© 2004 prentice-hall, inc.chap 9-1 basic business statistics (9 th edition) chapter 9 fundamentals...
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© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-1
Basic Business Statistics(9th Edition)
Chapter 9Fundamentals of Hypothesis Testing: One-Sample Tests
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-2
Chapter Topics Hypothesis Testing Methodology Z Test for the Mean ( Known) p-Value Approach to Hypothesis Testing Connection to Confidence Interval Estimation One-Tail Tests t Test for the Mean ( Unknown) Z Test for the Proportion Test for the Variance or Standard
Deviation Potential Hypothesis-Testing Pitfalls and
Ethical Issues
2
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-3
What is a Hypothesis?
A Hypothesis is a Claim (Assertion)about the PopulationParameter Examples of parameters
are population mean (μ)or proportion (P )
The parameter mustbe identified beforeanalysis
I claim the mean GPA of this class is 3.5!
© 1984-1994 T/Maker Co.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-4
The Null Hypothesis, H0
States the Claim or Assertion to be Tested E.g., The mean GPA is 3.5
Null Hypothesis is Always about a Population Parameter ( ), Not about a Sample Statistic ( )
Is the Hypothesis a Researcher Tries to Reject
0 : 3.5H
0 : 3.5H 0 : 3.5H X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-5
The Null Hypothesis, H0
Begin with the Assumption that the Null Hypothesis is True Similar to the notion of innocent until
proven guilty Refers to the Status Quo Always Contains the “=” Sign The Null Hypothesis May or May Not be
Rejected
(continued)
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-6
The Alternative Hypothesis, H1
Is the Opposite of the Null Hypothesis E.g., The mean GPA is NOT 3.5 (
) Challenges the Status Quo Never Contains the “=” Sign Is Generally the Hypothesis that the
Researcher is Interested in
1 : 3.5H
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-7
Error in Making Decisions
Type I Error Reject a true null hypothesis
When the null hypothesis is rejected, we can say that “We have shown the null hypothesis to be false (with some ‘slight’ probability, i.e. , of making a wrong decision)
Has serious consequences Probability of Type I Error is
Called level of significance Set by researcher
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-8
Error in Making Decisions
Type II Error Fail to reject a false null hypothesis Probability of making a Type II Error is
The Probability of Not Making a Type II Error Called the Power of the Test
Probability of Not Making Type I Error Called the Confidence Coefficient
1
(continued)
1
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-9
Hypothesis Testing Process
Identify the Population
Assume thepopulation
mean GPA is 3.5
( )
REJECT
Take a Sample
Null Hypothesis
No, not likely!
X 2.4 likely if Is 3.5?
0 : 3.5H
2.4X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-10
= 3.5
It is unlikely that we would get a sample mean of this value ...
... if in fact this were the population mean.
... Therefore, we reject the
null hypothesis
that = 3.5.
Reason for Rejecting H0
Sampling Distribution of
2.4
If H0 is trueX
X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-11
Level of Significance,
Defines Unlikely Values of Sample Statistic if Null Hypothesis is True Called rejection region of the sampling
distribution Designated by , (level of significance)
Typical values are .01, .05, .10 Selected by the Researcher at the Beginning Controls the Probability of Committing a
Type I Error Provides the Critical Value(s) of the Test
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-12
Level of Significance and the Rejection Region
H0: 3.5
H1: < 3.50
0
0
H0: 3.5
H1: > 3.5
H0:
3.5 H1: 3.5
/2
Critical Value(s)
Rejection Regions
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-13
Result ProbabilitiesH0: Innocent
The Truth The Truth
Verdict Innocent Guilty Decision H0 True H0 False
Innocent Correct Decision
Type II Error
Do NotReject
H0
Type IIError
Guilty Type I Error
CorrectDecision
RejectH0
Type IError
Power
Jury Trial Hypothesis Test
1 Confidence
1
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-14
Type I & II Errors Have an Inverse Relationship
Reduce probability of one error and the other one goes up holding everything else unchanged.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-15
Factors Affecting Type II Error
True Value of Population Parameter increases when the difference between
the hypothesized parameter and its true value decreases
Significance Level increases when decreases
Population Standard Deviation increases when increases
Sample Size increases when n decreases
n
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-16
How to Choose between Type I and Type II Errors
Choice Depends on the Cost of the Errors Choose Smaller Type I Error When the Cost
of Rejecting the Maintained Hypothesis is High A criminal trial: convicting an innocent person The Exxon Valdez: causing an oil tanker to sink
Choose Larger Type I Error When You Have an Interest in Changing the Status Quo A decision in a startup company about a new
piece of software A decision about unequal pay for a covered group
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-17
Critical Values Approach to Testing
Convert Sample Statistic (e.g., ) to Test Statistic (e.g., Z, or t statistic)
Obtain Critical Value(s) for a Specifiedfrom a Table or Computer If the test statistic falls in the critical
region, reject H0
Otherwise, do not reject H0
X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-18
p-Value Approach to Testing Convert Sample Statistic (e.g., ) to Test
Statistic (e.g., Z, or t statistic) Obtain the p-value from a table or
computer p-value: probability of obtaining a test statistic
as extreme or more extreme ( or ) than the observed sample value given H0 is true
Called observed level of significance Smallest value of that an H0 can be rejected
Compare the p-value with If p-value , do not reject H0
If p-value , reject H0
X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-19
General Steps in Hypothesis Testing
E.g., Test the Assumption that the True Mean # of TV Sets in U.S. Homes is at Least 3 ( Known)
1. State the H0
2. State the H1
3. Choose
4. Choose n
5. Choose Test
0
1
: 3
: 3
=.05
100
Z
H
H
n
test
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-20
100 households surveyed
Computed Z =-2,
p-value = .0228
Reject null hypothesis
The true mean # TV set is less than 3
(continued)
Reject H0
-1.645Z
6. Set up critical value(s)
7. Collect data
8. Compute test statistic and p-value
9. Make statistical decision
10.Express conclusion
General Steps in Hypothesis Testing
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-21
One-Tail Z Test for Mean( Known)
Assumptions Population is normally distributed If not normal, requires large samples Null hypothesis has or sign only is known
Z Test Statistic
/
XZ
n
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-22
Rejection Region
Z0
Reject H0
Z0
Reject H0
H0: 0 H1: < 0
H0: 0 H1: > 0
Z must be significantly below 0
to reject H0
Small values of Z don’t contradict H0 ;
don’t reject H0 !
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-23
Example: One-Tail Test
Does an average box of cereal contain more than 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed = 372.5. The company has specified to be 15 grams. Test at the 0.05 level.
368 gm.
H0: 368 H1: > 368
X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-24
Reject and Do Not Reject Regions
Z0 1.645
.05
Reject
1.50
X368X 372.5
0 : 368H
1 : 368H
Do Not Reject
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-25
Finding Critical Value: One-Tail
Z .04 .06
1.6 .9495 .9505 .9515
1.7 .9591 .9599 .9608
1.8 .9671 .9678 .9686
.9738 .9750
Z0 1.645
.05
1.9 .9744
Standardized Cumulative Normal Distribution Table
(Portion)
What is Z given = 0.05?
= .05
Critical Value = 1.645
.95
1Z
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-26
Example Solution: One-Tail Test
= 0.5
n = 25
Critical Value: 1.645
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do Not Reject at = .05.
Insufficient Evidence that True Mean is More Than 368.
Z0 1.645
.05
Reject
H0: 368 H1: > 368 1.50
XZ
n
1.50
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-27
p -Value Solution
Z0 1.50
p-Value =.0668
Z Value of Sample Statistic
From Z Table: Lookup 1.50 to Obtain .9332
Use the alternative hypothesis to find the direction of the rejection region.
1.0000 - .9332 .0668
p-Value is P(Z 1.50) = 0.0668
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-28
p -Value Solution(continued)
01.50
Z
Reject
(p-Value = 0.0668) ( = 0.05) Do Not Reject.
p Value = 0.0668
= 0.05
Test Statistic 1.50 is in the Do Not Reject Region
1.645
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-29
One-Tail Z Test for Mean( Known) in PHStat
PHStat | One-Sample Tests | Z Test for the Mean, Sigma Known …
Example in Excel Spreadsheet
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-30
Example: Two-Tail Test
Does an average box of cereal contain 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed = 372.5. The company has specified to be 15 grams and the distribution to be normal. Test at the 0.05 level.
368 gm.
H0: 368
H1: 368
X
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-31
Reject and Do Not Reject Regions
Z0 1.96
.025
Reject
-1.96
.025
1.50
X368X 372.5
Reject
0 : 368H
1 : 368H
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-32
372.5 3681.50
1525
XZ
n
= 0.05
n = 25
Critical Value: ±1.96
Example Solution: Two-Tail Test
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do Not Reject at = .05.
Z0 1.96
.025
Reject
-1.96
.025
H0: 368
H1: 368
1.50
Insufficient Evidence that True Mean is Not 368.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-33
p-Value Solution
(p-Value = 0.1336) ( = 0.05) Do Not Reject.
01.50
Z
Reject
= 0.05
1.96
p-Value = 2 x 0.0668
Test Statistic 1.50 is in the Do Not Reject Region
Reject
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-34
PHStat | One-Sample Tests | Z Test for the Mean, Sigma Known …
Example in Excel Spreadsheet
Two-Tail Z Test for Mean( Known) in PHStat
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-35
For 372.5, 15 and 25,
the 95% confidence interval is:
372.5 1.96 15 / 25 372.5 1.96 15 / 25
or
366.62 378.38
X n
Connection to Confidence Intervals
We are 95% confident that the population mean is
between 366.62 and 378.38.
If this interval contains the hypothesized mean (368),
we do not reject the null hypothesis.
It does. Do not reject.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-36
t Test: Unknown
Assumption Population is normally distributed If not normal, requires a large sample is unknown
t Test Statistic with n-1 Degrees of Freedom
/
XtS n
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-37
Example: One-Tail t Test
Does an average box of cereal contain more than 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 36 boxes showed X = 372.5, ands 15. Test at the 0.01 level.
368 gm.
H0: 368 H1: 368
is not given
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-38
Reject and Do Not Reject Regions
t350 2.4377
.01
Reject
1.80
X368X 372.5
0 : 368H
1 : 368H
Do Not Reject
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-39
Example Solution: One-Tail
= 0.01
n = 36, df = 35
Critical Value: 2.4377
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do Not Reject at a = .01.
t350 2.4377
.01
Reject
H0: 368 H1: 368
372.5 3681.80
1536
Xt
Sn
1.80
Insufficient Evidence that True Mean is More Than 368.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-40
p -Value Solution
01.80
t35
Reject
(p-Value is between .025 and .05) ( = 0.01) Do Not Reject.
p-Value = [.025, .05]
= 0.01
Test Statistic 1.80 is in the Do Not Reject Region
2.4377
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-41
PHStat | One-Sample Tests | t Test for the Mean, Sigma Known …
Example in Excel Spreadsheet
t Test: Unknown in PHStat
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-42
Proportion
Involves Categorical Variables Two Possible Outcomes
“Success” (possesses a certain characteristic) and “Failure” (does not possess a certain characteristic)
Fraction or Proportion of Population in the “Success” Category is Denoted by p
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-43
Proportion
Sample Proportion in the Success Category is Denoted by pS
When Both np and n(1-p) are at Least 5, pS Can Be Approximated by a Normal Distribution with Mean and Standard Deviation
(continued)
Number of Successes
Sample Sizes
Xp
n
spp (1 )
sp
p p
n
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-44
Example: Z Test for Proportion
Check:
500 .04 20
5
1 500 1 .04
480 5
np
n p
A marketing company claims that a survey will have a 4% response rate. To test this claim, a random sample of 500 were surveyed with 25 responses. Test at the = .05 significance level.
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-45
Reject and Do Not Reject Regions
Z0 1.96
.025
Reject
-1.96
.025
1.1411
0.04SP
p 0.05
Reject
0 : 0.04H p
1 : 0.04H p
SP
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-46
0.05
Critical Values: 1.96
1.1411
.05 .04
1.14111 .04 1 .04
500
Sp pZ
p p
n
Z Test for Proportion: Solution
= .05
n = 500
Do not reject at = .05.
H0: p .04
H1: p .04
Test Statistic:
Decision:Conclusion:
Z0
Reject Reject
.025.025
1.96-1.96
We do not have sufficient evidence to reject the company’s claim of 4% response rate.
SP0.04
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-47
p -Value Solution
(p-Value = 0.2538) ( = 0.05) Do Not Reject.
01.1411
Z
Reject
= 0.05
1.96
p-Value = 2 x .1269
Test Statistic 1.1411 is in the Do Not Reject Region
Reject
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-48
Z Test for Proportion in PHStat
PHStat | One-Sample Tests | Z Test for the Proportion …
Example in Excel Spreadsheet
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-49
Test for Variance or Standard Deviation
Assumption Population is normally distributed
Test Statistic
2
22
2
2
2
1
where sample size
sample variance
hypothesized population variance
n S
n
S
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-50
Example: Test for Standard Deviation
368 gm.
2
Has the standard deviation of the weight of cereal boxes produced by a production process changed from the specified level of 15 grams? A sample of 25 cereal boxes shows a sample standard deviation of 17.7 grams. Test at a 5% level of significance.
0
2
1
2
: 15 grams
( 225 grams squared)
: 15 grams
( 225 grams squared)
H
H
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-51
Test for Standard Deviation: Solution
2
0
1
: 15 grams
: 15 grams
H
H
0.05 25n Critical Values:
12.401 and 39.364
RejectReject
0.0250.025
39.36412.401
0.95
222
22
1 25 1 17.7
15
33.42
n S
Test Statistic:
33.42
Decision:Do not reject at 0.05
Conclusion:There is insufficient evidence that the standard deviation of the process has changed from the specified level of 15 grams
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-52
Test for Variance or Standard Deviation in PHStat
PHStat | One-Sample Test | Chi-Square Test for Variance …
Example in Excel Spreadsheet
2
Microsoft Excel Worksheet
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-53
Potential Pitfalls andEthical Issues
Data Collection Method is Not Randomized to Reduce Selection Biases
Treatment of Human Subjects are Manipulated Without Informed Consent
Data Snooping is Used to Choose between One-Tail and Two-Tail Tests, and to Determine the Level of Significance
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-54
Potential Pitfalls andEthical Issues
Data Cleansing is Practiced to Hide Observations that do not Support a Stated Hypothesis
Fail to Report Pertinent Findings
(continued)
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-55
Chapter Summary
Addressed Hypothesis Testing Methodology
Performed Z Test for the Mean ( Known)
Discussed p –Value Approach to Hypothesis
Testing
Made Connection to Confidence Interval
Estimation
© 2004 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 9-56
Chapter Summary
Performed One-Tail and Two-Tail Tests
Performed t Test for the Mean ( Unknown)
Performed Z Test for the Proportion
Performed Test for Variance or Standard
Deviation
Discussed Potential Pitfalls and Ethical
Issues
(continued)
2