidelines will help in comparing hay processes from one U.S. region to another.

The same guidelines are given for alfalfa, alfalfa/mix hay, and grass hay.


Hay quality designations are supreme, premium, good, fair, and low.

Supreme hay is of very early maturity and is pre-bloom, soft, fine-stemmed, and extra leafy.

The forage has very high nutritive and protein content.

The hay is excellent in color and is free of damage.


Premium hay is of early maturity (e.g., pre-bloom in legumes and pre-head in grass hays), is extra leafy, and is fine-stemmed.

It has high nutritive and protein content. The hay is green and is free of damage.

Good hay is of early to average maturity (e.g., early to mid-bloom in legumes and early head in grass hays).

It is leafy, fine to medium-stemmed, and free of damage other than slight discoloration.


Fair hay is of late maturity (e.g., mid- to late-bloom in legumes, head-in grass hays, moderate or below leaf content, and generally coarse-stemmed).

Fair hay may show slight damage.

Low hay is of very late maturity (e.g., mature seed pods in legumes or mature head in grass hays) and is coarse stemmed.

This category could include hay that is discounted because of excessive damage, heavy weed content, or mold.

Defects are identified in market reports when using this category.


Methods of evaluating forages

1. Physical inspection is the first step in evaluating forages.

2. If at all possible, weigh the entire lot. Otherwise weigh several bales to obtain an average weight for the forage purchased.

3. The color of the forage is important, but it is not a good indicator of digestibility.


4. A bright green color generally indicates that the forage was cut prior to maturity and was cured properly. Green is usually associated with good quality, while yellow, brown, and black suggest progressively lower quality forages.

5. Nutritional content and digestibility of forages decline as they mature. Look for evidence of seeds; seed heads; and coarse wood stems, all of which indicate over-maturity.

6. Quality variations between forage varieties are not usually as great as those among a single variety caused by management factors.


7. Forages should be inspected for impurities or foreign materials.

8. Harmless impurities that seldom injure an animal include crop residue, sticks, dirt, rocks, and weeds. These lower quality and palatability.

9. Harmful objects can physically injure an animal. Examples include nails, wire, and awned weeds, which can puncture the mouth, tongue, esophagus, or stomach.


10. Molds may produce toxins and odors. As a result, it is important to look for the presence of molds and to check or smell for musty or mildewy odors that indicate the presence of spores.

11. Forage packaging influences difficulty in handling and storage. It also influences feeding losses and potential for spoilage.


Chemical analysis is the second step in evaluating forages.

Dry matter content (DMC) tells how much dry hay is in the sample. moisture dilutes the concentration of

nutrients so its important to always balance and evaluate rations on a dry-matter basis.


Crude protein (CP) is the total protein (available and unavailable) in the forages as determined by the total nitrogen content. Forages harvested at earlier growth

stages will have higher crude protein than more mature forages

Shouldn’t be used as a sole indicator of quality


Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF): Measures hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin which represents the fibrous bulk of the forage

NDF is negatively related to feed intake; a high percentage of NDF reduces feed intake.

A normal range is 30-60% on a dry matter basis.


Acid detergent fiber (ADF) measures the highly indigestible and slowly digestible material in the forage Measures the cellulose and lignin

Higher ADF values correlate to lower forage digestibility.

Normal range is 25-45% on a dry matter basis


Relative Feed Value (RFV): A prediction of feeding value that combines estimated intake (NDF) and estimated digestibility (ADF) into a single index.

RFV is used to evaluate legume hay. RFV is often used as a benchmark of

quality when buying or selling alfalfa hay.

RFV is not used for ration formulation.


Total digestible nutrients (TDN) refer to the sum of the energy values for the digestible protein, fats, and carbohydrates in the forage.


Metabolizable energy (ME) is a measure of the amount of gross feed energy remaining after deducting for losses in animal wastes and gases.

What equipment and structures are used to handle, transport,and store forage products?

Handling forage starts when the crop has been packaged.

The process of transporting harvested forage from field to storage depends on the forage type.

There are a variety of ways baled hay is transported, depending on its size.


1. Small rectangular bales are handled in many ways. Bales can be loaded on bale

wagons or hayracks by hand. Bale ejectors, bale loaders, or accumulators can also be used.

At the storage site, small bales may be moved with bale elevators and conveyors. Bales can be dropped from the conveyor in a random stack or they can be stacked by hand.


4. Large square and round bales must be handled carefully because of their weight.

5. A round bale mover is an integral component in a round bale system. Some bale movers lift, haul, and unload bales. Others are used to lift and load bales on trucks, wagons, and feeders.


6. Mounted bale movers are attached to tractors or pickup trucks. Round bale movers lift, haul, and unload round bales.

7. Silage and haylage are handled with self-unloading forage boxes or high-dump wagons. Self-unloading forage boxes have

many uses in forage harvesting and feeding. Most forage boxes unload into a front chamber and discharge material out one side. The material is moved forward by a chain and slat system.


8. High-dump wagons raise the bin of material high in the air to dump the contents into a waiting vehicle through the use of hydraulic cylinders.

High-dump wagons offer major advantages in field operations. They decrease the number of transport vehicles

needed by quickly transferring material into higher speed vehicles for road transport.

They also transfer material to trucks that cannot enter the field because of soft roads or rough conditions.


Some forages travel long distances and may be transported several times. Forage can be transported by wagon, truck, rail, barge, or vessel.

1. Transportation by wagon is one of the oldest and easiest methods of transporting forage short distances.

2. Trucks (e.g., straight trucks or tractor trailers) are gaining popularity because of the ability to haul large volumes, or weight, great distances.


3. Railroad transportation can be economically feasible to move forage from one part of the country to another.

4. Barge or vessel shipments are primarily used to move commodities to ocean ports.


Forages are stored in different ways. Selection of a storage site that has good drainage and protection from wind can help minimize losses. Climate determines the kind of storage used for hay. It can be stored in a barn, under a temporary cover, or in the field.

1. Barn storage provides the most protection from the weather, but it is also the most expensive.

2. Temporary covers (e.g., polyethylene sheets, canvas, or nylon tarpaulins) are sometimes placed over hay to keep it dry.

3. Field storage is the least expensive method of hay storage, but quality losses may be excessive because the hay is exposed to sun, wind, and moisture.


The type of storage system used for silage and haylage determines the way the forage is moved into storage.

1. With bunkers and trench silos, the material is unloaded on the pile and moved by a bulldozer or a tractor and a blade. As the material is moved, the weight of the bulldozer or tractor packs the material to create an air-free environment.

2. Upright silos require a forage blower to move the material into storage.

REVIEW

1. How are forage crops established and maintained?

2. What pests affect forages? What management practices are used to prevent or minimize damage?

3. What are the steps involved in the hay-making process? What equipment is used in hay production?

4. What are the forage quality standards? What is their importance?

5. What equipment and structures are used to handle, transport, and store forage products?

bring some dried fruit (e.g., apricots, cherries, and raisins) to class. invite the students to eat...

Documents

forage grasses

forage legumes

management of forage

growing forage crops

common forage diseases

common forage legume

forage quality standards

store forage products