za hi hawass -...

Z A H I H A W A S S

EDITED BY

Z A H I H A W A S S Secretary General of the Supreme Council

of Antiquities and Director of the Giza Pyramids Excavations

PROJECT EDITORS Laura Accomazzo

Valeria Manferto De Fabianis

GRAPHIC DESICN Paola Piacco

WHITE STAR PUBLISHERS

THE TREASURES OF THE

P Y R A M I D S

C o n t e n t s INTRODUCTION Page 5

by H.E. Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak

THE PYRAMIDS Page 12

by Zahi Hawass

CHRONOLOGY Page is

CHAPTER I W H Y A PYRAMID? PYRAMID RELIGION

by James P. Allen Page 22

CHAPTER 2 T H E ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID

by Vassil Dobrev Page 28

CHAPTER 3 BUILDING AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID

by Mark Lehner Page 32

CHAPTER A T H E ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL TOMB

by Zahi Hawass 6

CHAPTER 5 T H E ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX

by Zahi Hawass Page 50

CHAPTER e T H E PREDYNASTIC PERIOD

by Renee Friedman Page 54

CHAPTER I T H E TOMBS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DYNASTIES

AT ABYDOS AND SAQOARA

by Giinter Dreyer Page 62

CHAPTER 8 T H E ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS

by Matthew Adams and David O'Connor Page 78

CHAPTER 9 T H E STEP PYRAMIDS

by Ali Radwan Page 86

CHAPTER 10 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY

by Rainer Stadelmann Page 112

CHAPTER \ \ T H E QUEENS' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY AT GIZA


CHAPTER 12 T H E SATELLITE PYRAMID OF KHUFU


CHAPTER 13 T H E MYSTERY OF HETEPHERES


CHAPTER 14 T H E SECRET DOORS INSIDE THE GREAT PYRAMID


CHAPTER 15 T H E PYRAMIDION


CHAPTER \6 T H E ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA


CHAPTER a T H E SPHINX

by Mark Lehner Page 172

1 0

CHAPTER IS T H E TOMBS OF THE H I G H OFFICIALS AT GIZA

by Peter Der Manuelian Page 190

CHAPTER 19 T H E 'UNFINISHED' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY

by Michel Valloggia Pag. 224

CHAPTER 20 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE FIFTH DYNASTY

by Miroslav Verner Pag. 236

CHAPTER 21 T H E SURPRISING ABUSIR BLOCKS.

by Zahi Hawass and Miroslav Verner Pag. 260

CHAPTER 22 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE SIXTH DYNASTY

by Audran Labrousse Pag. 264

CHAPTER 23 T H E DECORATIVE PROGRAM OF THE OLD KINCDOM PYRAMID COMPLEXES


CHAPTER 24 T H E TOMBS OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH DYNASTIES AT SAQQARA

by Karol Mys'liwiec Page 286

CHAPTER 2 5 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

by Dieter Arnold Page 326

CHAPTER 26 T H E TOMBS OF THE NOBLES IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

by David P. Silverman Page 348

CHAPTER 21 ROYAL AND PRIVATE STATUES OF THE OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS

by Hourig Sourouzian Page 366

The Publisher would like to thank:

H.E. Farouk Hosny - The Egyptian Minister of Culture,

Nabil Osman - President of the Egyptian Information Center

Attiya Shakran - General Director of the Cairo Press Center,

M. El-Damaty - Director of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo,

Mena House Oberoi Hotel, Cairo,

Gamal Sbafik of the Cairo Press Center,

The curators and assistants of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo,

Rajiv Kaul,

Guido Paradisi and Fabio Calamante - photographers' iiss/staiifs.

The Editor would like to thank Mark Linz and Neil Hewison of the American University

in Cairo Press. He also wants to thank Essam Shehab of the Giza Inspectorate, and

Mohamed Ismail, Mobamed Megahed, Brook Myers, and Sahar Mabroukfrom the

Technical Office of the Supreme Council of Antiquities.

10-11

Scene showing the 'Meidum geese,'

Egyptian Museum Cairo, Old

Kingdom.

INDEX AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 392

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C h a p t e r 4

T h e Arch i tec tu ra l D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Egyp t i an Royal T o m b

T A h e

„he kings of the First Dynasty were buried in

their ancestral cemetery at Abydos. There is also a

group of large, elaborate First Dynasty tombs at

Saqqara, near the Early Dynastic capital of lneb-hedj ;

the current Egyptological consensus is that these

tombs belong to high officials, but it is also possible

that these are royal cenotaphs or cult centers.

The tombs of the First Dynasty at Abydos are

located in an area called the Umm al-Qa'ab, which

means 'mother of pots.' These Early Dynastic tombs

mark a significant change in construction from those

of the Predynastic Period, when tombs were simple

oval or rectangular graves. The tombs become more

and more elaborate, with pits and chambers lined with

mud brick or, in some cases, wood In addition to the

burial chamber, there were also chambers for grave

goods. Surrounding the tombs of the First Dynasty

were small subsidiary tombs for attendants thought to

have been sacrificed to accompany each king into the

afterlife.

On the east side of each tomb limestone stelae

were set, bearing the name of the king in a sn&h (a

rectangle bounded at the bottom by the

representation of a niched palace facade). Most of the

kings of the Second Dynasty were buried at Saqqara,

but the last two kings of this dynasty, Peribsen and

Khasekhemwy, were buried at Abydos.

At a distance of about two kilometers from the

Early Dynastic tombs in Umm al-Qa'ab, is a group of

large enclosures associated with the funerary cults of

the kings,- the earlier enclosures also had subsidiary

burials associated with them. These are thought to

have once contained ritual structures built ol

perishable materials. David O'Connor of the

Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition recently found a fleet of

twelve boats moored neared the complex of the

Second Dynasty king, Khasekhemwy (although not

necessarily belonging to this king). The funerary

complexes associated with the Second Dynasty tombs

at Saqqara have not yet been located. Wc are now

making a new plan of these tombs, in cooperation

with Giinter Dreyer of the German Institute,- we have

already begun to clean these tomhs in preparation for

this new plan.

Through study of the royal tombs and associated

enclosures at Abydos, one can identify the basic

architectural components, and correlate them with the

by Zahi Hawass

elements of later complexes; the tomb, enclosure wall,

the stelae (corresponding to the upper temple), the

funerary complex (lower temple), and boats. Thus,

the basic elements of the royal tombs, which

continued to develop throughout Egyptian history,

were already in existence at this time.

A number ol the Early Dynastic tombs at Saqqara

have mounds, and in one case a stepped platform,

over the burial shafts. The tombs at Abydos are also

thought to have been covered with mounds. These

are thought to represent the primeval mound on

which the creator god stood to bring the universe

into being.

The Step Pyramid complex of Djoser represents a

major step forward in royal funerary architecture.

Djoser and his chief architect, Imhotcp, brought the

two elements of the Early Dynastic complex, tomb

and valley enclosure, together into one monumental

complex, and translated the mud brick and perishable

materials into stone. The mound above the burial

shaft became a towering step pyramid, rising in six

stages to a height of 6 0 meters.

The components of Djoser's complex are;

1 The enclosure wall with the colonnaded

entrance

2. The pyramid

3. The northern temple

4. The south tomb

5. The south court

6. The hib^td court

7. The southern altar

8. Temple T

9. The northern temple

1 0 . The northern altar

1 1 . Pavilion of the south

1 2 Pavilion of the north

1 3 . Boundary markers

Over the course of the next hundred years, the

major elements of the step pyramid complex evolved

into the standardized elements of the Old Kingdom

pyramid complex. Much of this development can be

traced in the complexes of Snefcru, first king of the

Fourth Dynasty, at Meidum and Dahshur Snefcru

built four pyramids; one each at Seila and Meidum,

and two at Dahshur. He built the Seila pyramid as a

representation of the primeval mound, associated with

a royal residence in the area, not as a tomb. The

Meidum pyramid was built as a step pyramid in the

beginning of his reign and left unfinished for reasons

we do not know. Sneferu started a new pyramid

complex at Dahshur in about the fifteenth year of his

reign ( this was designed to be the first true pyramid-

However, for structural reasons, the angle of slope

had to be modified part way up, which gave the

pyramid its distinctive 'bent' profile. This complex was

then abandoned, and a new true-pyramid complex in

North Dahshur was completed and used for the king's

burial

The complex at Meidum contains some of the

basic elements of the pyramid complex; a wall, which

encloses a small satellite pyramid to the south and an

offering chapel to the east, and a causeway leading

toward the flood plain. There are also tombs of

officials and family members near the pyramid.

The Bent Pyramid complex contains all of these

elements, plus a lower temple at the eastern end of

the causeway These elements now become standard,

and can also be seen in Sneferu's northern pyramid

complex at Dahshur. We also have evidence for a

pyramid city associated with this complex.

Thus, by the time ol Sneferu's son and successor,

Khufu, the basic elements of the pyramid complex

were in place The Early Dynastic mound has become

a straight-sided pyramid. The royal stelae have

become the upper, or mortuary, temple Djoser's south

tomb, sftf-festival court, and Temple T become the

satellite, or ritual, pyramid and its court. Djoser's

complex also contains W-fesiivat chapels, altars, and

the pavilions of the north and south. These separate

buildings develop into rooms and niches inside later

pyramid temples. Khufu adds three queens' pyramids

and an elaborate, planned cemetery for royal relatives

and officials to the elements of the pyramid complex.

Evidence lor harbors associated with the complexes of

Chapter •) I 4 6

46 bottom

In this genera] view oj the Djoser

pyramid complex ai Sahara, the Step

Pyramid dating to the Third Dynasty

can be observed.

47

both Khufu and his son Khafre have also been round,

and traces of Khufu's palace have recently been

uncovered. Ongoing excavations at Giza are yielding

traces of the workers who built the pyramids: the

tombs of the pyramid builders, the workmen's tamp,

and the workmen's installation, where the workers

who built the pyramids received took and rations, and

perhaps slept,

The current work at Giza is clarifying the issue of

where the king lived while his pyramid was being

built It used to he thought that the capital, the royal

residence, of the king was at Memphis itself.

However, the Egypt Exploration Society excavations

at Memphis under David Jelfreys have found no

evidence lor a settlement dated to the Archaic Period

or the Old Kingdom. They have, however, found

traces ol an Archaic settlement at the foot of the

Saqqara plateau, near the First Dynasty tombs there.

At Giza, in addition to the remains of a

monumental building which may he Khufu's palace,

we have found traces ol an Old Kingdom settlement

under the modern village that lies at the foot of the

plateau. This settlement was about five square

kilometers, and I believe that this is where the royal

administration was based. Textual evidence from the

Fifth Dynasty also supports this interpretation^ the

Abustr Papyri, found in the pyramid complex ol

Neferirkare Kaki, mention a palace of Djedkarc Isesi

which was located near his pyramid.

The pyramid was the national project of the

nation; every household participated in this

monumental task by sending workers and food to help

the king. The construction of the pyramid and its

complex magically provided for the rebirth and

dtvinity of the king, and thus assured the safety and

prosperity of the country It has been said that the

pyramids built Egypt: the complex administration

needed to manage these enormous projects helped to

create tins ancient civilization The king would have

had his primary residence near the pyramid site so

that he could supervise the most important project of

his reign.

Khulu's pyramid required a large number ol men

to move and place over 2 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 cubic meters of

stones, yet the number of artisans required was

relatively few. This ratio of stone-movers to artisans

would change, however, over the next two dynasties

as architects decreased the volume of stone by making

the pyramids smaller and using smaller stones, mud

brick, or loose rubble fill, while they increased the

number of beautiful wall reliefs with which the

OSwptff * 4 7

The imposing structure oj the pyramid oj

King Khufu oj the Fourth Dynasty

dominates the Giza Platen and represents

an architectural ability n e w again

reached during thtfollmoing dynasties

Jht pyramid of Amenembrl ill al

Dahshur, Middle Kintjdom.

temples were decorated. For example, it is estimated

that the pyramid of the Fifth Dynasty's first king,

Userkal, contains only one-thirteenth of the bulk ol

Khufu s pyramid. Indeed, the 2,600,000 cubic meters

of raw stone in Khufu's pyramid is almost equal to all

the raw stone of all the pyramids of the Fifth and

Sixth Dynasties combined. On the other hand, the

Filth Dynasty pyramid of Sahure at Abusir had,

according to German Egyptologist Ludwig Borchardt,

10,000 square meters ol wall reliefs. The decreasing

size of the pyramids and hence, the reduced need for

workmen, was probably not economically motivated,

because the increasing number of relicts would have

necessitated hiring many more skilled artisans who

commanded a higher wage than the workmen who

moved the stones.

It is at the end oi the Fifth Dynasty that the so-

tailed I'vumid Te\h appeal on the inside walls ol

the pyramids chambers—the first example being the

pyramid ol Unas at Saqqara. The Pyramid Texts are

magical spells inscribed in vertical columns on the

walls of the antechamber and burial chamber of the

pyramid. The spells are designed to help the king

ascend to the sky, to illuminate the relationship of the

king to the gods, and to ensure the divinity of the

king, In the following dynasty these precise carvings

grace the burial chambers of both kings and queens.

The pyramid complexes of the Filth Dynasty, in

addition to their expanded decorative repertoire,

make some changes to the specific details of the

Fourth Dynasty complex Unlike the Giza pyramids,

the pyramids of Userkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare Kaki,

and Niuserre all have their entrances at ground level,

and the interior layout is different. The sarcophagus is

placed near the west end of the chamber and the

chamber walls are decorated with designs of a palace

ia^ade, an alabaster veneer, and later, the Pyramid

Texts. The temples become larger (providing more

wall surface for the reliefs), and contain numerous

rooms and magazines. The courts of the upper

temple, which are oriented north to south in the

Fourth Dynasty, are now oriented cast to west.

The kings of the Fifth Dynasty also built sun

temples in an area about one kilometer north of

Abusir. These complexes consist of a large, squat

obelisk and an altar in an open court, an upper

temple, causeway, and lower temple. These temples

were dedicated to the worship of the sun god, Re.

Two of these temples have been found and excavated

so far,- we have textual evidence for six of them.

After the chaos of the First Intermediate Period,

the kings of the Middle Kingdom were once again

buried in pyramids. The first king of the Twelfth

Dynasty, Amenemhet I, built his pyramid at Lisht,

near the entrance to the Fayum. In the core of his

pyramid, he used rough blocks of limestone and a fill

of mud brick and debris. Included in this debris, and

also in the lining and blocking ol the substructure,

were inscribed blocks from the pyramid complexes of

Khufu, Khafre, and Unas. These blocks may have

served to magically link this king with his divine

predecessors,

Amenemhet Is complex is clearly based on the

Old Kingdom prototype, with, however, some details

that reveal theTheban origin of the family. Some of

the standard features are present: upper temple,

causeway, and lower temple, but the causeway was

unroofed, like the processional ways of the Tbeban

tombs of the kings who preceded him. Another

Theban element is the fact that the pyramid and its

temple are on terraces. There was no satellite

pyramid, and family members were buried in mastabas

or shaft tombs within the pyramid enclosure. A small

chapel lay in front of the entrance to the substructure

in the north face of the pyramid, and the king was

buried in a chamber that lay at the bottom of a shaft

on the vertical axis of the pyramid—this shaft is

another Theban element. The Middle Kingdom

decoration that has been retrieved from this complex

is difficult to tell from the Old Kingdom intrusive

fragments, as the later artists appear to have tried to

copy the older models as faithfully as possible. The

causeway was decorated with scenes ol foreigners,

Cbtljlttr 4

1 4 8

y \ r e / ? / / ( ' ( I it r¿il . | V / J> Í'Í>C / o / > m e > ? t

funerary estates, royal officials, and gods.

Amenemhet Is son and successor, Senusret 1, built

his pyramid near that of his Father. For the core of the

pyramid itself, his architects used an ingenious system

of spines and cross-walls, but the pyramid was

unstable, and only a mined mound remains today.

Like his father, he placed an entrance chapel against

the north face, from which a descending passage leads

to the burial chamber, far beneath the ground (and

now under the water table). All nf the Twelfth

Dynasty kings placed their burial chambers deep in

the earth, as part of an effort to link themselves with

Osiris, king of the underworld,

Senusret Is complex contains most of the

elements that had become standard by the end of the

Old Kingdom: upper temple, causeway (originally

uncovered but later roofed), lower temple (which has

never been found), and a satellite pyramid in the

southeast corner of the inner enclosure. Nine queens'

pyramids lie inside the outer enclosure wall,

surrounding the main pyramid. Large statues of the

king in the red and white crowns were placed in

niches along the inside of the causeway. Another

decorative innovation found in this complex is the

addition of monumental strekfc containing the king's

names to both faces of the inner enclosure wall The

wall was also niched, harkening back to the Third

Dynasty enclosure of Djoser and the Early Dynastic

walls at Abydos and Saqqara.

The succeeding kings, Amenemhet 11 and

Senusret II, built pyramid complexes that are

significantly different, referring perhaps more to the

Third Dynasty step pyramid enclosures than to the

late Old Kingdom models In any event, each of the

next kings built a unique complex which incorporates

some of the standard elements with experimental

features. Amenemhet lis pyramid is at Dahshur, and is

set in a rectangular, east-west enclosure. The pyramid

itself was built as a skeleton of stone filled with sand

and then cased with fine white limestone; it is now in

ruins. The entrance to the substructure is in the north

face, and leads to a burial chamber which contains a

sarcophagus of sandstone. This complex has been

neglected by archaeologists: little is known about the

layout of the upper temple, and the lower temple has

never been found, although an open causeway leads

down to the edge of the floodplain.

Senusret II moved back to the Fayum, and built a

pyramid primarily of mud brick within a square

enclosure The substructure of this pyramid is very

unusual, and is the first to try to hide the entrance in

an attempt to foil tomb robbers. This substructure is

entered via a shaft on the south side of the pyramid.

A horizontal passage at the bottom of the shaft leads

to a vaulted chamber, at one end of which is a deep

well whose bottom has never been reached. The

horizontal passage continues through an antechamber

to the burial chamber cased in granite, in which was

found a red granite sarcophagus and an alabaster

offering table. A passageway runs around the burial

chamber, providing for the symbolic journey of the

king's spirit and also helping to associate him with

Osiris, whose cult was becoming increasingly more

important during this period.

In this complex are a number of maslabas and one

subsidiary pyramid which may be a satellite pyramid.

The enclosure wall of the complex was niched, like

Senusret I's. Included in the complex were an upper

temple, causeway, and lower temple, none of which

have been adequately explored. At the foot of the

plateau is Senusret Ms pyramid town, a planned

settlement which tells us a great deal about daily life,

at least under royal protection, in the Middle

Kingdom.

Senusret III moved back to Dahshur, and built his

pyramid again of mud brick with limestone casing.

The substructure consists of a hidden entrance to the

west, a descending passage leading to an

antechamber, magazine, and burial chamber of granite

containing a granite sarcophagus. Against the

northern face of the pyramid is an entrance chapel,

and to the east is a small upper temple. The pyramid

enclosure was expanded later in the reign, and a

second temple was added to the south. A causeway

leads from the southeastern corner of the expanded

enclosure; no lower temple has yet been found.

Surrounding the main pyramid are the superstructures

of seven small pyramids, underneath are the shaft

tombs of a number of royal women, in which a

number of inscribed artifacts and jewels were found

Just outside the southwest corner of the pyramid

enclosure is a building of mud brick and a fleet of six

wooden boats, each six meters long.

Fragments of relief from the upper temple include

the king at an offering table, a Itinerary menu,

offering bearers, scenes of gods, officials, and the

butchering of sacred cattle Bits of relief from the

southern temple show the king in his ifJ-festival robe.

Josef Wegner has recently discovered a second tomb

for Senusret III at Abydos, which may have been the

kings actual burial place,

Amenemhet III built two pyramids, one at

Dahshur and the other in the Fayum, The Dahshur

pyramid was built of mud brick Underneath is a maze

of corridors cased in white limestone which includes

the king's burial chamber, a number of small chapels.

and the chambers used for the burial and equipment

of several queens. There are two entrances, and the

corridors are quite complex. They may, in addition to

their practical purposes, model the underworld. In

1 9 9 7 , 1 was able to visit this pyramid with Dieter

Arnold. It was amazing to explore these labyrinthine

corridors myself.

Amenemhet Ill's Dahshur complex had an upper

temple, causeway, and lower temple. Structural

problems, however, caused the king to leave this site

and build a second pyramid at Hawara in the Fayum.

The layout of this pyramid and its enclosure is very

different from its predecessor at Dahshur. The

substructure here is truly a labyrinth, with dead-end

corridors, and passageways hidden in the ceiling. The

burial chamber itself is carved from a single piece of

quartzite. Inside was the king's quartzite sarcophagus,

a second, smaller sarcophagus, and two canopic

chests,

The pyramid complex of Amenemhet III at

Hawara is the largest of the Middle Kingdom

enclosures. It is oriented north to south. It was

approached via an open causeway from the east. The

upper temple is completely unique, and was called The

Labyrinth1 by visitors in ancient times. Unfortunately,

most of this structure has now been destroyed, enough

remains only to tell us that it was a vast complex of

small courts and shrines. Fetrie found the remains of a

large granite statue of the king close to the pyramid.

Other statue fragments of gods, the king, and offering

bearers, were recovered from this area.

The kings of the New Kingdom were aware that

neither the huge monuments of the Fourth Dynasty

nor the maze corridors of the late Twelfth Dynasty

had protected the royal burials. Thus, beginning

with Thutmose 1 of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the

kings built only their mortuary temples in the open,

in the floodptain along the west bank. In place of a

valley, or lower temple, they used the temples at

Karnak In a vain effort to protect their mummies

and treasures, they hid their actual tombs in a

remote valley further to the west, the Valley of the

Kings. Towering above this series of desert wadis is a

pyramid-shaped peak, known as the Qurn, Thus, the

royal burials continued to be surmounted by the

powerful symbol of the pyramid. In one sense, the

New Kingdom came full circle, back again to the

tombs separated from their cult centers that were

seen in the First Dynasty, Each period introduced

changes in the funerary cult, but the primary

importance of the pyramid remained, from its

beginnings as a mound of sand over the first royal

tombs, to the towering peak that protected the last.

Cfcafiter 4

I 4 9

RISE AND RUN - CASING

A r n o l d , D . , " M a n e u v e r i n g c a s i n g b l o c k s of pyra

mids," in J o h n Baines, e t al. ( eds . ) , Pyramid Studies

and Other Essays presented to I. E. S. Edwards, L o n d o n ,

1 9 8 8 , p p . 1 2 - 2 4 .

Isler, M-, " C o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n c a v e faces o n t h e

G r e a t Pyramid," JARCE 2 0 , n o . 2 7 - 3 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

Lally, M . , "Engineer ing a pyramid," JARCE 2 6 , n o .

2 0 7 - 2 1 8 ( 1 9 8 9 ) .

Lauer, J.-P., "Sur le c h o i x d e l 'angle d e p e n t e dans les

p y r a m i d e s d'Égypte," Bulletin de l'Institut d'Égypte 3 7

( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 57-66.

Lauer, J.P., "Observat ions sur les pyramides ," BdÉ 3 0

(Ca iro , 1 9 6 0 ) .

R o b i n s , G. a n d C . C . D . S h u t e , " D e t e r m i n i n g t h e

s l o p e o f pyramids ," G M 5 7 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 4 9 - 5 4 .

P h o t o c r e d i t s :

3 3 t o p A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

3 3 b o t t o m A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

3 4 , 3 5 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

3 6 , 3 7 A l b e r t o S i l i o t t i / A r c h i v i o G e o d i a

3 8 M a r k ^ e h n e r

3 9 Al f io G a r o z z o / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

4 3 , 4 5 M a r c e l l o Bert inet f i /Archiv io W h i t e Star

T H E A R C H I T E C T U R A L D E V E L O P M E N T

O F T H E E G Y P T I A N R O Y A L T O M B

T e x t b y Z a h i H a w a s s

B i b l i o g r a p h y :

Edwards , I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed., N e w

York, 1 9 8 5 .

H a s s a n , S., The Sphinx: Its History in the light ojRecent

Excavations, Ca iro : C a i r o Univers i ty , 1 9 4 9 .

H a w a s s , Z . , ' T h e Khufu Statuet te : Is It an O l d

K i n g d o m Sculpture?" Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar.

Bibliotheque d'Etude, Institut Francais d'Archeologie

Orientale n o . 9 7 1 , ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

The Funerary Establishments oj Khufu, Khafra, and

Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph. D .

D i s s e r t a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a m i c r o

film, A n n Arbor, MI , 1 9 8 7 .

"Histor ies , M y s t e r i e s of M a n " in W M . F . Petrie ,

The Pyramid and Temples of Gizab, L o n d o n , 1 9 9 0 .

--- "Pyramid C o n s t r u c t i o n : N e w E v i d e n c e

D i s c o v e r e d in Giza ," in H . G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z

( e d s ) , Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-gescbichte Ägyptens

Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 .

—Jbe Pyramid of Ancient Egypt, C a r n e g i e Inst i tute ,

P i t t sburgh, 1 9 9 0 .

Lehner, M . , ' T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e G i z a

N e c r o p o l i s : T h e Khufu Project." MDAIK 4 1 , 1 9 8 5 .

M a r a g i o g l i o , V., a n d C . Rinaldi . , VArchitettura della

piramidi menfite. V o l s . 2 - 8 . Turin a n d R a p e l l o , 1963¬

7 7 .

Reisner, G. A. , The Development of The Egyptian Tomb

Down to the Accession of Cheops, C a m b r i d g e , Mass . ,

1 9 3 5 .

S m i t h , W. S. , The Art and Architecture Of Ancient Egypt.

2 n d e d . , r ev i sed b y W. K. S i m p s o n ,

H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 8 1 .

P h o t o c r e d i t s :

4 6 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

4 7 M a r c e l l o Berti n e t t i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

4 8 Al f io G a r o z z o / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

T H E A R C H I T E C T U R A L C O M P O N E N T S

O F T H E P Y R A M I D C O M P L E X

T e x t b y Z a h i H a w a s s


Badawy A. , A History of Architecture I, Berkeley,

U n i v e r s i t y o f Cal i fornia , 1 9 6 6 .

Brinks, J., Die Entwicklung der Königlichen Grabanlagen des

AltenReicbes, H i l d e s h e i m , 1 9 7 9 .

Edwards , I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed . , N e w

York, 1 9 8 5 .

Fakhry, A. , The Pyramids, 2nd ed., C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y

o f C h i c a g o Press, 1 9 7 4 .

H a w a s s , Z . , ' T h e Pyramid," in D . P. S i l verman a n d

D . Baird (eds ) , Ancient Egypt, L o n d o n a n d N e w

York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 9 8 .

The Funerary Establishments of Khufu, Kbafra,_and

Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph . D .

D i s s e r t a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsy lvana ia m i c r o

film, A n n Arbor, M I , 1 9 8 7 .

"Pyramid C o n s t r u c t i o n : N e w E v i d e n c e

D i s c o v e r e d in Giza," in H . G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z

( eds . ) Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-geschichte Ägyptens

Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 .

Maragiog l io , V , and C . Rinaldi, LArchitettura della

piramidi menfite, vols . 2 -8 . Turin a n d Rapello, 1963-77 .

Petrie , W. M . F., The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh,

L o n d o n , 1 8 8 3 .

S m i t h , W. S. The Art and Architecture Of Ancient Egypt,

2 n d e d , rev i sed b y W. K. S i m p s o n ,

H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 8 1 .

Stadelmann, R., Die ägyptischen Pyramiden, Mainz , 1985.

P h o t o cred i t s :

5 2 , 5 3 A r a l d o D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star

T H E P R E D Y N A S T I C P E R I O D

T e x t b y R e n e e F r i e d m a n

R e n e e Fr iedman is the H e a g y Research Curator in

the Egypt ian D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e British M u s e u m a n d

D i r e c t o r of t h e H i e r a k o n p o l i s E x p e d i t i o n , spec ia l i z

ing in Egypt's Predynas t i c Per iod . E d u c a t e d at the

U n i v e r s i t y of Cal i fornia , Berkeley, s h e has e x c a v a t e d

at a n u m b e r of s i tes in E g y p t , i n c l u d i n g G i z a ,

M e n d e s , Tell e l - M u q d a m , a n d H i e r a k o n p o l i s , w h e r e

s h e has w o r k e d s i n c e 1 9 8 3 . S h e has c o - a u t h o r e d a n d

e d i t e d several b o o k s i n c l u d i n g Egypt Uncovered

( 1 9 9 8 ) , The Followers of Horns ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d Egypt and

Nubia: Gifts of the Desert ( 2 0 0 2 ) .


A d a m s , B., Predynastic Egypt (Shire E g y p t o l o g y 7 ) ,

Aylesbury , 1 9 8 8 .

--- , Ancient Nekhen: Garstang in the City of Nekhen (ESA

n o . 3 ) , SIA P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 9 5 .

A d a m s , B a n d K. C i a l o w i c z , Protodynastic Egypt

(Shire E g y p t o l o g y 2 5 ) , G r e a t Britain, 1997 .

Darne l l , J . C , Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian

Western Desert, Volume i-. Gebel Tjauti Rock Inscriptions

1-45 and Wadi el-Hdl Rock Inscriptions i-45, Or ienta l

Inst i tute Pub l i ca t ions 119 , C h i c a g o , 2 0 0 2 .

Fr iedman, R. e t al., "Preliminary Report o n Field

W o r k at H i e r a k o n p o l i s 1 9 9 6 - 1 9 9 8 , " JARCE 3 6

( 1 9 9 9 ) , p p . 1 - 3 5 .

Friedman, R. a n d B. A d a m s ( eds . ) , The Followers of

Horus: Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman,

O x f o r d , 1 9 9 2 .

Friedman R., Egypt and Nubia-. Gifts of the Desert,

L o n d o n , 2 0 0 2 .

H o f f m a n , M . A. , Egypt Before the Pharaohs, N e w York,

Texas , 1 9 7 9 / 1 9 9 1 .

M i d a n t - R e y n e s , B., The Prehistory of Egypt: From the

First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs, O x f o r d , 2 0 0 0 .

S p e n c e r , A. ]., Early Egypt-. The Rise of Civilization in the

Nile Valley, L o n d o n , 1 9 9 3 .

--- ( e d . ) , Aspects of Early Egypt, L o n d o n : British

M u s e u m Press, 1 9 9 6 .

S h a w , I. ( e d . ) , The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,

O x f o r d , 2 0 0 0 .

W e n d o r f , F. a n d R S c h i l d , Holocene Settlement of the

Egyptian Sahara, vol. i-. The Archaeology of Nabta

Playa, N e w York, 2 0 0 2 .


5 4 , 5 5 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

5 6 , 5 7 left R e n e e Fr iedman

5 7 r i g h t A r a l d o D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star

5 8 , 5 9 R e n e e Fr iedman

6 0 T h e British M u s e u m

6 1 K e n n e t h Garret t

T H E T O M B S O F T H E F I R S T A N D S E C O N D

D Y N A S T I E S A T A B Y D O S A N D S A Q Q A R A

T e x t b y G ü n t e r D r e y e r

G ü n t e r D r e y e r s t u d i e d E g y p t o l o g y , A s s y r i o l o g y

a n d A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern a r c h a e o l o g y in H a m b u r g

a n d Berlin, w h e r e h e c o m p l e t e d his P h . D . in 1 9 7 8

a b o u t t e m p l e d o n a t i o n s in the early p e r i o d s of

E g y p t . H e e x c a v a t e d w i t h t h e G e r m a n Inst i tute of

A r c h a e o l o g y at Luxor, E l e p h a n t i n e , W a d i Garawi ,

A b y d o s a n d G i z a . H e b e c a m e assistant d i rec tor o f

t h e G e r m a n Inst i tute in 1 9 8 9 , a n d d irec tor in 1 9 9 8 .

H e c o m p l e t e d h i s H a b i l i t a t i o n at Berlin U n i v e r s i t y

in 1 9 9 7 o n Early W r i t i n g from E g y p t a n d is n o w

m a i n l y c o n d u c t i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f t h e earl iest

Royal T o m b s at A b y d o s .


S p e n c e r A. J., Early Egypt, L o n d o n : British M u s e u m

Press, 1 9 9 3 .

ABYDOS

A m e l i n e a u , E., Les Nouvelles Fou^lles d'Abydos I-III,

Paris, 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 0 4 .

—, he Tombeau d'Osiris, Paris, 1 8 9 9 .

Petrie, W. M. F, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty I-II

( M e m . Egypt Expl. f u n d 1 8 , 2 1 ) , London, 1900 -1901 .

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U-j in Abydos und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse

(Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 86) , Mainz, 1998.

Dreyer G., et al., "Umm e l -Qaab, Nachuntersuchungen

im f rühze i t l i chen Königs fr i edhof . V o r b e r i c h t e

(preliminary reports)," Mitteilungen DAIKairo (MDAIK)

3 8 , 4 6 , 4 9 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 6 ( M a i n z , 1 9 8 2 - 2 0 0 0 ) .

SAQQARA

Emery, W B., Great Tombs of the ist Dynasty I-III,

Excavations at Sahara, Cairo, 1949,-London, 1955-58 .

— The Tomb of Hemaka, Excavations at Sacjcfara, Cairo, 1938.

Hor Aha, Excavations at Sahara, Ca i ro , 1 9 3 9 .

Lauer, J. Ph. , "His to ire m o n u m e n t a l e de s p y r a m i d e s

d '£gypte ," Bibliothfyue dttude 3 9 , Ca iro , 1 9 6 2 .


6 2 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

6 3 G ü n t e r D r e y e r

6 4 t o p R M N

6 4 c e n t e r a n d b o t t o m G ü n t e r D r e y e r

6 6 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

6 7 t o p G ü n t e r D r e y e r

6 7 c e n t e r Ara ldo D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star

6 8 - 6 9 a n d 6 8 b o t t o m G ü n t e r D r e y e r

6 9 b o t t o m left Araldo D e Luca/Archiv io W h i t e Star

7 0 a n d 71 private c o l l e c t i o n

7 2 - 7 3 private c o l l e c t i o n

7 3 t o p , c e n t e r a n d b o t t o m A r a l d o D e Luca/

A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

7 4 G ü n t e r D r e y e r

7 5 Ara ldo D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

7 6 t o p a n d b o t t o m A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e

Star

7 6 - 7 7 G ü n t e r D r e y e r

T H E R O Y A L M O R T U A R Y E N C L O S U R E S O F

A B Y D O S A N D H I E R A K O N P O L I S

T e x t b y D a v i d O ' C o n n o r a n d M a t t h e w A d a m s

D a v i d O ' C o n n o r is Lila A c h e s o n Wal lace Professor of

Egypt ian Art and A r c h a e o l o g y at the Institute of Fine

Arts, N e w York University . H e is also a Professor

Emeritus of the Univers i ty of Pennsylvania and

Curator Emeritus of the Egypt ian Sec t ion , Univers i ty

of Pennsylvania M u s e u m of A n t h r o p o l o g y and

Archaeo logy . D a v i d O ' C o n n o r has excavated ex ten

s ive ly in Egypt a n d the Sudan, and his publ icat ions

inc lude Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa, Ancient Egypt:

a Social History (co-author),- a n d several others . H e is

currently c o m p l e t i n g a b o o k ent i t l ed Abydos-. The

Evolution of a Sacred Landscape.

M a t t h e w D o u g l a s A d a m s h o l d s a dual P h . D . in

A n t h r o p o l o g y a n d E g y p t o l o g y from the Univers i ty

of Pennsylvania . H e is Research S c h o l a r at the

Institute of Fine Arts, N e w York Univers i ty , a n d a

Research Assoc ia te of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania

M u s e u m . H e has w o r k e d at A b y d o s s ince 1981 a n d

has b e e n a project director there s ince 1 9 9 1 . H e is

D i r e c t o r of the A b y d o s S e t t l e m e n t Si te Project , a n d

has undertaken e x c a v a t i o n s in the anc ient t o w n of

A b y d o s . H e is Assoc ia te D i r e c t o r of the A b y d o s Early

D y n a s t i c Project a n d has e x c a v a t e d m a n y of north

A b y d o s ' Early D y n a s t i c royal m o n u m e n t s . In addi t ion

t o Egypt , Dr. A d a m s has a lso d o n e archaeo log ica l

f ie ldwork in Turkey, Syria, a n d N o r t h America . T h e

author of several articles a n d rev iews , his research

interests inc lude E g y p t as a c o m p l e x soc ie ty , k ingsh ip

a n d the nature of the early state in Egypt , Egypt ian

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c organizat ion , a n d the a r c h a e o l o g y of

s e t t l ement in Egypt .


K e m p , B., "Abydos: T h e Royal T o m b s of t h e First

D y n a s t y , " JEA 5 2 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 4 - 2 2 .

O'Connor , D . , "New Funerary Enclosures (Talbezirke)

o f the Early D y n a s t i c Period," Journal of the American

Research Center in Egypt 2 6 (1989 ) , pp. 51 -86 .

—, "Boat Graves and Pyramid Origins: N e w Discoveries

at A b y d o s , Egypt," Expedition 3 3 / 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5-17.

O ' C o n n o r , D . a n d M . A d a m s , " M o o r e d in t h e

D e s e r t : D i g g i n g an A n c i e n t Armada," Archaeology

(May /June 2 0 0 1 ) , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 .


78 , 7 9 , 8 0 top, 8 0 - 8 1 Giulio Veggi/Archivio W h i t e Star

8 1 t o p , 8 2 - 8 3 , 8 3 D a v i d O ' C o n n o r

8 4 , 8 5 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star

T H E S T E P P Y R A M I D S

T e x t b y Ali R a d w a n

Al i R a d w a n is a Professor at C a i r o U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e

h e t e a c h e s E g y p t i a n Art a n d A r c h a e o l o g y . H e w a s

t h e former d e a n of C a i r o U n i n e r s i t y a n d e x c a v a t e d

at Abusir.


A l l e n , J. P., "Funerary T e x t s a n d T h e i r M e a n i n g , " in

S. D'Auria, P. Lacovara a n d C . H . R o e h r i g ( eds . ) ,

Mummies and Magic-. The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt,

B o s t o n , 1 9 8 8 , p p . 3 8 - 4 9 .

Al tenmül ler . H . , "Bemerkungen zur frühen a n d

s p ä t e n Bauphase d e s D j o s e r b e z i r k e s in Saqqara,"

MDAIK 28 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 8 - 1 2 .

Barsanti, A. , "Ouvertüre d e la p y r a m i d e d e Zaouie't

e l -Aryan," ASAE II ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 9 2 - 4 .

C w i e k , A. , "Date a n d Funct ion of the S o - c a l l e d M i n o r

S t e p Pyramids," G M 162 ( 1 9 9 8 ) , p p . 3 9 - 5 2 .

D r e y e r G. a n d W. Kaiser, "Zu d e n k l e i n e n

S t u f e n p y r a m i d e n O b e r - u n d M i t t e l ä g y p t e n s , "

MDAIK 3 6 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 4 3 - 5 9 , Taf. 6 8 - 7 7 .

D r e y e r G. a n d N . S w e l i m , "Die k l e ine

S tufen p y r a m i d e v o n A b y d o s - S ü d (Sinki) ," in

MDAIK 38 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 8 3 - 9 3 , Taf. 1 1 - 1 4 .

Dreyer , G. , "Der erste K ö n i g der 3 . D y n a s t i e , " in H .

G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z ( eds . ) , Stationen, Fs. R

Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 , p p . 3 1 - 3 4 .

D o d s o n , A. , "On t h e D a t e of the U n f i n i s h e d

P y r a m i d of Z a w y e t e l -Aryan," Discussions in

Egyptology 3 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 2 1 .

Edwards , I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt,

H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 6 1 .

Fakhry, A. , ThePyramids, C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 9 .

Faulkner, R. O . , The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts,

O x f o r d , 1 9 6 9 .

Firth, C . M . , J. E. Q u i b e l l a n d J-Ph. Lauer, The Step

Pyramid, I, II, Ca i ro , 1 9 3 5 , 1936 .

Fischer, H . G , "Some Emblematic U s e s of Hierog lyphs

with Particular Reference t o an Archaic Ritual Vessel,"

in Ancient Egypt in The Metropolitan Museum Journal

( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3lff , 181 (pa le t te from H e l w a n ) .

Fr iedman, F. D . , "The U n d e r g r o u n d Relief Pane l s of

K i n g D j o s e r at t h e S t e p Pyramid C o m p l e x , "

JARCE 3 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 1-42.

G o n e i m , M . Z . , The Buried Pyramid, L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 .

- - , Horas Sekhem-Khetm the Unfinished Step Pyramid at

Sahara, I Cairo, 1 9 5 7 .

G r e v e n , L , "Der Ka in T h e o l o g i e und Königkul t der

Ägypten des Alten Reiches," ÄF 17 (Glückstadt, 1952).

H a w a s s , Z . , "A Fragmentary M o n u m e n t o f D j o s e r

from Saqqara," JEA 8 0 ( 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 4 5 - 5 6 .

Helck, W , "Der N a m e des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie

un d i e S tadt Ehnas," SAK 4 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 3 0 .

— , "Gane," LÄ II ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3 9 1 , n. 9 5 .

"Die D a t i e r u n g d e r Gefäßaufschr i f t en aus der

D j o s e r p y r a m i d e , " ZÄS 106 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 2 0 - 1 3 2 .

— , "Sanacht"LÄ V ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 375f.

- - , "Zum S t a t u e n s o c k e l d e s Djoser," in I. G a m e r -

Wal l er t a n d W . H e l c k ( eds . ) , Gegengabe, Fs Emma

Brunner-Traut, T ü b i n g e n , 1 9 9 2 , 1 4 3 - 1 5 0 .

H o r n u n g , E., "Exploring t h e Beyond," in E. H o r n u n g

a n d B. M . Bryan ( eds . ) , The Quest for Immortality:

Treasures of Ancient Egypt, M u n i c h , L o n d o n a n d N e w

York, 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 .

Kaiser, W , ' Z u den Königl ichen Talbezirken in A b y d o s

u n d zur B a u g e s c h i c h t e d e s D j o s e r - G r a b m a l s der 1.

u n d 2 . D y n a s t i e , " MDAIK 2 5 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 1 -21 .

- - , "Ein Kul tbez irk d e s K ö n i g s D e n in Sakkara,"

M D A I K 41 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 4 7 - 6 0 .

— , "Zur unter i rd i schen A n l a g e der D j o s e r p y r a m i d e

u n d ihrer e n t w i c k l u n g s g e s c h i c h t l i c h t e n

Einordnung," in I. G a m e r - W a l l e r t a n d W. H e l c k

( eds . ) , Gegengabe, Fs Emma Brunner-Traut, T ü b i n g e n

( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 1 9 0 .

K e e s , H . , Der Götterglaube im Alten Ägypten, L e i p z i g ,

1 9 4 1 , p p . 214ff.

3 9 6

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