YUAN DYNASTY

Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) was the empire or ruling dynasty established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. Although the Mongols had ruled territories including today's North China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas, including modern Mongolia and Korea. It was the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which its Genghisid rulers returned to their Mongolian homeland and continued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others only used their native language (i.e. Mongolian) and the 'Phags-pa script.

The Yuan dynasty is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empireand an imperial Chinese dynasty. It was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. Inofficial Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song dynasty and preceding the Ming dynasty. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In the Proclamation of the Dynastic Name (《建國號詔》), Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty.

HISTORY

Since the late period of the 12th century, an ethnic minority group called Mongolian had grown up in the northern areas of China. In 1204, one of the leaders of the Mongolian tribes, Tiemuzhen, unified all the internal tribes. Two years later, Tiemuzhen was honored as Genghis Khan (meaning - the ruler of the world) and soon established the Mongolian Empire. Successively, it captured Xixia and the Jin Dynasty (1115 - 1234), after which the combative Mongolian army sent its military forces into Central Asia and Europe.

In 1260, the grandson of Tiemuzhen, Kublai Khan, ascended the throne. In 1271, he formally established the Yuan Dynasty with Yuandadu (currently Beijing) as the capital. (The new dynasty was not territorially the former Mongolian Empire as three parts had broken away before the new dynasty was founded.)

In 1276, not long after the founding of the dynasty, Kublai Khan led his army, capturing the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127 - 1279) and thus he unified the entire China. 

At that time, Yuan's territory stretched to Mongolia and Siberia in the north, the South Sea in the south, Yunnan Province and Tibet in the southwest, eastern part of Xinjiang Province in the northwest and the Stanovoi Range in the northeast. The total area of the country was over 4.6 million square miles.

As a mighty state, the Yuan Dynasty enjoyed economic development and prospered in the fields of science and literature. The economy was mainly based on agriculture. The agricultural techniques used were superior to those of previous dynasties and food output increased. Additionally, the use of paper currency

stimulated the development of commerce. Meanwhile, trade with foreign countries was greatly encouraged following an open policy adopted by the rulers. In the area of science, astronomy, mathematics and medicine reached a very high level. In literature, the Yuan drama, along with the Tang poem and 'ci' poem of the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), was considered another heritage of Chinese literature. 

During the glorious period, diplomatic activities with foreign countries were quite frequent with many foreign envoys, merchants and travelers traversing the sea to come to China. Among them, the famous Italian merchant Marco Polo was a successful cultural transmitter who wrote the historic travel notes, The Travels of Marco Polo, informing the West about China.

In the late period, the internal contradictions of the ruling class, serious natural disasters, and unreasonable grading system together aroused the indignation of the people. In 1367, the rebel army led by Zhu Yuanzhang captured the Yuan capital, ending the ever mighty Yuan regime.

GOVERNMENT

The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.

The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Han Chinese, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols and Tibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang,Song, as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such asLiu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil, military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat(Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council (Chinese: 樞密院 ) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions however showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.

While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since theSui and Tang dynasties) gave a

Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semuren, where there were separate courts of justice for them. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.

SOCIAL ECONOMY

Under the wise governing the Mongolian rulers, the social economy in the Yuan Dynasty in early period developed fairly well in agriculture, handicraft industry, commerce and foreign trade. The agriculture was the major economy of the Yuan Dynasty. Although the Mongolian people were a nomadic people who originally lived on the grassland for generations, Kublai Khan focused much attention on the agricultural production after the founding of Yuan Dynasty. The following emperors also advocated replacing the traditional animal husbandry with agriculture. As a result, no matter in the production technique, the farming area or the food output, the Yuan Dynasty surpassed the previous dynasties.

The most prosperous handicraft industry in the Yuan Dynast was the textile industry. As the cotton planting became more and more popular in the southern areas of China, the development of the textile industry was greatly stimulated and reached a fairly advanced level. A woman named Huang Daopo from Songjiang area (currently in Shanghai urban area) improved and invented the new cotton textile technology, which made Shanghai and the near regions become the earliest national cotton textile industry center.

Both the surplus goods and the convenient water transport was the prerequisite of the commercial development of the Yuan Dynasty. In the early period of Yuan, a 51-mile long grand canal, named Tonghui River by Kublai Khan, was constructed in the capital city Dadu (currently Beijing). This provided much convenience for the food transport from southern areas to the capital. Additionally, the large circulation of paper currency further prospered the domestic business affairs.

Meanwhile, rulers of the Yuan Dynasty adopted an open policy to develop the economy. On the one hand, more ports in the coastal areas were opened for goods transport; on the other hand, foreign goods were welcomed to enter the domestic market. Under this policy, great amount of spices and medical materials were imported from Arabia, Persia and India while China's silk and porcelain in large number were exported to Europe.

The unprecedented prosperity of the marine Silk Road became the most direct momentum of the domestic economical development hence was the highlight of the social economy of the Yuan Dynasty. Thanks to this, the Yuan Dynasty in that period was regarded as one of the richest countries in the world.

RELIGION

Due to encouragement from the Mongolian rulers, the religious culture of the Yuan Dynasty received an all-round development. The Mongolians' own religion, Buddhism as well as the traditional Chinese religion of Taoism simultaneously acquired their positions in the Yuan society.

There were two original religions that belonged to the Mongolian Minority, respectively called Shamanism and Totemism. The followers of Shamanism believed in the existence of Jinn. Early in the period of the Mongolian tribes, Shamans were allowed to take part in the discussion of crucial issues, such as electing leaders and affairs of war and peace. Also, the practice of Totemism had a great psychological influence upon the Mongolian people. There were two principal totems - 'wolf totem' and 'deer totem' worshiped by the Mongolians. In the Mongolians' heart, wolf was their grandfather while deer was their grandmother. Genghis Khan always ordered that wolves and deer should be freed if caught during hunting.

Since the Mongolian people were keen academics, they were pleased to integrate religions from other ethnic minorities. That is why Tibetan Buddhism became the dominant religion of the Yuan Dynasty. Ever since Tibetan Buddhism came to the Mongol area, it was greatly advocated by generations of Khans. During the reign of Emperor Chengzong of Yuan, a great many Buddhist sutras were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian, which further contributed to the development of Tibetan Buddhism in the Yuan Dynasty. Meanwhile, the traditional Chinese religion of Taoism was also free to develop in a impartial atmosphere. As a branch of Taoism, the Quan Zhen religion was established in 1167 and was well developed under the favorable policy carried out by Yuan rulers. Emperor Taizu Genghis Khan authorized the master of Quan Zhen religion to govern the national Taoist groups.

CULTURE

We have to say that the scientific advancement was the highlight of the cultural development in this period. It is said that achievements in science and technology reached their peak during this period. In particular, advancements made in astronomy, mathematics and medicine were the forefront among the world. However, almost all these achievements were gained with the help of foreign experts.

As for astronomy, many astronomy books from foreign countries were introduced and translated during the reign of Kublai Khan. Later, a special astronomical observatory called 'Sitiantai' was constructed and a group of astronomers from Arabia and Persia were appointed to administrate the observatory. Among them a Persian named Zhama Lading made great contributions to Astronomical observations and the establishment of a calendar. Meanwhile, a Chinese astronomer (who was also a water scientist and mathematician) invented many Astronomical Instruments and also helped to establish a precise new calendar called 'Shoushili'.

In mathematics, the Arabic numbers were introduced to China during this dynasty, a golden period of China's mathematical development. At that time,

Muslims coming to China brought a great amount of mathematical knowledge with them. Chinese mathematicians made many important discoveries during this period of enlightenment. Simultaneously, due to the medical communications between China and those Arabian countries, traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacy made great leaps forward in this dynasty. Many kinds of Arabic pharmacies were first introduced to China and gradually became widely used. Formal hospitals were also set up by some Muslims. Additionally, a comprehensive medical book containing both Chinese and western medical treatment, called HuiHui Prescription, was edited by the Hui people.

Nevertheless, the achievements in literature and art of this dynasty were no less than the previous dynasties. A new kind of literature form called Yuan drama was rather prosperous during that period. Together with the Tang poem and 'ci' poem in the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), this drama was one of the outstanding Chinese literary heritages. A large number of influential works successively came out. The most famous being, the Wang Shifu's Romance of the Western Chamber, Guan Hanqing's Dou E Yuanand many verses by Ma Zhiyuan. Also, novels from this dynasty had a great influence upon those of the Ming (1368 - 1644) and Qing (1644 - 1911) dynasties. With regard to art, the main contribution was in music - musical instruments of the Hui people, including Urheen, Huobusi and Sheng, were vigorously promoted. The Urheen and Sanxian (a three-stringed plucked instrument) have been widely used in Chinese opera music until the present day, becoming official members of China's national musical instrument collection.

DECLINE AND FALL

Generally, there were two major factors that led to its decline: one was the class conflict caused by the heavy taxation, the other one was the ethnic contradiction resulting from the 'Four Class System'.

The Yuan court actually first began to decline during the reign of Emperor Renzong, when peasant uprisings emerged in southern China. However, despite the warning of the uprisings, corruption of the Yuan court officials continued. Also, power struggles within the ruling class became more and more serious. For instance in the short period from the beginning of Emperor Wuzong's reign in 1308 to the start of Emperor Huizong's reign in 1333, there were eight emperors. During this period, the corruption became severe as subordinate officials were commonly appointed on the basis of bribery rather than merit; the land was gradually concentrated in the hands of Mongolian aristocrats and a select group of powerful Han landlords; a fiscal crisis in the Yuan court also broke out due to the luxurious lifestyles of the ruling class. Even worse, the Mongolian army became corrupt and gradually disintegrated.

During the reign of the last emperor, the real power of the Yuan regime fell into the hands of Cheng Xiang (prime minister) named Bo Yan, who was born of a Mongolian noble family. He was rather hostile to the Han people and introduced a series of policies unfavorable to the Han. This magnified the seriousness of the ethic contradiction. Misfortunes never come singly. The Yellow River burst its banks three times in the late Yuan Dynasty. As a result, serious natural disasters broke out and the masses were forced to live in dire poverty. Under such circumstances, groups of farmers left the land and successively launched armed uprisings. Although many

peasants' uprisings were successfully suppressed by the Yuan army, the corrupt regime of the Yuan Dynasty was constantly impacted by this surging wave and teetered on the verge of collapse.

The Yuan Dynasty was eventually destroyed by the peasants' uprising. In 1351, the 'Hongjinjun (army with red head-scarves) Uprising', led by a man named Liu Futong, broke out in Yingzhou (in current Anhui Province). Fierce battles took place progressively between the Hongjinjun military force and the Yuan army.

Simultaneously, a group of the Hongjinjun military forces led by a man named Zhu Yuanzhang won a series of victories in battle, and his military forces gradually became stronger. In the management of military affairs, Zhu Yuanzhang set strict military discipline and was good at delegating duties to different human resources. Soon after, in 1356, his military forces captured Jiankang (currently Nanjing which later became their military base. With increasing military strength and more talented people joining him, Zhu's army succeeded in defeating the separatist military forces in the northern areas of China. In 1367, Zhu Yuanzhang officially launched a deadly attack on the Yuan regime which was riddled with corruption and intrigue. Within a year, Zhu's army captured Dadu (currently Beijing), the capital of Yuan. Soon after, a new dynasty - the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) displaced the Yuan Dynasty.

Significance of Yuan Dynasty

The most significant achievement of the Yuan Dynasty was the unification of the whole territory. Prior to this China had been, for more than 300 years, a country of separate states.  From the Fanzhen Separatist Regions in the later period of the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) to the isolated states in the Five Dynasties and Ten States period (907 - 960): from the confrontation of the Northern Song (960 - 1127) and Liao (916 - 1125) to the rivalry between the Southern Song (1127 - 1279) and the Jin Dynasty (1115 - 1234), China's history has been characterized by conflict.

This situation changed with Kublai Khan's accession to the throne, when he defeated all the separatist military forces and unified them under a mighty centralized power system. Meanwhile, a close connection between the central court, the regional administrations and the border areas was set up. Thus a unified state was well consolidated by the later dynasties. Especially, the 'Xingsheng' administrative system, established by Yuan rulers to enhance the ruling of the centralized power, had profound influence on later rulers.  Even today the Chinese government still uses 'Sheng' (province) as the title of local administrative units.

Naturally, the unification of the territory enhanced the communication between different ethnic minorities, thus strengthening the national integration process. After the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, many ethnic minorities migrated to the central plain. They brought their techniques of production as well as their unique culture and art, which enriched the economic and social life of people living in the central plains. Meanwhile, a number of Han people flowed to the residential areas of the ethnic minorities. Taking the advanced agricultural and handicraft techniques with them, these Han people contributed a lot to the exploitation of the frontiers.

Another significance of the Yuan Dynasty was the outstanding achievements in the natural sciences and technology. Due to the open policy implemented by the Yuan rulers, a great many advanced science and technology innovations were introduced to China. One example of these achievements is the unprecedented progress in the fields of astronomy and mathematics, made possible by the refined knowledge gained from foreign experts.

On the other hand, the unified territory objectively promoted the development of geography, water conservation and agriculture. In a word, the technological developments of the Yuan Dynasty surpassed any other dynasties in Chinese history.

Last but not least, the much more frequent communication with foreign countries during the Yuan Dynasty was of influential significance. Because of the external expansion of the early period of the Mongolian Empire, many foreign countries from continental Europe, Asia and Africa started to turn their eyes upon this piece of oriental land. Through the comings and goings of envoys, merchants and travelers between China and many foreign countries, the western world developed a deeper understanding of the splendid Chinese civilization.

EMPERORS

Order Name NotesPeriod of

Reign

1Taizu(Borjigin Temujin)

Also known as Genghis Khan the great military leader; Temujin founded the great Mongolian Empire, with his territory stretching across the entire Eurasian Continent.

1206 - 1227

2Ruizong(Borjigin Tolui)

The fourth son of Temujin, he governed the empire for two years after Temujin died1227 - 1229

3Taizong(Borjigin Ögedei)

The third son of Temujin; during his reign, he formed an alliance with the Southern Song to fight against Jin (1115 - 1234).

1229 - 1241

4Empress Zhaoci(Töregene Khâtûn)

After the death of Taizong, a grandson of Temujin was due to succeed the throne, but the empress Zhaoci usurped the throne.

1241 - 1246

5Dingzong(Borjigin Güyük)

The eldest son of Taizong1246 - 1248

6Empress Qinshu(Oghul Ghaymish)

Empress of Dingzong; she ruled for three years after the death of Dingzong .1248 - 1251

7Xianzong(Borjigin Möngke)

During his reign, the Yuan army began to fight against the Southern Song (1127 - 1279). In 1259, he died while on march.

1251 - 1259

Yuan Emperors

8Yuan Shizu(Borjigin Kublai)

Grandson of Genghis Khan, and founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He moved the capital to Beijing and settled there. In 1279, he defeated the Southern Song (960 - 1279).

1260 - 1294

9Yuan Chengzong (Borjigin Temür)

Grandson of Kublai Khan; a conventional emperor1295 - 1307

10Yuan Wuzong(Borjigin Qayshan)

Nephew of Chengzong1308 - 1311

11Yuan Renzong(Borjigin Ayurparibhadra)

Younger brother of Wuzong; he ascended the throne after Wuzong died1312 - 1320

12Yuan Yingzong(Borjigin Suddhipala)

Son of Renzong; he was killed by political enemies in a coup.1321 - 1323

13Taiding Di(Borjigin Yesün-Temür)

Grandson of Kublai Khan; an unremarkable emperor1324 - 1328

14Tianshun Di(Borjigin Arigaba)

The youngest son of Taiding Di; he was placed on the throne following a coup, but ruled for only a month.

1328

15Yuan Wenzong(Borjigin Toq-Temür)

The second son of Wuzong; he died of illness in 1332.1328 - 1332

16Yuan Mingzong(Borjigin Qoshila)

The eldest son of Wuzhong; He was poisoned by Wenzong and reigned for only eight months.

1329

17Yuan Ningzong(Borjigin Irinchibal)

The second son of Mingzong; after ruling for less than two months, he died of illness.

1332

18Yuan Huizong(Borjigin Toghan-Temür)

The eldest son of Mingzong; during his reign, the Hongjinjun Uprising broke out and subsequently the capital was captured by Zhu Yuanzhang.

1333 - 1368

Interesting Facts about the Yuan Dynasty

The word "yuan" means "origin of the universe." The social classes were dictated by the order that people groups were

conquered by the Mongols. The Southern Song Chinese were the last to be conquered, so they were at the bottom.

The Yuan introduced paper money throughout all of China. The money later experienced high inflation.

Today, the "yuan" is the basic unit of money in China. The capital city was Dadu. Today, the city is called Beijing and is the current

capital city of China. Kublai also had a "summer" capital city in Mongolia called Shangdu. It is

sometimes called Xanadu.

MING DYNASTY

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history," was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun dynasty, soon replaced by theManchu-led Qing dynasty), regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1662.

The Hongwu Emperor (ruled 1368–98) attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty:  the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and thenavy's dockyards in Nanjing were the largest in the world. He also took great care breaking the power of the court eunuchs and unrelated magnates, enfeoffing his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the Huang Ming Zu Xun, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed spectacularly when his teenage successor, the Jianwen Emperor, attempted to curtail his uncles' power, prompting theJingnan Campaign, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the Yongle Emperor in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing, constructed theForbidden City, and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of theimperial examinations in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucianscholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa.

The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the Great Wall of China into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples. Haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from "Japanese" pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves.

By the 16th century, however, the expansion of European trade – albeit restricted to islands near Guangzhou like Macau – spread the Columbian Exchange of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing chili peppersto Sichuan cuisine and highly productive corn and potatoes, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth ofPortuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of Japanese and American silver. This abundance of specie allowed the Ming to finally avoid using paper money, which had sparked hyperinflation during the 1450s. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the heterodoxy introduced by Wang Yangming permitted a more accommodating attitude. Zhang

Juzheng's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age was met with Japanese and Spanish policies that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty was considered to have lost the Mandate of Heaven and collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng and a Manchurian invasion.

HISTORY

During the final 40 years of the Yuan Dynasty era (1279–1368), there were famines, drought, flooding on the Yellow River, a bubonic plague pandemic, and other natural disasters. Perhaps tens of millions of people died, and these disasters were seen as signs that the Yuan Dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven.This ancient political doctrine encouraged people to rebel. Starting in the 1350s, there were almost 20 years of rebellions. The Yuan troops tried to quell the rebellions, but they grew in size, and rebel armies started holding cities and large tracts of territory.

These armies became large and powerful. A powerful army south of the Yangtze River was led by Zhu Yuanzhang a local young man from a peasant family joined the army. After that, Zhu served with distinction in the battles. He was then chosen as general by a rebelling warlord named Guo Ziyi.  After the death of the rebelling warlord, Zhu took control and continued forth to realize his plan to take control over all of China. In 1356, Zhu led his army into the city of Jiqing (currently Nanjing in Jiangsu Province), changed the city name into Yingtian and established his own military base there. Through several years' efforts, both the military and economical strength of Zhu's army quickly became stronger. From 1360 to 1367, his army managed to eliminate the remaining separatist military forces.

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang officially proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtian and founded the Ming Dynasty.

In the same year, the Ming army captured Dadu (currently Beijing), the capital city of Yuan, and rid China of most of the remaining Mongols, ultimately ending Yuan.

GOVERNMENT

The government was run by an organization called the civil service. In order to get a job with the civil service, applicants had to take difficult exams. The men with the highest scores would get the best jobs. Some men would study for years to try and pass the exams and earn one of these prestigious positions. The exams often covered a number of subjects, but a significant portion of the testing was on the teachings of Confucius. 

The central government of the Ming dynasty  明 (1368-1644) was also structured in this pattern: the Grand Secretariat (neige 內閣 ), successor of the Imperial Secretariat (zhongshusheng 中 書 省 ) was assisting the emperor and coordinated by means of the Department of State Affairs (shangshusheng 尚書省 ) the work of the Six Ministries (liubu 六部 ) for Personnel (libu 吏部 ), Revenue

(hubu 戶部), Rites (libu 禮部), War (bingbu 兵部), Justice (xingbu 刑部), and Public Works (gongbu 工部). The Censorate (duchayuan 都察院; before called yushitai 御史台) surveyed and assessed the work of imperial officials was also an old institution with a new name. The nominal heads of government were the Three Dukes (sangong 三公: the Grand Mentor taifu 太傅, the Grand Preceptor taishi  太師 and the Grand Guardian taibao 太保), but these posts were often vacant. This is also true for the traditional Three Minor Solitaries (sangu 三孤).

ECONOMY

Economically, the Ming Dynasty was a period during which the feudal society began to show the declining trend while the capitalism started to originate. In agriculture, both the food output and the implements of production surpassed that of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. From the early period, the handicraft industry in the southern areas developed rapidly. Especially, the porcelain making industry reached an unprecedented level. Since the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang, it had been a major source of the state finance. The currently famous Jindezhen kiln was once the imperial kiln in that period.

The development of the handicraft industry promoted market economy and urbanization. During the reign of Emperor Shizong and Emperor Shenzong, a great amount of commodities including silk, alcohol, porcelain, tobacco, crops, vegetable and fruits was sold in the market. Meanwhile, many foreign commodities such as clocks from Europe and tobacco from America were on sale in many cities of China. Also, a series of commercial metropolises including Beijing, Nanjing, Yangzhou, Suzhou, Guangzhou, Xian and Chengdu were successively formed. However, the later policy of restraining commerce and the stringent ban on shipping greatly hampered commercial development.

RELIGION

The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of Chinese folk religion and the Three Teachings – Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The Yuan-supported Tibetan lamas fell from favor and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices. The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning Zhu Quan even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult" deleterious to the state and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the Taoist canon.]

Islam was also well-established throughout China, with a history said to have begun withSa'd ibn Abi Waqqas during the Tang dynasty and strong official support during the Yuan. Although the Ming sharply curtailed this support, there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on, including the Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun, Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, and Mu Ying and the Yongle Emperor's powerful eunuch Zheng He.

The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity: in his first year, the Hongwu Emperor declared the eighty-year-old Franciscan missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal. The centuries-old Nestorian church also disappeared.

The later Ming saw a new wave of Christian – particularly Jesuit – missionaries arrive, who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at St. Paul's College on Macau after its founding in 1579. The most influential was Matteo Ricci, whose "Map of the Myriad Countries of the World" upendedtraditional geography throughout East Asia and whose work with the convert Xu Guangqi led to the first Chinese translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607. The discovery of a Nestorian stele at Xi'an in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith, rather than a new and dangerous cult. However, there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the emperor, Confucius, or their ancestors: Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the Nanjing Incident of 1616, which exiled four Jesuits to Macau and forced the others out of public life for six years. A series of spectacular failures by theChinese astronomers – including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and Sabatino de Ursis – and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold restored their fortunes. However, by the end of the Ming the Dominicans had begun the Chinese Rites controversy in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the Qing dynasty.

During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000 Kaifeng Jews and introduced them and their long history in China to Europe. However, the 1642 flood caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.

CULTURE

Art flourished during the Ming Dynasty. This included literature, painting, music, poetry, and porcelain. Ming vases made of blue and white porcelain were prized at the time throughout the world. They are still considered quite valuable. 

Three of the four great classical masterpieces of Chinese literature - Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms were written in during this period. Besides, another two well-known novels - Peony Pavilion and The Plum in the Golden Vase were also excellent works in that period. Meanwhile, folk literature prospered, represented by a group of writers such as Tang Yin, Song Lian, Zhang Dai, Wu Weiye and Yuan Hongdao. In philosophy, Wang Yangming's new thoughts called 'philosophy of the mind' formed a new thinking wave which helped shape a new social trend.

Before the 16th century, the scientific development of the Ming Dynasty had been in the forefront of the world.Many scientific books appeared in the early and middle period, namely, medical book Compendium of Materia Medica by Li Shizhen, Song Yingxing's Heavenly Creations about handicraft industry, Xu Guangqi'sComplete Treatise on Agriculture and Xu Xiake's Travels of Xu Xiake. All these have been the precious documents for today's study of the ancient technology. Additionally, the military technology was relatively advanced in that period. A kind of gun called 'huochong gun' and powerful artillery were invented in the late period. It is said that a man named Wan Hoo even tried to fly to the sky by sitting in a chair

propelled by gunpowder sticks. Unfortunately, he failed and became the first sacrifice in human conquest of the sky.

In the end, the greatest achievements accomplished during this time were on architecture.  The Forbidden City in Beijing was crafted this time. Porcelain making was also relevant during this time, which contributed to arts of present day.

DECLINE AND FALL

The turning point from prosperity to decline was the reign of Emperor Shenzong. In the early period, under the wise assistance of a skillful chancellor, Zhang Juzheng, Emperor Shenzong made much improvement in the national economy, agriculture, water conservancy and military affairs. However, after the death of Zhang Juzheng, the emperor began to neglect state affairs. In his late reign, the Ming army was defeated by the leader of the so-called 'Latter Jin' regime - Nurhachu in the Battle of Sarhu. Since then, the Ming court fell into a passive state in confrontation with the 'Latter Jin' set up by Nuzhen ethnic minority.

The end of this dynasty started from the last emperor, Emperor Weizong's reign - the reign went by the name Chongzhen. The crisis was caused by the corruption of the court officials and the domination of the eunuchs. In that period, both the exploitation from the ruling class and natural disasters in successive years caused the people to live in extreme hardship.  In 1628, dozens of rebel military forces launched battles in the northern area of Shaaxi Province. Among them, one of the leaders of the rebel army was named Li Zicheng, and he was deeply trusted and supported by most peasants. In 1644, Li Zicheng captured Xian and founded a new regime called Dashun. In the same year, Emperor Weizong hanged himself in Jingshan Hill of Beijing, signifying the end of this dynasty.

EMPERORS

Order Name NotesReign Time

(years)

1

Ming Taizu / Emperor Hongwu(Zhu Yuanzhang)

Founder of the Ming Dynasty; once entered a monastery and later a leader of the peasant's uprising army. In 1368, he proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtian (today's Nanjing).

1368 - 1398

2Ming Huizong(Zhu Yunwen)

Grandson of Zhu Yuanzhang; Originally, his father Zhu Biao was designated as the heir. He came to the throne because of Zhu Biao's early death.

1399 - 1402

3Ming Chengzu(Zhu Di)

The fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang; He usurped the throne by from the hands of Zhu Yunwen. His reign was said to be the most prosperous period of the Ming Dynasty.

1403 - 1424

4Ming Renzong(Zhu Gaochi )

The eldest son of Zhu Di; His reign was short because of his early death. But he was remembered as an innovative emperor.

1425

5Ming Xuanzong(Zhu Zhanji)

Son of Emperor Renzong; ruled for ten years and died of illness1426 - 1435

6 Ming Yingzong(Zhu Qizhen)

Son of Emperor Xuanzong; He ascended the throne at eight and was later imprisoned by Mongols. After being house arrested for seven years, his launched a coup and regained his second reign.

1436 - 1449,1457 -

1464

7Ming Daizong(Zhu Qiyu)

Younger brother of Yingzong; He was put on the throne after his brother was captured by Mongols.

1450 - 1457

8Ming Xianzong(Zhu Jianshen)

Son of Emperor Yingzong; He ascended the throne at 17 and was once infatuated with a consort who was 19 years old than he was.

1465 - 1487

9Ming Xiaozong(Zhu Youtang)

Son of Emperor Xianzong; He was the sole perpetually monogamous emperor in the whole of Chinese history.

1488 - 1505

10Ming Wuzong(Zhu Houzhao)

The eldest son of Emperor Xiaozong; He was irresponsible and indulged himself in playing with women.

1506 - 1521

11Ming Shizong(Zhu Houcong)

Cousin of Emperor Wuzong and nephew of Emperor Xiaozong; He was also infatuated with women as well as Taoist alchemical pursuits.

1522 - 1566

12Ming Muzong(Zhu Zaihou)

Son of Emperor Shizong; He was considered as an open-minded emperor since he used to adopt a series of positive policies the reverse the declining situation.

1567 - 1572

13Ming Shenzong(Zhu Yijun)

Son of Emperor Muzong; His reign was the longest one among the Ming emperors. He also received Matteo Ricci the first christian missionary.

1573 - 1620

14Ming Guangzong(Zhu Changluo)

The eldest son of Shenzong; His reign was less than a half year due to his mysterious death which was probably caused by the so-called red pills.

1620

15Ming Xizong(Zhu Youxiao)

The eldest son of Guangzong; He came to the throne at 15 and his reign was controlled by a treacherous court official named Wei Zhongxian.

1621 - 1627

16Ming Weizong(Zhu Youjian)

Son of Guangzong and younger brother of Xizong; He reign was thought to hasten the end of the Ming Dynasty. In 1644, he committed suicide in Jingshan Park after Li Zicheng captured Beijing.

1628 - 1644

Fun facts about the Ming Dynasty

The Forbidden City took 15 years and over 1 million workers to complete. Folding fans became very popular. They were brought over from Japan and

Korea. Portuguese traders first arrived in China in 1517. People could only enter the Forbidden City if they had permission from the

Emperor. Yingzong became emperor when he was just 8 years old. He was later

captured by the Mongols. When he was released he found his brother was emperor. He would later regain his rule.

When Emperor Hongwu became worried about losing his thrown, he established a secret police called the Jinyi Wei to spy on people.

REFERENCES:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty /Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/yuan/Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

http://www.ducksters.com/history/china/yuan_dynasty.php/ Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty/ Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/ming.htm/ Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

http://www.ducksters.com/history/china/ming_dynasty.php/ Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016

http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html/ Date Retrieved: January 5, 2016