zoo_organisation_and_regulation.docx

Sarah Harrison

Zoo Organisation and Regulation

Part A - Legislation

(i) The Zoo Licensing Act 1981

The Zoo Licensing Act first came into effect in 1981 and covers zoos in Great Britain.

In 2002 the European Zoos Directive on the Keeping of Wild Animals in Zoos came into

force. This made it mandatory for countries within the European Union to meet education,

conservation and animal welfare standards. This brochure explains how the Zoo Licensing

Act (regulated by DEFRA) applies to zoos in England.

Licensing of zoos by local authorities

Zoos in England are required by law to have a licence which are issued by the local

authority in which the zoo resides. These local authorities are the district councils, the

councils of London boroughs and the Common Council of the City of London.

Conservation measures for zoos

Zoos are required to participate in either research, training, exchanging information,

captive breeding or reintroduction programmes.

Along with one of these options zoos must also promote public awareness on the

conservation of species.

Zoos must accommodate their animals under conditions that meet their conservation

and biological needs. For instance, providing animals with an environment which is

well adapted to their specific needs and supplying them with high levels of husbandry

and veterinary care.

Measures must be taken to prevent the escape of animals and in such an event a

course of action must be implemented in managing the situation. Preventing pests and

vermin intruding into the zoo and keeping up to date with zoo collection records are

also required.

Application, consideration and granting of licences

Notice of two months must be given to the local authority, local newspaper and

proposed site with an applicant's intent to apply for a zoo licence. Within this notice

the applicant must specify the number and kind of animals they wish to keep. The

local authority will consider an applicant's request before either granting or refusing.

Before a decision an inspection of the premises will be conducted.

The local authority may choose to refuse an application for reasons such as the zoo

could cause harm or be detrimental to the people living in the local area or if

conservation measures are not met. If the local authority grants a licence it must be

publicly displayed at the entrance to the zoo.

Inspections

Periodical inspections will take place and the local authority will give a 28 day notice

of such an inspection and will focus on health, welfare and safety of the public and

animals. If there is reason for concern, special inspections will take place.

Closure of a zoo

The local authority can make a zoo closure direction if after reasonable enquiries the

zoo has not met requirements set out in the legislation, such as conservation

obligations or the zoo has been managed in a disorderly manner causing a nuisance.

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(ii) The Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora 1973

The Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora 1973 (CITES) is

an international agreement between governments which aims to regulate the international

trade on endangered species. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

(DEFRA) is the authority within the UK which manages CITES and HM Customs and

Revenue along with the UK Border Agency and the police are responsible for enforcing it.

Due to European Council Regulations, CITES listed species are put into four annexes rather

than three Appendices. Non-CITES species are also applied to within the European Union

which if introduced, could be detrimental to native flora and fauna.

Annex A - This category holds species threatened with extinction and trade of these

species is granted in exceptional cases. DEFRA requires an import permit for species in this

category and may issue a permit if the primary purpose of the specimen is not commercial

and is not detrimental to the species survival. In live animals or plants, the authority must be

satisfied that the recipient is able to care for it correctly.

Annex B - Includes species not particularly threatened with extinction but requires

trade to be controlled in order to prevent them becoming so. It is illegal to import any species

in this annex which has been unlawfully obtained. As with Annex A, a CITES permit must be

obtained before importing any species in this category into the UK.

Annex C - Species in this category are protected in at least one country which has

asked for CITES members to aid in controlling trade. To import any specimen from this

annex one must notify the UK Border Agency prior to importation. Coinciding with this

requirement, an exportation permit must be obtained from the country of origin stating it was

acquired legally.

Annex D - Contains some Annex C species for which the Community holds a

reservation. Same import requirements as Annex C.

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(iii) The Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976

Dear Mr. J. Harris,

Thank you for your enquiry into the law surrounding the keeping of exotic species.

The main pieces of legislation I would like to direct your attention to are the Dangerous Wild

Animals Act 1976 and the Zoo Licensing Act 1981.

The Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976 came into effect primarily to protect the

public from the growing interest in keeping exotic animals such as lions and tigers. It

implemented a system as to ensure any person who wished to keep exotic animals had to

obtain a licence to do so. In order to get licensed you must apply to your local authority

which would be your district council. Licences are only granted if you can meet certain

requirements set out in the legislation.

Each application must include the species of the intended animals, the number of each

species and the intended location they will be held. The local authority can deny requests if

they deem the proposal unsafe for the public or their accommodation is unsuitable. With

regards to you keeping them in cages, you must ensure that they are secure to avoid any

escapes and which are suitable with regards to size, cleanliness, drainage, light, ventilation

and temperature. You must also prove that you can provide adequate food, drink and bedding

materials.

If after this your application is granted, you will need to meet certain provisions the

local authority will make. Firstly, the animal(s) shall be kept only by the person who is

named on the licence and that the animal(s) must remain at the location stated in the licence

conditions. You must also hold an insurance policy which will insure you against liability for

any damage the animal(s) may cause.

The local authority may authorise a veterinary practitioner or person it deems

competent, to conduct an inspection prior to the completion of an application or after a

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licence has been granted. They may enter the premises at any reasonable time of day to

inspect conditions and ascertain whether a license should be granted or if any offences are

being committed against this Act.

As you have stated in your enquiry the animals will be kept in cages in your private

garden, you may be surprised to hear that you may require a zoo licence under the Zoo

Licensing Act 1981. Under this Act a zoo is classed as an establishment which keeps wild

animals and to which the public have access (with or without charge) for more than seven

days in a period of 12 consecutive months.

If over a period of 12 months you allow the public to view your animal collection on

more than seven days you will have committed and offence under the Zoo Licensing Act

1981. If it was your intention to show people your collection you may want to bear in mind

the conditions on which the law deems an establishment a zoo.

As with the Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976, a zoo licence can be applied for

through local authorities. A zoo licence does come with conditions all zoos must abide by. If

you opened your collection as a zoo, you would be required to participate in conservation;

this could be through research, education or captive breeding. You must also ensure animals

cannot escape and pests and vermin cannot enter. Inspections will again be required whilst

holding such a licence to make sure you are upholding the law. Before applying for a zoo

licence you must give the local authority a 2 month notice of your intent to apply.

If comes down to whether you intend on keeping your collection private or allowing

the public to view it. Whichever you decide you will have to consider the law surrounding

your choice. I hope I have helped your understanding on the law on your proposal to keep

exotic animals.

Yours sincerely,

Sarah Harrison

Sarah Harrison


(iv) Zoo Expert Committee

The Zoos Expert Committee (formerly the Zoos Forum) is a body of independent

experts that guide UK ministers on zoo matters. It advises DEFRA on zoo issues and is

responsible to encourage the role of zoos in scientific research, conservation and education as

well as to review the operation and implementation of zoo licensing in the UK. They also

review current legislation and if they find changes need to be made, they will make

recommendations to the government. The Committee is made up of members with experience

in veterinary care, running and regulating a zoo, biologists and so on.

With the agreement of DEFRA, the Committee can consider animal related issues

with a specific zoo interest and offer advice when no other body exists. They can also seek

advice from other organisations with relevant knowledge and experience in a matter that has

been brought to their attention.

The Committee will work with officials and key office holders such as the Chief

Scientific Advisor and the Chief Veterinary Officer. Together they will work to identify

future issues and in turn provide advice on the impacts they could have. The Committee will

therefore help assess the impact of different policy options and assess new regulations and

deregulations.

The Zoos Expert Committee handbook provides advice on conservation, research and

education, the sustainability of zoos, the ethical review process, animal welfare and

veterinary care. The Committee holds regular meetings in which they discuss and review the

handbook and set out strategic work plans. For example in the Zoos Expert Committee

strategic work plan 2013/14, one such issue that was under review was the use of animals in

demonstrations.

The Committee may publish reports and advice through DEFRA channels, making

them accessible to the public.

Sarah Harrison


(v) How Local Authorities Regulate the Activity of a Zoo

When it comes to applying for a zoo licence, an applicant must first apply through

their local authority, whether it be their district council, county council or borough council.

The application must be made to the local authority in which the zoo resides. Before making

a formal application, a notice of two months prior must be submitted showing the applicants

intent on applying for a zoo licence. Along with this notice an applicant must publish a notice

of intent in both a local and national newspaper, as well as exhibit a copy of the notice at the

proposed site stating it may be inspected by the local authority.

Within the notice given the applicant must include a list of species and number of

each group along with their accommodation arrangements. It must also include the number of

staff, visitors, vehicles and means of access. As conservation is a condition all zoos must

participate in under the Zoo Licensing Act 1981, the applicant must specify the conservation

measures that will be put into place. Whilst considering the application, the local authority

will take into account any representation made by people who deem the proposal damaging to

the area or any other person who show grounds for dismissal.

Before granting a licence the local authority will make arrangements for an inspection

to be carried out. The local authority will refuse a licence if they believe conservation

measures were not met, the zoo would be dangerous for the surrounding area, the

accommodation did not meet the correct standards or any employee has been convicted under

the Zoo Licensing Act 1981 or any other Act regarding the ill-treatment of animals.

If a licence is granted it will last for a period of four years, or six if it is a renewal.

Before an inspection a notice of 28 days will be given and they could either be periodical

inspections or special inspections which are carried out when there is cause for concern. The

local authority can make a zoo closure direction if conditions under the Zoo Licensing Act

are not met and animals will either be moved or disposed of accordingly.

Sarah Harrison


Part B - Zoo Organisation

(i) The Role of Zoo and Conservation Organisations

BIAZA - The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums is a professional

organisation that represents the zoo and aquarium community in Britain and Ireland. It was

founded in 1966 and is an education, conservation and scientific wildlife charity. The main

members of BIAZA are zoos which it leads and supports to participate in conservation

programmes and deliver high quality education and animal welfare. BIAZA works closely

with government, local authorities and the Zoos Expert Committee on zoo issues. It's

members actively participate in species management by cooperating to manage their animals

of a species as one population. Taxon Working Groups (TWGs) are run by BIAZA to

progress captive management and welfare by bringing people who are interested in the same

group together for presentations and discussions. The Association works to promote and

encourage conservation in the field, research and further education.

ABWAK - The Association of British and Irish Wild Animal Keepers is an organisation for

people interested and involved in the keeping of wild animals. Members aim to achieve high

standards of animal welfare through training and development. It was founded in 1974 and its

main focus was the belief that zoos could play a vital role conservation through education. In

turn the Association has assisted in creating several educational certificates and diplomas;

giving zoo keepers a recognised qualification. Membership of ABWAK supports the goal of

achieving and progressing in the highest standards in wild animal care, and enhancing the

professionalism and recognition of zookeepers. The Association also runs different

workshops for keepers and people interested in keeping animals to further improve

knowledge and animal welfare in zoos. It also publishes the journal Ratel.

http://www.abwak.org/animal-management

Sarah Harrison


IUCN - The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's largest

international global network which works in 160 countries and was created in 1948. It's

members include both governmental bodies and NGOs all working together to conserve the

world's biodiversity. Using science, action and influence the IUCN delivers conservation and

sustainability both globally and locally. IUCN supports research, manages field projects, and

brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop laws and policies.

The Union focuses on three key areas, firstly valuing and conserving nature by enhancing

work biodiversity conservation. Secondly effective and equitable governance of nature's use

by looking at the political economy of nature and finally, deploying nature based solutions to

global challenges such as climate change.

Institute of Zoology, ZSL - The Institute of Zoology is an accredited research centre that

focuses on conservation biology and specialises in issues significant to preserving animals

and their habitat. It is a scientific division of the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) which

centres its research on five main areas, behavioural and population ecology, biodiversity,

evolution and molecular ecology, people, wildlife and ecosystems and wildlife epidemiology.

The institute is affiliated with University College London and provides Masters and PhD

programmes. IoZ carries out many research projects lead by fellows, post-doctoral

researchers and PhD students, for example garden wildlife health, badger-cattle contact,

monitoring natural capital from space and UK cetacean strandings investigation programme.

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(ii) World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy

The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS) is a plan of action

published by the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), which benefits zoo

professionals worldwide as it provides a common set of goals. The publication

commemorates conservation success over the past 10 years and paves the way for effective

conservation in the future.

A major goal set out in the strategy for zoos and aquariums is to integrate their work

with conservation activities. By adopting integrated conservation zoos and aquariums can

link their conservation work with exhibits which will allows visitors to educate themselves on

the conservation status on the animals they we observing. WZACS calls on zoos and

aquariums to increase their work in conservation in the wild. They should focus their work

within local and national Biodiversity Action Plans and work with relevant IUCN specialist

groups when working towards reintroductions.

An emphasis on research and education is set out in the strategy urging members to

continue recording research and making it accessible. This is to be promoted through zoo

databases such as Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS).

WZACS recommends that breeding programmes be managed globally and continue to

support scientific development of population management. It also urges zoos and aquariums

to place education at the heart of their reason for being by developing an education policy,

and to develop structured training programmes available to staff and volunteers.

Other recommendations state that regional and national associations should make

efforts to produce a conservation conscience in their member institutions and help persuade

government to create legislation. WAZACS also makes recommendations on ethical and

welfare issues. It urges all zoos and aquariums to have an ethics committee and review

process as well as providing and developing effective environmental enrichment activities.

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(iii) Computer-Based Databases used by Zoos

There are several different computer-based databases zoos can use to collect, organise

and analyse information about their holdings. ISIS (International Species Information

System) is the world's most comprehensive source on managed species for zoos and

aquariums. This software is used by zoos to control the genetic make-up of their animal

collections and find suitable unrelated animals for captive breeding programmes. The

Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) is the next generation of ISIS software

and is a unified global database for animal health and wellbeing. It allows zoo professionals

to run specimen reports on animals in the ISIS database and access ISIS database holdings.

PMx is a software programme used in the management of zoo animals through data

typically recorded in a studbook. It was designed to guide the management of populations

and maintain genetic diversity as close to that which is found in the wild. It contains sections

for Demography, Genetics, Goals and Recommendations. This allows zoos to see birth and

death rates, kinship and genetic diversity of species and gives them the ability to project non

reproducing populations and ability to assign probable breeding pairs. As previously

mentioned, studbooks are records of genealogical data of individual animals that make up a

population. The studbook keeper obtains the registration number of each animal along with

its sex, birth date, parentage, where it was born and transferred from. Using this information,

zoos can establish the best genetic breeding pairs for captive breeding programmes.

Single Population Analysis & Records Keeping System (SPARKS) is a disk operating

system based studbook which organises data which can be used with other zoo management

software. Other software that such as ARKS software helps record keepers enter individual

animal information from birth to death but there is no provisions to record premature birth or

shell death in birds. Therefore EGGS software was created to record information on egg

production, fertility, hatchability and egg weight for breeding and management purposes.

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Part C - Zoo Research

The design of a zoo and its enclosures are two of its main priorities when it comes to

the attraction of visitors. A zoo's reputation for providing an entertaining experience

encourages initial visits and subsequent returns to the zoo (Fernandez et al. 2009). The

possibility of being physically close to and interacting with animals increases the appeal of a

zoo for many visitors (Hosey, 2005), which in turn increases revenue for conservation and

animal welfare. The change in perception in the west has influenced countries in Asia, as

such, Korean zoos began to develop and maintain standards for animal enclosures and animal

welfare in their collections (Lee, 2015).

Zoogeography and immersion design are used at the zoo exhibit to enable zoogoers to

see animals in their naturalistic settings (Braverman, 2011). Zoological exhibits have evolved

from when hygiene concerns ruled design to current trends that involve elaborate exhibits

that often cost millions of dollars (Kelling & Gaalema, 2011). This transformation took place

because of concerns about animal welfare (Davey, 2006) which arose from the change in

public opinion and conservation.

With this growing interest in animal welfare, it makes sense that enclosures in zoos

have changed from steel bars to realistic immersion and naturalistic exhibits. A study by

Fabregas et al (2011) into naturalistic enclosures analysed 1381 naturalistic and non-

naturalistic enclosures in 63 Spanish zoos and found that most naturalistic enclosures (77.8%)

provided suitable environments for their inhabitants. Advances in exhibit design have

resulted in an increasing number of naturalistic zoo exhibits intended to benefit both animal

behaviour and visitor (Lukas & Ross, 2014). Barriers are concealed as well as possible to

give the visitor the feeling of observing them in 'the wild'. various studies show that, the ideas

of people about animals change positively after they visit zoos designed similar to natural

environment (Yilmaz et al, 2010).

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Immersive exhibits are also becoming a popular choice of enclosure in zoos. Small,

discreet viewing areas afford the visitor a very personal and intimate experience and may

promote an affiliative response between the visitor and the animals on display, thus

enhancing the immersive experience (Moss et al. 2008). Immersion design aims at a

successful geographical and mental transportation from the urban to the natural (Braverman,

2011) making them a popular choice through the last decade.

With the growing knowledge on species conservation, the size of enclosures is also

being scrutinised when designing zoo enclosures. A study by Breton and Barrot (2014)

looked into whether enclosure size influenced distance covered by captive tigers. They

observed 38 tigers across seven different zoos in the same county to see whether enclosure

size influenced the distance covered or paced. They found that the larger the enclosure the

less the tigers paced. Holding areas are the flipside of exhibit spaces: far from the spotlight,

animals are cared for there by human keepers and are surrounded by human artefacts

(Braverman, 2011).

Enrichment ultimately aims to help promote natural behaviours in captive animals.

There are many stimulus available to keepers which will aid natural behaviours.

Environmental enrichment involves changing the environment of the zoo animal to provide

opportunities or choices not available before (Swaisgood & Shepherdson, 2005).

A study by Tan et al (2013) looked into how enclosure design can influence

stereotypic behaviour in Malayan Sun bears. They found that it had a significant influence on

exhibited stereotypic behaviour and lack of essential stimuli for guiding natural behaviours

may be the reason for high levels of locomotive stereotypies in bears housed indoors (Tan et

al, 2013). Zoo exhibits for bears are usually small and often poorly furnished (Montaudouin

& Le Pape, 2005). The best zoos and similar institutions manage their populations with care,

but successfully keeping wild species can be challenging (Mason et al, 2007). Current captive

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environments for sea lions include high levels of human contact, limited access to large areas

of water and lack of opportunities for foraging (Smith & Litchfield, 2010).

Keeper–animal relationships in zoos have been measured using positive interactions

between the keepers and animals (Carlstead, 2009). A way to increase the positive human–

animal interactions between the keepers and the animals that they work with could be the use

of positive reinforcement training (Ward & Melfi, 2013). This is the presentation of a

stimulus after a behaviour that serves to maintain or increase the frequency of that behaviour

(Heidenreich, 2007). It has become more commonly used within zoo animal husbandry to

facilitate veterinary and husbandry procedures (Pomerantz & Terkel, 2009).

Lately, attention on enrichment activities has been directed towards sensory

stimulation ranging from auditory to olfactory stimuli. The introduction of olfactory stimuli

from natural prey has been shown to have largely enriching effects (Wells, 2009). Providing

animals with the adequate space and materials needed for displays of species-typical

behaviours has been shown to reduce abnormal behaviours and mitigate stress responses in

several species (Bolhuis et al, 2005). Reduced environmental complexity is often associated

with small enclosures and has been found to induce stereotypy performance (Brummer et al,

2010). Success has been found in novel food items, altered feeding routines and food

displays; and novel toys/objects (Szokalski et al, 2012). The majority of the literature in this

area measures the success of enrichment strategies through an increase in ‘desirable’

behaviours, such as exploration and play (Claxton, 2011).

Enclosure type can influence noise from visitors. Circular enclosures, such as islands

and pits, allow the public to follow the animal using the perimeter, increasing the interaction

and the noise produced (Quadros et al, 2014). The design of an enclosure must mimic that of

the wild such as hippopotamus' preferring water. In one paper, hippos were found to

aggregate in preferred areas of the exhibit, mostly water showing what will aid zoological

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159113001536#bib0025

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institutions in the design of naturalistic exhibits for hippos (Blowers et al. 2012). A study into

the preference of apes in their enclosures found that partitioning the exhibit into vertical tiers

and areas adjacent to prominent features illustrated the environmental preference of the

gorillas and chimpanzees (Ross & Lukas, 2005). In extremely predictable enclosures, with

little environmental complexity, animals find it difficult to move freely, are unable to choose

when and what to eat, with whom to associate with, where to sleep and where to shelter

(Giudice & Pave, 2007).

The design for ape enclosures can be intricate as they are high social and intelligent

animals and would require constant enrichment to reduce stereotypic behaviour. Along with

this however comes temperature and shade requirements in captivity. A study by Duncan and

Pillay (2013) into shade requirements for chimpanzees at Johannesburg Zoo found

chimpanzees in captivity adopt a sun-avoidance strategy.

The hierarchical pecking order of zoos has not always been kind to amphibians and

reptiles (Kawata, 2011). Many zoo administrators build elaborate and costly zoogeographical

mixed exhibits housing mostly mammals and birds (Murphy & Xanten, 2007). Most literature

on reptile enclosure design is from pet based researchers, showing reptiles within zoos is not

well researched. This is evident in the historic lack of enriching captive environments to

reduce boredom and encourage natural behavior and psychological well-being (Burghardt,

2013). In the mammalocentric zoo universe we hardly hear about endangered species of

spiders and snakes, or less appealing mammals (Kawata, 2011).

Species-specific husbandry guidelines are lacking for many herptiles and

recommendations for appropriate enrichment may be anecdotal (Rose et al. 2014).

Historically the only suitable method to keep tropical animals was to seal them off in evenly

heated, mostly badly ventilated, dark houses (Kawata, 2012). Most zoos contain a tropical

hall in which exotic species are held due to their common requirements for heat and

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humidity. Nutrition, caging, temperature, lighting, humidity, substrate, and so forth are all

important for a captive reptile’s health (Wilkinson, 2015).

The shifting strategic focus of zoos from sites of recreation and entertainment to

predominantly visitor conservation education entails a change in the design and delivery of

conservation interpretation strategies (Wijeratne et al, 2014). Zoo tourism can be a tool in

promoting biodiversity conservation, especially through education and interpretation

(Catibog-Sinha, 2008). One of the aims of wildlife tourism is to educate visitors about the

threats facing wildlife (Ballantyne et al, 2010) and zoos can try and do this through education

and signage. Zoo signs are important for informal learning, but their effect on visitor

perception of animals has been sparsely studied (Fogelberg, 2014). Modern zoological

gardens have invested substantial resources in technology to deliver environmental education

concepts to visitors (Yocco et al, 2011), often including interactive activities. Technology,

which traditionally focused on displays to maximize animal viewing, has begun to be used

for media designed to communicate directly with visitors (Kisling, 2001). For most zoos and

aquariums, the general visitors tend to be intergenerational groups, usually families

(Heimlich et al, 2013), and aspire to bring people closer to nature through visitor education

and by creating environments that immerse visitors into naturalistic surroundings (Bruni et al,

2008).

Breeding programmes are a crucial aspect of a zoos conservation obligations. For

most difficult-to-breed species, management programs must develop hand in hand with

scientific efforts to improve biologically effective husbandry (Zhang et al, 2004). Enclosure

designs and environmental enrichments offered to particular species (Clubb & Mason, 2007)

can help understand breeding issues. Reintroductions are the end result however, the release

of captive bred animals into the wild has a notoriously poor track record (Stamps &

Swaisgood, 2007).

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The demands for space within the zoo are not only animal-related but also human-

staff and visitor-related; they include space for various support services, shops, offices, roads,

restaurants, and gardens (Stroud, 2007). Zoos seek new ways to distinguish themselves from

other zoos and attraction parks (Pals et al, 2009) and will strive to ensure all aspects are

exceptional, including shops and gardens. Understanding why people visit zoos is critically

important for developing exhibits, as well as promotion to potential visitor markets

(Klenosky & Saunders, 2007).

There is still more research that needs to be carried out especially involving reptiles

and amphibians. Mammals, in particular primates, seem to be the most mentioned in the zoo

literature and expanding it across all walks of life will aid knowledge on how best to house

and care for zoo animals.

References

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Implications for the design of powerful interpretive experiences. Tourism Management.

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31(2). 129-136.

Bolhuis, J. E. Schouten, W. G. P. Schrama, J. W. & Wiegant, V.M. (2005) Behavioural

development of pigs with different coping characteristics in barren and substrate-enriched

housing conditions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 93. 213-228.

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Duncan, L. M. & Pillay, N. (2013). Shade as a thermoregulatory resource for captive

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