ynthesis - karnatakaparisaramahiti.kar.nic.in/soer karnataka 2003.pdf3 synthesis our natural capital...

1

SYNTHESIS

SYNTHESIS

A person is either the effect of his environment or is able tohave an effect upon his environment

-Anonymous

2

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT - 2003

Framework of the reportMethodologyOverview of Karnataka’s environmental status

Blue AgendaBrown AgendaGreen AgendaPurple Agenda

Economic and legal instrumentsPolluter pays principleInstitutional setup and Environment managementPrioritisation Matrix

Resource-activity impact matrixResource-region impact matrix

Action plan and Environmental indicatorsCommon StrategiesConclusion

SYNTHESIS

3

SYNTHESIS

Our natural capital in air, water, land, bio-diversity and eco-system is continually being encroached upon and there isan urgent need to protect our heritage and traditions thatare under threat. As our knowledge of the environment’sown threshold to recover from damage has increased,there has emerged an awareness of the irreversibility ofhuman actions and the urgency to maintain the symbioticrelation with nature. Managing the activities of the peoplein a way that conserves the habitats and resources and atthe same time promotes development is extremelycomplex and difficult. To ensure sustainability, there is aneed to integrate the environmental concerns with theeconomic, social, and developmental concerns.

To address the issue of sustainable development there isan utmost urgency to assess the present environmentalscenario, trends of environmental pressures and toevaluate the mitigation measures so as to minimize theimpacts. The State of the Environment Report providesto the utmost extent, information on the environmentaltrends and changes and their significance for effective,efficient environmental planning and management. Whilethe Department of Ecology and Environment, Governmentof Karnataka did prepare State of the Environment Reportsin the past, the present State of the Environment Report isa more comprehensive attempt to provide an independentassessment of the State of Karnataka’s environment inthe year 2002-2003. The objective of the present State ofthe Environment Report and Action Plan is to identify andprioritise environmental issues and to correlate with thepotential threats arising due to environmental degradation.It provides recommendations and action plans at the legal,institutional, regulational, financial and implementationlevels not just in isolation but tries and links them with theongoing and/or proposed strategies of the respective

concerned departments/institutions. The Report alsoprovides directions to enhance capacity of institutions sothat environmental priorities can be set and to developand implement necessary policy and mitigation measures.

Framework of the Report

The Report documents the present status of sectoral areascomprising both natural resources as well as the relatedactivities and their impact on natural resources. Sectorslike biodiversity, air quality, water resources, forests,coastal zone management deal with the status ofenvironment and the effect of human interventions onthem; while sectors like industrial pollution, transportation,mining and quarrying, energy, wastes, water supply andsanitation, urban planning deal with the activities and theireffect on environment.

The sector pertaining to health has drawn from the findingsof the other sectoral studies and is treated separately ashealth problems arise due to synergistic effects of severalactivities. It is important to clarify here that water has beendivided into two sectors – one dealing with water resourcesand another with consumption activities of people andproblems of sanitation as water is an important resourceand its usage is a major activity. All the sectoral studiesfollowed a uniform framework in their study of the subject,based upon the terms of reference. The sectoral studieshave reviewed the current environmental situation in theState as relevant to the sector, analysed the pressuresand underlying causes, impacts, legislations as pertainingto the sector and have suggested a set ofrecommendations and action plans along with a frameworkof economic social, legal instruments where relevant.

Blue agenda represents water resources, rural and urban water supply and sanitation and coastal zonemanagement.

Brown agenda represents the sectors whose activities cause environmental degradation, industrial pollution,air quality and indoor pollution, waste management, mining and quarrying, land degradation and transport.

Green agenda represents the forest and biodiversity sectors.

Purple agenda represents urban planning, energy and health sectors which are impacted by the abovementioned sectors

4


Methodology

The process of selecting the sectors for the State of theEnvironment Report study as well as the process ofidentifying experts / consultants for the study was a highlyparticipative and interactive process. The Secretaries togovernment, heads of departments were involved fromthe inception stage of identifying sectors and preparingoverall terms of reference for the report as well as thespecific terms of reference for the identified sectors.Several consultants were short-listed based upon theirarea of expertise and the presentations made by them toa select group of Government and World Bank officialsand the best were then selected as consultants to theReport. Since primary data was unavailable, it wasdecided to depend on the secondary data to reflect thecurrent status as it is difficult to obtain primary data due totime constraint for the purpose of this State of theEnvironment Report.

While accurate and reliable data is essential, theenvironmental information management lacks the righttype of data to enable systematic and consistent dataanalysis. While data related to the environment is collatedby most departments, the data is either not updatedregularly or it is not available for the entire State or doesnot cover the parameters required for environmentalanalysis. For some aspects of environment for exampledata on water quality and quantity there has been regularmonitoring, since it is easy and inexpensive to obtain thedata, while some aspects like air quality, environmentalimpacts on health, complete data is not available sinceair quality is monitored only in select places and positioningequipments in several areas is expensive. Where dataexists, the methodologies used by different departmentsfor the same parameter are different which hinders thedata correlation.

The value of this state of environment report lies in thefact that disparate data and information have beentransferred into meaningful and relevant material to enabledecision making. Remotely sensed data has considerablepotential for providing time series environmental conditionsfor large areas. Such data maps have been sourced andplaced in the sectors pertaining to forests, land, mining

and water resources. However, despite the potential ofsuch data the availability of large scale change maps islimited. It is recommended that remote sensing be usedas an effective monitoring tool by all institution to recordenvirnmental changes over time.

The development of an environment information system(EIS) would be most appropriate at this stage. Such asystem would bring together integrated monitoring anddatabases, remote sensing and GIS capability and setstandards for the environment information system. Thiswould also facilitate public accses to environmentalinformation and data sharing. Duplication of databasescould also be avoided.

The non-availability or lack of relevant information eitherleads to a delayed response to an urgent problem or theformulation of faulty or costly policies. Availability ofaccurate, credible information on environmental trends willnot only raise awareness and public participation inenvironmental discussions, but also at the same timewould make the departments more accountable.

In spite of the handicap faced in obtaining primary data,with the existing secondary data, the State of EnvironmentReport portrays a realistic assessment of the present stateof the environment in the state, the pressures on theenvironment, underlying causes and impacts andconclude with sectoral strategies and action plan.

Since many sectors overlap, at every stage of the Report,inception, interim report, draft final reports; consultantswould present the outline of their reports in workshopsand based on the feedback make revisions. In addition tothis, three workshops were also held for variousstakeholders at Mangalore, Bellary and Bangalore tovalidate the findings of the Reports. More importantly, atthe draft final report stage, the reports were circulated toall the concerned Secretaries to Government, heads ofdepartments and their feedback obtained. We would liketo place on record the cooperation and interest evincedby all those who responded, participated in the workshopsand provided valuable inputs to the report.

5

SYNTHESIS

Overview of Karnataka’s Current Environmental Status

Blue Agenda

Needless to say, amongst the sectoral studies, water hashad high priority and attracted the most interest. Dirtyrivers / water bodies are a reflection of our way of life,decaying testimony and mirror to the rapid urbanisation,the current agricultural techniques, industrialisation andour sanitation practices. The increasing pollution to thewater bodies constitutes the biggest threat to public health.We simultaneously abuse and worship our rivers.Municipal sewage treatment facilities wherever they existin the State do not remove the presence of heavy metalsbefore discharging the effluents into the rivers. Overextraction of water for irrigation and urban consumptionhas lead to drying up of several water courses.

The demand for water continues to escalate. Seventyfive percent of the cropped area in the State depends onlow and uncertain rainfall. The State receives an averagerainfall of 1138 mm ranging from 569 mm in the easternpart of the State to 4029 mm in the western part of theState. There has been deficit rainfall in most parts of theState since the past three years, emphasizing the need tofocus on activities for harnessing rain water and rechargeof ground water.

Seven river basins drain the State with the Krishna andthe Cauvery being the main river basins. While there isover utilisation of water in irrigated areas leading toenvironmental pressures, there is also under-utilisationof water in several other potential areas due to incompleteirrigation projects. About eighty percent of the west boundriver water is not fully utilised and is allowed to drain intothe sea.

Inequalities and inefficiencies in the distribution systemleads to water supply falling short of the demand in bothurban and rural areas for all sectors. Sixty four percentof the rural habitations and forty seven percent in the urbanareas receive less than the State stipulated water supplynorm of 55 and 135 litres per capita per day for rural andurban areas, respectively.

Discharge of industrial organic pollutants, municipaleffluents and sewage into the water bodies, leaching ofpesticides and fertilizer into ground water, crop violations,and ineffective watershed management especially in theupstream of command areas have degraded the waterresources of the State. As a result, the problems of waterlogging, salinity and siltation occur especially in thecommand areas, affecting the quality of ground water andcausing health related water-borne diseases. Pollutingsubstances include organic matter, metals, minerals,sediments, leachate, and toxic chemicals. The waterquality and pollution is generally measured in terms of theconcentration or load of any of the pollutant materials orsubstances in the water as mentioned above based onprescribed standards which vary depending on the sourceof sampling of the water and the purpose.

Fourteen districts of the State have more than theadmissible limits of 1.5 microgram per milli litre of fluoride,affecting 10 to 67 percent of the habitations of thesedistricts. Also, 13 districts are affected by brackishness,there is excess nitrate in 8 districts and excess iron in 12districts. These problems related to water quality are notmutually exclusive and overall affect 37 percent of thehabitations in the State. The study of ground water in thevicinity of major industrial areas of Attibele, Jigani, Bidadi,Devanahalli, Nanjangud, Machenhalli revealed that theground water exceeded the permissible limits for totaldissolved solids.

By 2001, only 15% of the rural areas in the State werecovered with some form of sanitation system. Suchinadequate coverage leads to open air defecation resultingin contamination of soil and water. There is also a problemof mis-utilisation of the constructed toilets. In the urbanareas also, only 36 of the 226 local bodies, excludingBangalore, have been connected with undergrounddrainage system. Slums with inadequate or non-existentsanitation facilities are further cause of environmentaldegradation.

The Government programmes of Swachcha GramaYojana, Nirmala Grama Yojana and Swajaladhara focuson participatory management. There is need to haveincreased greater sanitation coverage in the rural areas.

6


Projects in 8 towns of the State under the National RiverConservation Project are aimed at interception anddiversion of the municipal sewage from entering into therivers. It is true that considerable progress has been madein this direction under the programmes mentioned above,still many households in the rural area do not have toiletsand most villages lack drainage and sanitary facilities, thuscausing serious health problems and contamination ofwater. There is urgent need to provide adequate and safedrinking water in the rural areas. Provision of adequatewater supply and sanitation facilities are the responsibilitiesof the local village panchayats but, however, this focus isgenerally on drinking water supply and sanitation isneglected.

At present, there is no facility to test the quality of water inthe villages. The Rural Development and Panchayat RajDepartment should consider this as a priority and providewater testing facilities in a group of villages or at placesclose to the villages. The possibilities of tie up with nearbyengineering colleges may also have to be explored. Theself-help groups, particularly women self-help groupsshould be motivated to take up management of villagesanitation and community toilets.

Karnataka has an indented shoreline of 320 kilometerscharacterized by lagoons, bays, creeks, spits, sand dunesand long beaches. The coastal and marine ecosystemsare also under some degree of threat due to occupationalpressures, salinity intrusion, siltation, water pollution andunsustainable marine fishery activities. Selective scoopingby trawl nets has exerted pressure on the benthicorganisms.

Mining of sand near estuaries, removal of clay from riverbanks has accelerated top soil removal which is resultingin water logging. The Coastal Zone RegulationNotification, 1991, under the Environment (Protection) Act,has helped in regulating activities detrimental to the coastalenvironment. The present work of mapping the coastaland riverine stretches in the cadastral maps and alsoinstalling pillars along the coast to physically benchmarkthe High Tide Line would help the local administration inthe three coastal districts to regulate activities in the coastalareas.

Brown Agenda

Development, population pressures have had theirresultant effect on quality of the natural resources land,air and water. Karnataka has the dubious distinction ofhaving over 80 percent of the land under rain fedcultivation, next only to Rajasthan. The consecutivedrought in most parts of the state over the past three yearshas only compounded the problems. Almost 40.3 percentof the total geographical area of the state is affected bysoil degradation caused due to subsistence farmingpractices, accelerated soil and water erosion, erraticrainfall and high density of livestock population. Thewatershed project has so far brought in 32 lakh hectaresunder integrated land management practices, but still morethan 75% is yet to be covered.

One of the main environmental problems is the use ofchemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides contaminatingthe soil and water. In Karnataka, though the average useof fertilizers (10-11 kg per hectare) is lower than thenational average of 16 kg per hectare, there is anincreasing trend in the use of fertilizers from 8.27MT in1996-97 to 12.94 MT in 2000-01. Maximum fertilizersconsumption occurs in paddy and sugarcane growingdistricts of Belgaum, Bellary, Raichur, Mandya andDavanagere. Use of pesticides, especially insecticidesfor the crop of cotton, red gram and vegetables while lowerthan the national average is still a cause for concern. Thepesticides, which are not easily biodegradable enter theaquatic fauna herbivores and human body through foodand water and accumulates in the human body over aperiod of time. This bioaccumulation in the body is aserious health hazard. While specific information on thisis still very scanty, yet isolated studies have revealed thepresence of pesticides beyond permissible limits especiallyin vegetables. Fortunately, the ban on DDT and BHC andincreased adoption of integrated pest managementpractices have curtailed the use of some very harmfulpesticides. However, the risk of pesticide leachate andits effect on human health remains.

Improper disposal of municipal, biomedical and industrialand hazardous waste has reduced in the past few years.Private facilities of the disposal of biomedical waste are

7

SYNTHESIS

now operational in Bangalore, Mysore, Dharwad andBelgaum and two other facilities are under construction inGulbarga and Mangalore. Of the 227 Urban local bodies,215 local bodies are now moving towards compliance ofthe Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling)Rules 2000, by applying to the KSPCB for authorizationto scientifically dispose their waste. However, there is laxityin enforcement. Resource crunch of the urban local bodies,inadequate disposal facilities, problems of mixed waste,illegal disposal of waste impact health.

The accelerated growth of industrial service and transportsectors and mining activities has also led to problem ofwater management, air pollution and land degradation.Improper disposal of industrial effluent and other solidwastes is another cause of concern. 14292 industries ofall categories are under the consent regime of the KSPCB.140 industries including sugar, bulk drugs andpharmaceuticals, distilleries, pulp and paper, cement andthermal plants fall into the category of highly pollutingindustries. While some of the large industries have theirown effluent treatment plants, most of the smallerindustries even though situated within industrial estateslet out their effluents after primary treatment in to thenearby sewer lines or in water bodies

Mining and quarrying activities have led to landdegradation and affected biodiversity especially thedistricts of Chickmagalur, Bellary and Gulbarga. Slurryfrom mines, effluents with toxic chemicals and dischargeof leachate from mine waste, surface runoff fromoverburden dumps during the rains are causing moderateto severe extents of water pollution in the areassurrounding the mines. Closed or abandoned mines arealso environment hazards mainly due to surface runoff.The closed gold mines in Kolar district are also a cause ofconcern due to the waste dumps and the possible leachingthat may occur. Quarrying for minor minerals, especiallysand, has affected the fragile riverine ecosystems of thecoastal areas. Quarrying for building materials and granitein the districts of Chamarajanagara, Tumkur, Mysore, andBangalore has also resulted in land degradation anddepletion of ground water. Open cast mining also causessubstantial noise pollution.

Urban air quality has been showing a gradual decline andin the rural areas indoor air pollution is a cause of majorconcern. Suspended particulate matter is very high in thecommercial areas of Bangalore as well as in the Hassanand Davanagere.

Most of the locations monitored in Bangalore registeredcarbon monoxide levels higher than the standardsstipulated. On both the monitoring occasions, oxides ofnitrogen were found to exceed the standards atcommercial locations, while for sensitive location the levelsexceeded more than 5 times the standard. Other MunicipalCorporation areas such as Mysore, Gulbarga andMangalore have moderately high levels of suspendedparticulate matters.

The major source of high suspended particulate matterlevels is from combustion of fossil fuels. In most of thelocations monitored for air quality sulphur dioxide has beenbelow the norms except in the Baikampady area ofMangalore where it is recorded as moderately high. Thesmall size particles of respirable particulate matter areeasily inhaleable and are a result of fuel combustion andre-suspension of road dust.

Other emissions causing concern are carbon monoxide,particulate lead, hydrocarbons and other organiccarcinogens. The introduction of unleaded petrol, lowsulphor diesel and LPG for the bi-fuel mode vehicles islikely to bring down these levels in the near future. Themost important factor causing indoor air pollution is indoorheating and burning of solid fuel during cooking. 97% ofrural and 73% of urban households use biomass fuels.Other causes of indoor air pollution include tobaccosmokers and dust mites which lead to many health effectsincluding discomfort, irritation, chronic pathologies, andvarious cancers. However, air quality monitoring leavesmuch to be desired in terms of number of pollutants beingmonitored, selection of monitoring sites and low densityof monitoring stations.

The environmental problems associated with the transportsector can be attributed to significant growth in vehiculartraffic, the composition of vehicles, nature of roads androad network, quality of fuel used and inadequate

8


monitoring. Air pollution and noise pollution occurs wherethe density of vehicles is high, especially in Bangalore,moderate in other major urban centres like Hubli-Dharwad,Mysore, Belgaum, Mangalore and Gulbarga, and minimalin other urban centres. Most buses, auto rickshaws, andmotorcycles grossly exceeded the noise level, and onBangalore’s Mahatma Gandhi Road, the levels were asmuch at 82.5 dB. Roads passing through protectedforestlands and other ecologically fragile areas, such asthe Western Ghats, have longer-term impacts on the localecosystem, particularly because they fragmentecosystems, despoil wetlands, and interfere with animalmovement corridors. Port activity leads to pollution ofwater as well as soil/beaches due to oil spillages andwashouts of containers.

Green Agenda

Karnataka’s forests unique in their formation and diversity,are not only a source of livelihood to many people, butalso act as “carbon sinks”. Forest cover is computed as19.3% of the geographical area of the state. Thisrepresents 5.5% of the forest cover of the country. 70.71% the forest cover is classified as dense forest. Karnatakais ranked fourth in the country in regard to area under treecover. The per capita forest to tree cover availability is0.8 hectares. The Western Ghats of Karnataka are listedas one of the 18 mega biodiversity hot spot in the world.This hotspot is home to about 4500 plant species, and theforests of the state are home to 10% of the tiger and 25%of the elephant population of the country. However, todate, our knowledge of many of the biodiversity speciesis still very limited. Sustained initiatives of the Governmentover the past many years has resulted in the raising ofplantation cover to about 16 Lakh hectares of both forestand non forest land. Even though there has been anincrease in the protected areas of the state, yet biodiversitylosses are irreversible.

Beginning with a Forest Policy in 1952, focused on forest,soil and water conservation, an exclusive act, the WildLife Act was enacted in 1972 and the Forest ConservationAct in 1980. Though, all these Acts had an element ofbiodiversity conservation, yet it is only the BiologicalDiversity Act, 2003, that provides for several measures

aimed at conservation, sustainable use and equitablesharing of the biodiversity resources. With this Act, theprotection of biodiversity resources now extends beyondthe forest protected areas into the non protected areasand aquatic life and avian also. The Act provides for theestablishment of the National Biodiversity Authority andState Biodiversity Boards. The Biodiversity Board forKarnataka was constituted on 19-6-2003.

Policies to manage the green cover have undergoneradical change in their focus and approach. The forestshave now been opened to village forest committeesthrough the joint forest management approach and thisparticipatory approach has yielded positive results.

In spite of the initiatives taken, there continues to be lossof forest and biodiversity due to increasing anthropogenicpressures, unsustainable use of resources, inadequateparticipatory management, habitat destruction andfragmentation. Introduction of exotic organisms, invasivespecies such as weeds and insects also pose a seriousthreat to biodiversity. Open areas in urban ecosystemsare also shrinking, so are old irrigation tanks that constituteurban wetlands. Many have drained, others are highlypolluted and eutrophicated, resulting in a loss of their biota,including indigenous fish communities and migratorywaterfowl.

Concerted efforts have to be made to address certainissues like removal of trees for firewood, grazing in theforests and also to meet development demands forhardwood, pulpwood, bamboo, canes and medicinalplants. It is possible to evolve an effective and integratedpolicy to make available firewood to the rural areas byraising plantations both on wastelands and farmlands. Inthe same way the need for pulpwood, bamboo can bemet by suitable agro forestry practices and also byencouraging regeneration of bamboo and cane species.

Purple Agenda

Poor efficiency in energy utilisation in the agricultural,transport, industrial and domestic sectors as well asdistribution losses is leading to depletion of non-renewableresources. Depletion of non renewable resources, unequal

9

SYNTHESIS

distribution of energy, improper location of power plants,degradation of forests due to firewood collection andhydro, nuclear power projects and transmission lines, soilpollution due to fly ash in thermal power plants, air pollutionare some of the environmental impacts which havesurfaced due to thermal power plants and captive dieselgenerator power supply units.

Urban environmental problems stem from the inadequacyin the urban planning framework, and the supply-demandmismatch between the needs of the urban population (interms of housing, water supply, sewerage system, garbagedisposal and the need for open spaces). The citycorporations and municipalities no doubt deal withenvironmental issues, pertaining to waste management,sanitation, treatment of wastewater etc. Still, they areperceived as general health issues and not as environmentissues. The environmental component is lacking in thepreparation of the Master Plan for the cities.

Environmental pollution triggers varied and widespreadallergies and disorders in the general population therebyaffecting the quality of human life. Growing number ofdiseases have been linked to environmental exposure.These diseases range from traditional water borne, foodborne and vector borne ailments and acute respiratoryinfections to asthma, cancer, arsenicosis, fluorosis, certainbirth defects and developmental disabilities.

Outdoor air pollution due to industries and transport andindoor air pollution due to incomplete burning of fuels areresponsible for increasing respiratory infections andallergies. Pollen, dust mites, fungi and irritants like tobaccosmoke, formaldehyde, cleaning agents and areosols areknown to trigger asthma, increased bronchialhyperreactivity, wheezing, irriatation of eyes and have beenon an icrease now. Sleep disturbance due to increasednoise pollution has also been on an increase.

Lack of sanitation and safe drinking water facilities,disposal of untreated industrial waste waters, increaseduse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides have shown anincrease in number of attacks of gastroentritis, viralhepatitis and typhoid. Injuries sustained by sanitaryworkers and rag pickers while handling bio medical and

municipal solid waste have been infected with germscausing abscess, impetigo, erysephalas, exposure to foodwastes with plastics and fungi grown on food waste causeallergy, asthma, rhinitis, etc.

Economic and Legal Instruments

There are several direct and indirect economic and legalinstruments in the State which are being used to curtailenvironmental degradation. Some include the Commandand Control Methods (CAC), Economic instruments orMarket based instruments, and Community basedinstruments.Under the Command and Control Methods, often used bythe Government, are the taxes and levies under theexisting laws and regulations. They are implemented andmonitored by various governmental bodies such asPollution Control Board, rural and urban local bodies,Department of Forest, Water Resources, Mines andGeology, etc. Economic instruments can be divided intothree categories, namely price and tax based instruments,quantity and quality based instruments and hybridinstruments. Mix of various tax-subsidy-quota systemsare often evolved as operationally feasible strategies. Withdifficulties in the legal and policing system to controlpollution other market based instruments, collectivecommunity based instruments can be introduced.Empowering groups of people to take the responsibility ofmanaging the environmental problems is one suchinstrument.

Polluter pays principle

Polluter pays principle is not a part of the basicenvironmental law of the land. It requires that a polluterbear the remedial or clean up costs as well as the amountsto compensate the victims of pollution. Most industrializedcountries subscribe to the polluter pays principle. Thepolluters should internalize the costs of their pollution,control it at its source, and pay for its effects, includingremedial or cleanup costs, rather than forcing other statesor future generations to bear such costs. The remedialcosts should also include costs to restore the damagedecology or degraded environment. This principle has beenrecognized by the Indian Supreme Court as a ‘universal’

10


Initiatives of the Government

Task force for the control of air pollution in Bangalore City set up on 10-09-2001 under the Chairmanship of Additional ChiefSecretary.

Supply of 5 percent ethanol blended petrol in 20 districts from 9-5-2003 and in the remaining 7 districts from the end ofSeptember 2003.

The State Biodiversity Board has been constituted in July 2003 under the Biological Diversity Act, 2003.

Around 1.2 million hectares of forest and non forest land have been afforested in the last 25 years in the state.

To encourage sandalwood cultivation, the Karnataka Forests Act has been amended. The ownership of sandalwood treesgrown on private lands now vests with the land owner. The rules governing felling, transport, conversion and disposal ofsandalwood have been liberalised. Provision has been made for payment of market value to owners of sandalwood trees.

The Watershed Development Programme is being implemented in 26 districts. This programme involves reclamation ofalkaline and saline land and afforestation.

Government order dated 16th January 2004, provides for site and environment clearance for mining projects. Mandatoryenvironment clearance is required for mining projects (major minerals) with leases more than 5 hectares from Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Government of India and for mining projects of major minerals with lease area less than 5 hectaresand for minor minerals with lease are above 0.5 hectares from State Environment Clearance Committee.

The Karnataka Groundwater (Regulation for Protection of Sources of Drinking Water) Act 1999 of the Rural Developmentand Panchayat Raj Department, amended in December 2003, prohibits sinking of borewells within 500m of public sourcesof drinking water.

Nirmala Grama Yojana is under implementation since 1995 to built household latrines in rural areas. Under this programme,households in villages would be sanctioned with a maximum financial assistance of Rs. 2000 or 80 percent of the unit cost.

Swachha Grama programme has been initiated to promote total village sanitation and all round development of villages.

The Department of Ecology and Environment has isued directions to the Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, HorticultureDepartment, Public Works Department and Trnasport Department to use only tertiary treated water for non potable purposes.

The Karnataka State Highway Improvement Project is a major effort to upgrade and improve transportation infrastructurewith assistance from World Bank. It will widen and strengthen 991 kilometers of road to two lane width and also rehabilitate1277 kilometers of existing carriageway in two phases between 2001-2007.

The Jala Samvardhane Yojana Sangha (JSYS), has been set up to facilitate planning and implementing the task of rejuvenationof tanks with community participation.

The Raitha Kayaka Kere programme of the Minor Irrigation department focuses on improving rural livelihood by developingand strengthening community-based approach for improving and managing selected tank systems.

The Lake Development Authority has been set up in 2002 for restoration of tanks in urban areas.

For the first time a definition of hertiage building is given in the amendments to the Town and Country Planning Act, 1961.The preparation of Outline Development Plan and Comprehansive Development Plan has been given a go by. The amendmentprovides for preparation of Master Plan in one stage within a period of one year. Further, there is a mandatory provisionrequiring revision of Master Plan once in ten years.

An Authority has been set up by the State government to oversee the maintenance and development of Lalbagh, CubbonPark, and Freedom Park.

Fly ash utilisation in Raichur Thermal Plant is around 35 percent and is expected to reach 60 percent in a few years.

Electricity companies in the state are providing subsidy for those using solar water heaters in their monthly electricity bills.

The entire coastal stretch of 320 kilometers along with riverine estauarine stretches is being mapped and the coastal regulationlines of High Tiide Level and Low Tide Level and zonation are being depicted in the cadastal maps. The pillars indicating thedistance and direction from the High Tide Level are being shown in the ground and or the maps.

11

SYNTHESIS

rule to be applied to domestic polluters as well. Moreover,it has been accepted as a fundamental objective ofgovernment policy to abate pollution.

Institutional Setup and Environmental Management

The Government of India is a party to many internationalenvironmental conventions on biodiversity, ozonedepletion, climate change, hazardous waste and trade inendangered species of fauna and flora. The Governmentof India has put in place a sound legal framework forenvironmental protection and natural resourceconservation which includes Environment (Protection) Act,1986, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1981, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1974, the Biological Diversity Act 2003, the WildlifeProtection Act, 1972, the Forest Conservation Act, 1980.Notifications under the Environment (Protection) Actinclude, Hazardous Wastes Management and HandlingRules, 1989, Municipal Solid Wastes Management andHandling Rules, 2000, Biomedical Wastes Managementand Handling Rules, 1998, Batteries (Management &Handling) Rules,2001. A separate notification for theregulating activities in the coastal areas of the country,the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991, is alsounder force. The strong legislative base demonstratespolitical commitment.

Environmental management in the State is theresponsibility of all the stakeholders, citizens, NGOs andgovernment departments. However, implementation ofthe statutory acts, rules and regulations issued from timeto time under the Environment (Protection) Act is thefundamental responsibility of the Department of Ecologyand Environment and the Karnataka State Pollution ControlBoard. The department of Urban Development isstatutorily responsible for implementing the Municipal SolidWaste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000.

Department of Ecology and EnvironmentThe department of Ecology and Environment wasestablished in 1981 with the objective of improving theenvironment and ecological situation in the State. Thedepartment’s mission is to protect and improve theenvironment, ecology and natural resources of the State

through the prevention and control of pollution whileensuring the sustainable development of the State. Since2001-02, the department has also been implementing theGovernment of India programmes of National RiverConservation and National Lake Conservation.

The department is also responsible for protecting andconserving the ecologically sensitive 320 km coast line ofthe State through the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification,1991. The department has set up offices in the threecoastal districts of Karnataka to protect the coastalenvironment. For the first time the entire coastal stretchis being mapped to the cadastral scale and statutory linesare being demarcated with the support of the NationalHydrographer’s Office, Dehra Dun. This will enable thelocal people to have the first hand knowledge of theCoastal Regulatory Zone regulations, compliance to whichwould help in conserving the coastal ecosystem.

Under the Department of Ecology and Environment, theLake Development Authority was set up in June 2002 toregenerate the urban lakes. The Authority headed by theChief Secretary, Government of Karnataka, hasSecretaries to Government, Heads of Departments andNGOs as members. The main objective of the Authorityis to identify lakes for development, set modalities fordevelopment and maintenance of lakes and encouragepublic-private partnership in lake conservation anddevelopment.

As mandated under the Biological Diversity Act, 2003, theKarnataka State Bio-Diversity Board has been set up bythe Department in June 2003 to protect and conserve therich bio-diversity of the State for the future by identifying,documenting, creation of database and developingprogrammes for conservation of endangered, threatenedspecies.

The department functions with the following mainobjectives :

• Facilitate the development of policy on the issuesrelated to the environment and the ecology in the State.

• Ensure effective implementation and statutorycompliance to the Environment (Protection) Act, Air

12


and Water Acts and all the other notifications issuedunder the Environment (Protection) Act.

• Facilitate and coordinate awareness programmes,studies and research activities on environment andecology related matters.

• Oversee the activities of the Karnataka State PollutionControl Board, Lake Development Authority, Bio-Diversity Board and CRZ Offices, EnvironmentalManagement & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI).

• Evaluate the effectiveness of Government institutionsin terms of their major environmental functions.

• Strengthen the capacity of local institutions to addresslocal environmental problems.

In order to achieve the stated objectives, the Departmentadopts the following strategies:

• Explore economic investment incentives /disinvestments to reduce pollution.

• Use of the media effectively to create awareness aboutenvironmental matters and environmental law.

• Integrate efforts of different Government agencieshaving similar objectives and programming functionsthat help in environment protection and eco-systemimprovement.

• Facilitate and encourage institution / individuals inimplementing plans / projects / schemes forenvironment protection and improving the eco-system.

In future, the department would focus on promoting useof cleaner technology in industries, to reduce pressure inthe natural resources. The department would also makeefforts to ensure the protection and sustainable use of bio-diversity in the State, and work towards protecting theintellectual property rights of the people having traditionalknowledge.

The department realizes the importance of makingenvironmental education as a part of the curriculum andis strengthening the scheme of eco clubs in the State.Overall, the future challenges of the department would liein bringing down the levels of all forms of pollution andreduce environment related health problems. Thedepartment faces a major constraint in the lack of sufficientbudgetary support. There is also a lack of priority of

environmental issues in practice. The other constraint thatthe department faces is non-inclusion of mandatoryenvironmental appraisal in various developmental projectsother than industrial projects.

Karnataka State Pollution Control BoardThe Karnataka State Pollution Control Board wasconstituted by the Government of Karnataka on 21.9.1974under the Air and Water Acts to restore, protect andenhance the quality of the environment in the State. TheBoard works closely with Central, State, and localstakeholders. The Board is headed by a Chairman andcomprises of 17 members. The central office is located inBangalore with 28 field offices at the district level. Tosupport the enforcement activities, one Central Laboratoryat Bangalore and seven regional laboratories at districtshave been established. The activities of the industries arecontrolled by granting consents and authorizations.Wherever violations are noticed, penal action is initiatedby the filing of the criminal cases against the violations.

Prioritisation Matrix

Composite Prioritisation MatrixFor each sector, the consultants have identified andprioritized major problems and the degree of concern ofthe whole state. This has been represented in each of thesectors as prioritization matrix. As a part of synthesis, itwas necessary that the prioritization matrix of each of thesectors be consolidated to represent the whole picture forthe state.

The prioritisation matrix given by the consultants werespecific to their sector and hence to arrive at a statescenario, all problems of all sectors were compiled in theorder of severity. While, some problems are common tomore than one sector, during the consolidation exercise,the problem having higher ranking was retained.

Though, a common representative name was framed, carehas been taken to include all the other common problemsdiscussed in other sectors. The outcome of thisconsolidation exercise has been a crystallized list of allthe major problems as given in the composite prioritisation

13

SYNTHESIS

Composite Prioritisation matrix

14


matrix. The problems have been categorised into eithervery high, high, moderate or low category.

Problems which need to be addressed with utmost urgencyinclude groundwater depletion; coastal and forestdegradation; unsustainable land management throughurbanisation; improper waste management and indoor airquality. Water quality, quantity; saniation and sewagesystems; watershed management issues arise high in theprioriitisation list.

Issues of common property resources and air qualitydeteriorisation due to industries rank in moderate levelwhile issues like noise pollution, disposal of hazardouswaste, improper water management, issue of closed andabandoned mines, coastal erosion, siltation andconsumption of ozone depleting substances rank low inthe prioritisation.

Resource-Activity Impact MatrixWhile carrying out the consolidation exercise, the impactof various activities on the resources like air, water, land,biodiversity, forest, coast and health has also immersed.

Resource - Activity Impact Matrix

This has been depicted in the Resource – Activity ImpactMatrix. It was found that the degree of impact of eachactivity was either as high, medium and low.

Mining and quarrying was found to have a high impact onfive of the resources, namely, land, forest, biodiversity,coast and health. Industrial pollution and water supplyand sanitation have high impact on water, land, coast andhealth resource, while, forestry as an activity has highimpact on water, land, biodiversity and forest resources.Agriculture activities have high impacts on water and land,both quantitative and qualitative. Activities like wastemanagement, urban planning, transport and energy havehigh impacts on either one or two resources, as theseactivities are intensive in urban or semi urban areas. Whileanalyzing the resources, it was found that both coast andhealth are at very high threat from industrial pollution,mining and quarrying, water supply and sanitation andwaste management.

Resource-Region Impact MatrixAnother output of the consolidation exercise was theResource-Region Impact matrix. The impact on various

Resource - Region Impact Matrix

Resources Industrial Pollution

Mining and

QuarryingTransport Urban

Planning

Water Supply and Sanitation

Waste Management Energy Forestry Agriculture

Water High Low Low Medium High Medium Medium High HighLand High High Low High High Medium Low High HighForests Medium High Low Low Low Low High High MediumAir Medium Low High Medium Low Medium Medium Low MediumBio diversity Medium High Low Low Low Low Low High MediumCoast High High Low High High High Medium Medium LowHealth High High Medium Medium High High High Low Low

Region

Resource

Air Low Medium Medium Low High

Water Low Very High Very High High High

Biodiversity and forests Very High Medium Medium Very High Low

Land High Medium High Very High Medium

Coast BangaloreWestern Ghats

Northern Maidan

Southern Maidan

15

SYNTHESIS

resources in the five regions of the state, namely Westernghats, Northern maidan, Southern maidan, Coast andBangalore were analyzed. The degree / severity of impactwas either low, medium, high, or very high.

Water as a resource has been severely impacted in theNorthern maidan and Southern maidan, Coastal andBangalore region. Except for Bangalore, biodiversity andforests have been impacted in all the other four regions.Land has been impacted highly in the Western ghats,southern maidan and coast while there has been a mediumimpact on it in Northern maidan and Bangalore. Theproblem of air pollution in Bangalore region is acute andneeds to be addressed.

Action Plan and Environmental Indicators

Based on the identified issues, a set of indicators havebeen developed for the state of environment report to helpin policy making. Since there is no standard formula forthe formulation of indicators there is, therefore, an elementof subjectivity in the formulation. However very broadly,the composite prioritisation matrix has been followed. Evenin the composite prioritisation matrix, the problem has beenthe lack of scientific or empirical evidence to accuratelyassign weightages. In addition, these weightages aredynamic and can vary with time due to improvements andchanges in the environment. The number of environmentindicators are also critical. The inherent purpose of theindicators require that the number of indicators should belimited.

However, in spite of the constraints mentioned, the set ofindicators brought out in the state of environment reportare reliable. They largely reflect the existing status of theenvironment and the strategies required to address andameliorate the identified problems. The set of indicatorsalso reflect the priority issues for the sector.

Issues pertaining to natural resource sustainability focuson the primary concern of resource depletion. This isinevitable with non renewable resources. But the rate ofdepletion can be mitigated with efficient use, recycling andadoption of cleaner production technologies. Degradationof the ecosystem is reflected in the decline of biodiversity

and damage to critical ecosystems. Environmentaldegradation leads to human health effects from pollution.Toxic compounds in the environment gain easy accessesinto human systems.

Most of strategies already stated as the objectives of theconcerned Government Departments (as mentioned intheir Departmental Medium Term Fiscal Plans) have beenincorporated here in the Issue-Indicator-Strategy chartsfor the four agendas.

The environmental concerns could now be convenientlyintegrated with the programs of various Departments.Simple indicators have been formulated which would helpin understanding the impact of certain activities on theenvironment.

16


Blue Agenda

Issues Indicators StrategiesRecharge of ground water through rainwater harvesting; encourage Village Panchayats to take up harvest measures in common areas, mandatory rain water harvest measures for households, community areas and institutions. RDPR/UDFor extraction of ground water prior permission and license with consent fee be made mandatory. DMG\KSPCB

Inadequate quantity of safe water supply

Percentage of habitations receiving 55 lpcd

Habitations receiving less than 55 lpcd to be upgraded to the supply level of minimum 55 lpcd by 2006. RDPR [DMTFP]

Wastage of water due to over application in agriculture and seepage.

Reduction in loss of water due to seepage.

Improvement and modernization of canals, to reduce losses and seepage. Water Resources [DMTFP]

Wastage of water due to pilferage.

Punitive action to be taken to check pilferage. Water Resources

Degradation of irrigation tanks

Number of tanks rejuvenated.

2000 tanks to be rejuvenated by the year 2006-07 through Participatory Management of Water Resources and tank regeneration programs. Water Resources [DMTFP]To provide safe drinking water to all habitations affected with fluoride, brackish, contaminated water by treatment or from alternate sources. RDPRSet quality standards for drinking water.

Lack of rural household sanitation

Percentage of rural population with access to household sanitary latrines

To cover 30 percent of rural population with household sanitary latrines by 06-07. RDPR [DMTFP]

Monitoring of ground water quality, parameters on bulk organic and heavy metals to be area specific. DMG &KSPCBWater polluting industries to have Effluent Treatment Plants or Common Effluent Treatment Plants in industrial areas. DEEUnderground Drainage systems and sewage treatment plants to be set up in all Urban Local Bodies. UD/DEEStrengthening lake restoration programmes. DEEEncourage more public-private partnership for lake development. DEE\UD

Rise in groundwater table. Water charges being currently charged by municipalities, to be credited into Water Revenue Fund for maintenance of water supply system UD

Percentage of structures implementing rainwater harvesting measures.Extend of underground drainage coverage and sewage treatment plants in operation

Regulate exploitation of groundwater in coastal areas. DMGPromote measures for recharge of groundwater. DMG, Water ResourcesPromote programs for individual and community toilets. RDPRStrengthen awareness campaign for use of toilets. RDPR

Local authorities should exercise regulatory powers to ensure good quality of water supply from tankers; special approval/license should be made mandatory especially for drinking water supply. KSPCB/UD

Health impacts due to inadequate sanitation.

Access to individual and community toilets.

Water quality issues in rural areas

Percentage of areas supplied with safe drinking water.

Strict implementation of cropping pattern. A&H.

Over exploitation of groundwater in coastal areas

Pollution of water bodies, groundwater with industrial effluent/ municipal sewage.

Improvement in surface and ground water quality in vicinity of industrial areas and within Municipal limits.

Deterioration of Urban lakes. Number of urban lakes\ tanks rejuvenated.

Ground water issues in urban areas

Overexploitation of groundwater.

Reduction in critical and semi critical areas.

Reduction in pilferage.Violation of cropping pattern

17

SYNTHESIS

Brown Agenda

Issues Indicators StrategyNumber of households having facility of door to door collection.

Design waste management policy: Promote segregation, recycling, privatization of waste management Take back system, and Deposit Refund System. UD

Percentage of solid waste recycled.

Comprehensive Development Plan / Outline Development Plan to statutorily provide land for treatment facilities for all wastes. UD

Providing treatment facilities for biomedical wastes. UD\ HEALTH.

Encourage private participation in handling solid waste and bio medical waste. UD

Onsite storage/disposal of hazardous waste

Percent of wastes disposed in landfills. Provide landfill sites for disposal of hazardous wastes

Promote biofuels like Pongemia oil, use of ethanol in transport vehicles. DEE/TRANSPORT/ENERGYNon renewal of fitness certificate for vehicles older than 15 years. TRANSPORTUse of sprinklers in loading and unloading areas of mines to reduce suspended particulate matter. DMG/KSPCBClusterwise monitoring for industries and online ambient air quality monitoring system to be set up. KSPCBIntroduce tradable permit system as an incentive to reduce pollution from small industries. DEE/INDUSTRIES

Introduction of more one way traffic roads. UD/TRAFFIC POLICE.

Studies to be taken up on indoor air quality. DEE

Promote use of energy efficient chulahs, LPG. RDPR

Bringing in water efficient cropping system by use of drip irrigation and sprinkler system. A&HRehabilitation of land affected by salinity. A&HPromote integrated nutrient and pest management. A&HEncourage organic farming. A&HEncourage use of bio technology.Identify common areas for dumping overburden from cluster of mines. DMGSimultaneous rehabilitation and reclamation during and after mining. DMGAllocation of 50 per cent of royalty and dead rent collected by Department of Mines and Geology to the Environment Fund for restoration and reclamation works. DMGPromote cleaner production techniques. DMGDetailed EIA and EMP for small mines. DFEE

Unsustainable agricultural practices\ excessive use of chemicals and pesticides.

Increase in use of bio fertilizers and bio pesticides.

Environment degradation due to mining activities

Mining area rehabilitated.

Number of mines implementing cleaner production techniques.

Problem of mixed waste

Illegal dumping of Municipal Solid Waste and disposal of Biomedical waste

Percent of wastes disposed scientifically

Reduction in RSPM and SPM levels.Suspended particulate

matter and respirable Suspended particulate matter higher than the permissible limits for outdoor air. Reduction in incidence of

respiratory diseases.

Excessive water use leading to soil degradation.

Percent of irrigated land affected by salinity

Indoor air quality affected by suspended particulate matter and respirable suspended particulate matter higher than permissible limits.

Reduction in incidence of respiratory diseases.

18


Green Agenda

Purple Agenda

Issues Indicators Strategies

Increasing fuel wood removal Use of energy efficient fuel stoves, chulahs and alternate fuels to be promoted. RDPR\ENERGY

Forest degradation due to livestock grazing.

Increase in pasture lands, management of Gomals and pasturelands, encourage stall feeding. DFEE/ REVENUE /AH&F

Encroachment/ diversion of forest area.

Extent of forest land encroached/ diverted.

Environmental cost-benefit analysis to be done to arrive at alternative locations for realignment of development projects. Environment Impact Assessment for projects located close to forests and sensitive areas to be done in a scientific manner. DFEE

Man animal conflict, fragmentation of forest and habitat destruction

Reduction in injury to people, animals and damage to property

Consolidation of boundaries. DFEE

Sustainable management of medicinal plants by developing techniques for proper regeneration, collection and value addition. DFEEPreparing Peoples’ Biodiversity Register as per the Biological Diversity Act. DFEE

Strengthen and promote traditional and community based conservation practices to protect and sustain Biodiversity. DFEE

Protection of mangroves, sacred groves and eco sensitive areas. DFEE

Encourage participatory management for protection of environment: private lands to be brought under tree cover. DFEE

Protection of urban green spaces from encroachment, allocation of adequate green space as per outline development plan and comprehensive development plan. UD

Plan and implement a sustainable afforestation program. DFEE

Sustainable management of crop land and scrublands. A&HDegraded forest and open lands to be brought under forest cover. DFEE

Invasion of exotic species.

Increase in forest/tree cover.

Loss of biodiversity

Reduction in number of species under Rare, Endangered and Threatened category.

Loss of tree cover outside forest areas.

Percentage of urban and rural area under green cover.

Issues Indicators StrategiesLegislative action to reduce time for finalization of Comprehensive Development Plans. UD Integrate environment issues into urban planning process. UD

Environmental Management Plans for all Class-1 cities. UD

Permission from KSPCB to be made necessary for setting up new layouts.

Damage to heritage structures/sites by encroachment/ slums

Number of heritage structures/sites free from encroachments and implementing restoration measures.

Setting up of heritage development committees under the Environment Protection Act. DEE

Promote cost effective renewable and non-conventional energy sources ENERGY/RDPR

Encourage industries to use solar heating devices C&I

Urban sprawl, unplanned layouts, proliferation of slums

Accesses to safe water and sanitation facilities for urban areas.

Depletion of non-renewable resources

Increase in use of alternate and renewable energy

19

SYNTHESIS

Common StrategiesCertain strategies are not sector specific but commonacross sectors. Such strategies would help indevelopmental planning.

• Allocate 50 per cent of royalty and dead rent collectedby Department of Mines and Geology to theenvironment fund for restoration and reclamationworks.

• Legislative action to reduce time for finalization ofComprehensive Development Plans.

• Comprehensive Development Plan / OutlineDevelopment Plan to statutorily provide land forSewage Treatment Plants, Under Ground Drainages,landfills etc.

• Adequate measures to protect heritage sites.

• Initiatives to set up eco corridors/villages in the State.

• Environmental Management Plans for all Class-1cities should be developed.

• Establish Environmental Cells in all departmentsdealing with projects using /affecting resources andenvironment including municipalities.

• Introduce Environment Audit to conserve resourcesand cleaner production systems.

• Environmental Fund be created in Ecology andEnvironment Department as a common fund toaddress issues of ecological restoration.

• Just as economic planning is undertaken by theplanning department, it is essential to do an input -output plan for natural resources also. TheDepartment of Ecology and Environment bestrengthened considerably to enable preparation andmonitoring of natural resources plan for the state.

• Awareness creation for good practices and eco-friendly, clean technologies, low waste technologies,etc. through popular media, demonstration centers,training programs, prototyping units, trial usages,service support centers etc. Training modules to bedeveloped and programs organized on a large scaleto train planners, implementers and policy makers.

Conclusion

Existing pressures on the environment will persist andfresh challenges will emerge as increasingly heavydemands are placed upon resources, that in many casesare already in a fragile state.

Certain key areas have been identified in this report forurgent and immediate action. Institutions would need torethink and strengthen their role to adapt to and confrontnew environmental challenges. Policies should bedeveloped to value environmental goods and services andpromote voluntary initiatives. Environmental costs needto be factored into policy measures and regulatoryframeworks and planning processes. Cheap and reliableinformation in appropriate forms, integrated data baseswould need to be provided to all the stakeholders in theenvironment, decision makers, local communities and thegeneral public. This would enable them to participatemeaningfully in decisions and action that have a bearingon the environment.

Above all, good governance and funding for theenvironment needs to be ensured to move towardssustainable development.

If one were to attain heaven even after cutting trees,uprooting plants

and thus shedding blood, who else will go to hell! (Panchatantra)

20


GEOLOGICAL MAP

21

COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT


There is not enough water in the whole of earth’s oceans toswallow all the pollutants generated by us human beings.

-Anonymous

22


Current Status

Problems

Causes

Trends and Projections

Hotspots

Impacts

Action Plan


23


CURRENT STATUS

Karnataka’s coastline extends over a length of 320kilometers. It is one of the most indented shoreline withnumerous river mouths, lagoons, bays, creeks, promontories,cliffs, spits, sand dunes and long beaches. Unlike the eastcoast of India the coastal stretch of Karnataka has no majordelta formations. The shelf off Karnataka has an averagewidth of 80 kilometers and the depth of shelf break isbetween 90 and 120 meters. There are a few islands offthe coast, the major group being St. Mary’s Island, 4kilometers off the coast near Malpe.

Fourteen rivers drain their waters into the shore waters ofKarnataka. The important estuaries include the Netravati-Gurpur, Gangolli, Hangarkatta, Sharavthi, Aganashini,Gangavali and Kalinadi. Sand bars have developed in mostof the estuaries. There are a number of barrier spits atTannirbavi, Sasithitlu, Udyavara, Hoode, Hangarkatta andKirimanjeswara formed due to migration of coastal rivers.There are also 90 beaches with varying aesthetic potential.Among these, the beaches at Someshwar-Ullal, Malpe, St.Mary’s Island, Belekeri and Karwar are excellent with a potentialfor international tourism. Twenty-two beaches are classified asunfit for use due to coastal erosion, human settlements andactivities linked to ports/harbors, industries and fisheries.

PROBLEMS

The coastal zone of Karnataka is one of the better-developed geographical areas of the State with highdegree of economic development and density ofpopulation.

Occupational pressures

The settlements in the coastal region consist of 22 urbanagglomerations and 1044 villages. The occupationalpressures of the region can be attributed to agriculturalactivities, aquaculture, fish landing and processing, portmaintenance, mining for lime shell, bauxite and silica sandand coir retting. The coastline is dotted with one majorport at Mangalore, nine minor ports at Karwar, Belikund,Tadri, Honavar, Bhatkal, Kundapur, Hangarkatta, Malpeand Old Mangalore. Besides, there are 110 fish landing

Karnataka Coastal Zone Management Authority

The Karnataka Coastal Zone Management Authorityconstituted in the year 2000 by the Government of India isresponsible for monitoring and implementing CoastalRegulation Zone Rules, bench marking of high tide line/lowtide line, preparation of local level Coastal Regulation Zonemaps, identification of ecologically fragile zones andpreparation of area specific coastal zone management plans.Karnataka Coastal Zone Management Authority functionsin liaison with the National Coastal Zone ManagementAuthority in the Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India. The State authority has specific powersfor protecting and improving the quality of coastalenvironment and preventing, abating and controllingenvironmental pollution in the coastal areas. The authorityis also to ensure compliance of all specific conditions laiddown in the approved coastal zone management plans.

The Department of Ecology and Environment functions asthe secretariat of the Karnataka Coastal Zone ManagementAuthority. In accordance with the provisions of the CoastalRegulation Zone notification, 1991, the department hasprepared the Coastal Zone Management Plan for Karnatakawhich was approved by the Ministry of Environment andForests in 1996. This was prepared based on remotesensing data, wherein the landward stretches of seas,estuaries and rivers, which are influenced by tidal action,are classified into three categories Coastal Regulation Zone-I, Coastal Regulation Zone-II and Coastal Regulation Zone-III for regulating developmental activities. In order toimplement the provisions laid down in the Coastal RegulationZone notifications, the department has established threeregional offices of the Deputy Conservator of Forest (CoastalRegulation Zone) in 2002 for the coastal districts. DistrictCoastal Zone Management Committees have also beenestablished in each of the coastal districts under thechairmanship of Deputy Commissioner to examine the casesof violations of the provisions of the Coastal Regulation Zonenotification and take appropriate measures to protect thecoastal environment. However, in the absence of detailedCoastal Regulation Zone maps, large number of CoastalRegulation Zone violations is reported from most part of thecoast and the enforcement officials are handicapped forensuring compliance. The Department of Ecology andEnvironment, in 2002, has initiated preparation of detailedCRZ maps by demarcating high tide line/low tide line anddifferent categories of Coastal Regulation Zone in cadastralscale to overcome certain practical difficulties at the locallevel and for transparent implementation of the regulation.In fact, Karnataka is the first state in the country, which hasinitiated the preparation of the maps in cadastral scale forthe entire coastal stretch. The preparations of these mapsis in the final stage.

24


General geomorphological map of coastal Karnataka

25


centres and 150 fishing villages. A single major interventionin the coastal zone is the project Sea Bird, where an areaof around 32 square kilometers is being converted into anarea with several structures.

Many coastal depressions in the vicinity of mangrove habitatsare filled up with mud scooped from lagoons to cultivatecoconut plantations. The coir retting carried out mainly inmangrove cleared areas, is a microbial process and causespollution of water, air and soil, which in turn, affects the marineresources, quality of estuarine banks and nearby beaches.

Coastal erosion

The coastal zone is relatively poor with respect to mineralwealth. The organized mining activity is limited to bauxite,lime shell and silica sand. The fresh deposits of lime shellin the estuaries and backwaters of Kali, Gangavali,Aghanashini (Tadri), Sharavathi, Gurpur, Pavenje andMulki are declining as 90 percent of the clams areharvested every year. About 50 percent of the area undercoastal zone (4,90,000 hectares) is subjected to moderatesoil erosion and 6 percent of the area (56,000 hectares)to severe soil erosion. The annual rates of soil erosionvary from 5-15 tons/hectare to 15-40 tons/hectare inmoderate to severe soil erosion areas.

The Karnataka coast is subjected to three types of erosion;occurring along the open beaches, mouths of rivers/estuaries and the tidal reaches of rivers causingconsiderable loss of land, vegetation and revenue.

About 60 kilometers of beach (19 percent of the total lengthof shoreline) is confronted with appreciable or severeerosion. The problem is relatively more severe in DakshinaKannada and Udupi coasts, where about 28 percent ofthe total stretch is critical. In Uttara Kannada region, onlyabout 8 percent of the coast is subjected to severe erosion.In many river mouths, the sand pit erodes causing shift inriver course or inlet migration.

The erosion becomes severe due to the synchronisation ofhigh flood in the river with strong wave activity duringsouthwest monsoon. The most affected locations areGangavali river mouth and areas near Honnavar, Shirali,

The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification

Government of India issued the coastal zone regulation on19 February 1991 under Section 3(1) and Section 3(2)(v) ofthe Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Coastal zone includes the coastal stretches of seas, bays,estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are influencedby tidal action (in the landward side) up to 500 meters fromthe High Tide Line and the land between the low tide line andthe High Tide Line.

High Tide Line is the line on the land up to which the highestwater line reaches during the spring tide and low tide line isthe line on the land up to which the lowest water line reachesduring the neap tide.

Activities prohibited within the Coastal Regulation Zone,include setting of industries, storage or disposal of hazardoussubstances, setting up of units dealing with fish processingand waste disposal, construction activity, discharge ofuntreated wastes and effluents from industries and cities,mining of sands, rocks except those rare minerals not availableoutside the Coastal Regulation Zone areas and facilitiesdesigned to carry treated effluents and waste water dischargesinto the sea.

However, government of India may permit storage ofpetroleum products, modernization of existing fish processingunits and drawal of ground water in certain places.

All other activities are fully regulated either by the StateGovernment or by the Government of India.

Coastal Regulation Zone I : This category includes ecologicallysensitive and important areas like national parks/marine parks,sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats, mangroves,corals/coral reefs. It also includes the area between low tideline and the high tide line.

Coastal Regulation Zone-II: This includes areas that havealready been developed up to or close to the shoreline.

Coastal Regulation Zone III: Includes areas that are relativelyundisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category-I or II and coastal zone in the rural areas (developed andundeveloped).

Coastal erosion in Dakshina Kannada district

26


Kundapur kodi, Hangarkatta andBengre. Erosion/bank collapsein the tidal reaches of rivers isalso severe and extends at leastto about 12 kilometers. This hasbeen noticed in Manjuguni andKarikodi vil lages,Pavinakureva andMavinakurve islands, Bhatkalport area, Kollur and HaladiRivers, Seethanadi nearMabukal and Ullal side ofNetravathi river bank.

Water pollution

The littering at beaches is very high and there is nomechanism for garbage clearance and disposal. The solidwaste dumping yard of Mangalore city has an area of 28.32hectares which is poorly managed. It is estimated thatabout 250 tons per day of solid waste is generated in theMangalore city of which 200 tons per day is collected anddisposed into landfill. The solid waste generated at Karwartown is of the order of 18 tons per day of which 12 tonsper day is disposed into unsecured landfill. At Udupi, thesolid waste generation is of the order of 6 tons per day ofwhich 5 tons per day is disposed as unsecured landfillwith an area of six acres. The location of the site at thewindward side here is highly adverse from the hygienicpoint of view. The unscientific disposal of the solid wasteis the case with all the other towns as well. Poor sanitaryconditions have been observed in all the fish landingcentres and fishing villages.

The near shore and estuarine waters are subjected topollution due to various reasons such as inadequatesanitation measures in adjacent areas, port activities,effluent discharge from industries, dumping of fish wastes,etc. The pollution monitoring of near shore waters off thecoast of Mangalore, Honavar and Karwar indicates thatthe highest total coliforms and faecal coliforms during May.The lead concentration, here, ranged from 21.20 to 31.50milligram/gram, the cadmium concentration from 0.31 to0.46 milligram/gram and the mercury concentration from 0.08to 0.15 milligram/gram. The marine pollution here generally

extends up to 5 kilometers and rarely up to 10 kilometersfrom the shore. The nutrient content and the coliform countsare relatively high in estuarine waters. Bioaccumulation ofpollutants in aquatic organisms, such as Mytilus edulis,Villorita cyprinoids etc are noticed. There is increased organicload in wet lands near aquaculture farms. The groundwater,in general, is affected by microbial pollution in DakshinaKannada, Udupi and Karwar districts.

Salinity

The intrusion of saline water in wells up to a distance of 1kilometer from coastline in sandy areas and up to 500meters from the tidal tract of estuaries in alluvial areasduring summer also poses problems for drinking wateravailability. The coastal alluvial aquifers are highlypermeable and are in hydraulic continuity with sea/estuarine water. Therefore, indiscriminate pumping fromwells here leads to salinity intrusion. The high level ofgroundwater exploitation and pumping in the coastal zone,accentuates the problem

The intrusion of saline water into groundwater aquifersand the ingression of seawater to the rivers/estuaries areadversely affecting the availability of potable water,especially during dry season.

Estuaries are predominant in the Karnataka coast, largestbeing the Kundapur estuary and the next being Netravathiestuary covering an area of 2550 hectares and 1920 hectaresrespectively.

Groundwater resource potential of coastal zone and level ofexploitation in 1997

Dept. of Mines and Geology, 1998

TalukGross annual GW recharge

(MCM)

Net annual GW recharge

(MCM)

Net draft (MCM)

Level of exploitation

(%)

Category of areas

Karwar 113 96 16 16 WhiteKumta 65 55 30 54 WhiteHonnawar 81 69 31 45 WhiteBhatkal 34 29 15 52 WhiteAnkola 74 63 10 16 WhiteCoondapur 252 215 71 33 WhiteUdupi 243 207 94 45 WhiteMangalore 123 104 47 45 White

27


The siltation is severe in all the ports, especially at theNew Mangalore Port, which requires heavy annualmaintenance by dredging. The siltation in Karwar port isrelatively low.

Unsustainable fishing practices

The commercially important fishes in the sea aroundKarnataka are oil sardine, mackerel, cat fishes, penaeidprawns, sharks, seer fishes, anchovies and otherclupeoids, squill and squids. Karnataka has a shelf areaof 25000 square kilometers of which 7000 squarekilometers with water depth upto 50 m are extensivelyexploited for marine fisheries. The state contributes about10 percent of the total marine fish landing in the country.There has been substantial increase in the use of trawlersin recent years. In the year 2001-02, altogether about 5500trawl nets and 425 purse-seine nets have been used. Onan average, about 82 percent of the total catch is harvestedusing purse-seine ( 27 percent) and trawl nets (55 percent).The purse seine net method targets an identified shoaland the trawling activity leads to scooping of the seabottom.

According to studies conducted by Muthiah et al.(2000),the peak catch over the last 20 years from the State was2,22,779 tons in the year 1996-97 as against an estimatedmaximum sustainable yield of 1,52,000 tons. The catchper unit effort and the return on investment are declining inmarine fishery sector.

Selective scooping by trawl nets has exerted tremendouspressure on benthic organisms and their survival as theseare thrown over board and are discarded dead. The allweather and over night fishing off Mangalore hasaccelerated the decline in catfish, endemic to the southwest coast of India. In the seas around India, 22 cataloguedspecies of marine mammals occur. They visit the coastalwaters for feeding or breeding. There are also reports ofmarine turtle nesting in Devagad Guda islands off Karwar.Turtles and dolphins get entangled in fishing nets such asgill nets, trawl nets and purse seines occasionally offKarnataka coast. These are included and protected under

Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection Act) 1972 andtheir fishery is not permitted.

CAUSES

Unplanned development in urban areas and industriallocations leads to undesirable landuse practices. The removalof clay from riverbanks and alluvial plains to the tune of 30lakh tons/year and laterite and hard rocks to the tune of 22lakh tons/year adversely affect the carrying capacity of land.Similarly silica sand mining to the tune of l lakh tons/annumand beach and river sand mining also contribute to theproblem. Expanding infrastructure facilities lead to conversionof large tract of agricultural land to built-up areas. These aremore pronounced in areas adjacent to industrial centres,fish landing centres and Seabird project. Conversion andreclamation of wetlands is causing estuarine biodiversity loss.

The concentration of industries and the direct or indirectdisposal of industrial effluents and municipal drains toestuaries, rivers or nearshore waters cause water pollution.

The haphazard dumping of fish wastes near fish landingcentres, processing of fish catch and the large number ofice factories (about 200) also cause water pollution. About39 percent of the total fish catch is subjected to curing,caning and 16 percent used for fish meal, manure and oilextraction. Improper solid waste disposal and inadequate treatment of sewage contribute to the waterpollution in urban areas. The Netravathi and Gurpurestuarine rivers are considerably affected by thedischarge of sewage from Mangalore city. The wastegenerated by the aquaculture farms increases the organicload in estuarine waters.

Though rainfall in the coastal zone is heavy, about 88 percentof it is received during four months leading to disproportionaterun off. This, in turn, reduces the flow in rivers during non-rainy periods, and hinders proper flushing. Excessive siltation,consequently raises the riverbed. The reduced flow enhancesthe saline water intrusion to far upstream. Increased salinityin the river stretches affects wells in the vicinity and alluvialtracts. Increased pumping in coastal sandy areas lead tolandward movement of saline water-freshwater interface andup coning of saline water in dug wells.

28


While extracting groundwater, specified spacing betweenwells is not maintained and no consideration given tosustainable yield causing over exploitation, naturalinterference of wells, deterioration of quality in sandy andalluvial tracts and lowering of water table in lateriteaquifers. The problem is compounded by drawl of waterin large quantities by major industrial establishments andabout 10,000 small-scale industries including about 200ice factories.

The excessive siltation is mainly due to poor catchmentconservation and increased sediment discharge of therespective rivers and improper flushing. The sedimentdischarge in rivers is accentuated due to the moderate tosevere soil erosion of the order of 5-40 tons/hectare/yearin respective catchment areas. The heavy siltation in newMangalore Port is mainly due to deposition of seabedmaterials brought into suspension by monsoon waves.

Coastal erosion is caused due to both natural processesand anthropogenic interventions. The unceasing act ofwind, waves, tides and currents leads to shore movementor littoral drift along certain coastal stretches. Theimbalance created or the lack of littoral material supplythus makes the land lose by erosion, which, at places willbe permanent. The concentration of wave energy due towave refraction further accelerates erosion. Anthropogenicinterventions such as coastal protection structures,breakwaters, dredging in harbors, silt traps/dams inupstream portions of rivers, removal of sand from thebeaches etc., often hinder the natural process beyondresilience limit and aggravate the problem of erosion. Theshort period waves (storm waves) rip open the beaches,taking the material away into deep water, while long periodwaves (swells) push this material back on the beaches.Permanent erosion takes place when the swell is unableto push the material back on to the shore. The flood flowin rivers flowing parallel to the coast makes the adjacentbeaches more vulnerable to erosion.The stress on marine fisheries is mainly due to theconfinement of fishing activity to the nearshore zone up to awater depth of 50 meters. The increased use of trawl netsfurther accentuates degradation of fishery. Trawling resultsin disproportionate destruction of nontarget groups along with

juveniles and sub adults of desirable fishes and other benthicorganism. Most of the by catches are of low economic value,but are vital for the food web consisting of marine shellfishesand finfishes. By catches are thrown overboard. Thediscarded bycatch include low valued ground fishes,crustaceans, anemones, sponges, echinoderms, jelly fishes,etc. besides the unmarketable juveniles of fish and shellfish.

TRENDS AND PROJECTIONS

The pollution level in inland surface water increases duringpost monsoon and pre monsoon periods. The marinepollution is not a serious problem at present except for afew occasional reports of fish kill near Karwar and algalblooms off Mangalore. The generation of waste in all theurban centres is expected to increase appreciably. InMangalore, 19 percent increase in solid waste generationis expected over the next five years. In general, the waterquality variation is cyclic. Increased stock density inaquaculture ponds beyond its carrying capacity leads toreduced fish survival and system collapse. The excessiveinput of nutrients is leading to eutrophication in certainarms of the estuaries.

The annual rate of increase in groundwater exploitation isabout 2 percent in Dakshina Kannada and 1.4 percent inUttara Kannada. Considering this and the population growth,all Taluks except Karwar and Ankola need immediate

Sand mining in Dakshina Kannada coast

29


attention. There is also the possibility of increased pumpingof groundwater from laterite, sandy and alluvial aquifers.

The siltation is increasing in most of the river mouths/estuaries. However no quantitative estimate is available.The siltation is also high at New Mangalore Port Trustwhere the annual maintenance dredging varied from 1.67million cubic meters to 4.28 million cubic meters duringthe last ten years.

Intensive coastal erosion takes place from May end to middleof August, which is not continuous. There is a period ofdeposition in between and the net effect is erosion. Theaverage recession of the beach during the two year period(1998-2000) in the southern partof the coast is 6.44 meters andthe progradation in the northernpart is 4.91 meters.

The marine fish productionprogressively increased up to1996-97 (2,22,779 tons) andthereafter, showed a decliningtrend (1,28,405 tons in 2001-02)over the last five years the totalcash return however, remainedalmost the same. The trendindicates that the annual catchis getting stabilized around theestimated maximumsustainable yield. There isreduction in the population ofseveral estuarine and marine

organisms, including commerciallyimportant fish like the catfish.

HOTSPOTS

The inventory and evaluation of the statusof resources and environmental qualitybased on secondary data enabled theidentification of different hotspots withrespect to major environmental issues of the

ecozone.

IMPACTS

Destruction of the mud flats/tidal flats, mining of sand nearestuaries and removal of topsoil has caused imbalancesin the natural environment. The removal of clay from theriverbanks and alluvial plains has accelerated the topsoilremoval and this, in turn has resulted in increase of waterlogged areas. Though there is prolific growth of clams,deposition of shells is negligible as almost 90 percent of allavailable clams are harvested annually.

Projected level of groundwater exploitation

Hotspots

1998 2002 2007 2012Karwar 16 22.6 37 52 WhiteKumta 54 60 75 90 DarkHonnawar 45 51 66 81 Grey Bhatkal 52 58 73 89 DarkAnkola 16 22 37 52 WhiteCoondapur 33 41 60 79 GreyUdupi 45 53 72 90 Dark Mangalore 45 53 66 80 Grey

TalukLevel of exploitation (%) Area

category

Environmental issues Hotspots

Occupational pressureSomeswar, Mulur, Tekkatte, Uliargoli, Kapu, Hejamadi and Tonse, Pavenje (Mulki), Aghanashini (Tadri) and Kali (Karwar) estuaries and urban areas of Mangalore, Udupi and Karwar,

Water pollutionBaikampadi industrial estate, Panambur, urban centres of Mangalore, Udupi, Karwar etc. and Binga (Karwar), Kumta (Aghanashini), Honavar (Sharavathi), Heregutti (Ankola)

Saline intrusion Nethravathi, Pavanje and Kali rivers and near-shore aquifers in Udupi.

Siltation Estuarine zones of Nethravathi, Gurpur and Kali rivers; Honavar, Kundapur and Mulki and ports of New Mangalore and Karwar

Coastal erosionUllal, Tannirbavi, Bengre, Sasihitlu, Udyavara, Hoode, Kundapur kodi, Hangarkatta, Kirimanjeswara, Honavar, Shirali, Manjuguni, Karikodi etc.

Unsustainable marine fishery Off Dakshina Kannada coast

Non compliance of the provisions of Coastal Regulation Zone

Talapady, Ullal, Mangalore-Panambur, Bengre, Someswar, Kapu-Malpe, Kundapur-Gangoli, Marvanthe, Baindur-Shirali, Bhatkal-Murdeswar, Honavar-Dhareswar, Kumta, Gokarna, Ankola and Karwar.

30


Coastal Regulation Zone Map

31


which in turn accentuates the concentration of pollutants inwet lands. As a result, estuaries will be subjected toeutrophication.

Increased pumping beyond the sustainable yield of dugwells in laterite terrain will lead to lowering of water tableand in sandy and alluvial terrain to declining hydraulichead. In the long run these will lead to drying of wells inlaterite terrain and saline water intrusion in sandy andalluvial terrain. Expansion of prawn farming destroyedconsiderable area under mangrove, not withstanding themarginal efforts for mangrove regeneration in the wetlandsnear Kundapur. The waste generated by the aquaculturefarms increases the organic load in the tidal canals andnear-shore waters. Increased stock density in ponds beyondthe carrying capacity of tidal water body can result in systemcollapse and resultant reduced growth and survival of cultured

Local level Coastal Regulation Zone maps

An area upto 500 mtrs from the High Tide Line towards the land is declared as Coastal Regulation Zone as per the CoastalRegulation Zone notification. However, it is restricted to 150 to 100 meters on either side of the rivers, creeks and backwatersdepending on the width. In case of rivers, creeks and backwaters the Coastal Regulation Zone extend on either side upto a pointtill the tidal influence is felt and based on the salinity of five parts per thousand (ppt) in the river water during the driest period ofthe year.

Karnataka State Coastal Zone Management Plan was prepared in the year 1996 in accordance with the Coastal Regulation ZoneNotification of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The plan was supported by satellite-based maps inthe scale of 1:25,000. Owing to the scale the maps were not user-friendly. As a result enforcement of the provisions of CoastalRegulation Zone Notifications was difficult. Locating a particular site in the map was not possible due to lack of survey numberdetails in the maps. To overcome this the State Government has entrusted the work of delineation of High Tide Line, Low TideLine and other regulatory lines both on the ground and on the locally used cadastral maps to the National Hydrographic Office,Dehradun.

The map given covers a part of the area of Sasihitlu, Pavanje and Padu Panambur villages of Mangalore Taluk, DakshinaKannada district along a stretch of around 3.5 kilometers. This map clearly indicates the regulation zone for both the coastal andriverine areas. Village boundary and individual survey numbers can be clearly seen. High Tide Line is marked with a thick redcolour line with the letters High Tide Line and the Coastal Regulation Zone boundary is shown in red line with letters 500 meters.Within the Coastal Regulation Zone, the area hatched with red dots indicates Coastal Regulation Zone I, the area with greenhorizontal line is Coastal Regulation Zone II and the area with blue vertical lines is Coastal Regulation Zone III. Area in continu-ous blue indicates the river course and the sea. Authorised structures such as churches, temples, roads etc., which existed priorto the inception of Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991) wherever available, are also indicated. The reference pillars arealso plotted in the map. These maps are prepared after digitizing the cadastral maps that are in the scale varying from 1:7920 to1:3960.

On the ground, the reference pillars have been established all along the coast and on either sides of the rivers, creeks andbackwaters at a distance of every 250 meters. Each of these pillars is of 1.5 meters height above the ground level and paintedin yellow. These pillars are numbered and inscribed with the details pertaining to the shortest distance to the High Tide Line anddirection of the pillar from the High Tide Line.

These local level Coastal Regulation Zone maps will be an effective tool for the general public and local authorities who have theresponsibility of enforcing the provisions of Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. These maps, based on the survey numbersprovide the distance of a particular site from the High Tide Line and the category of Coastal Regulation Zone to which the surveynumber belongs. This would indicate the nature of activities that are permissible and prohibited.

The increased nutrient input has led to high incidence ofalgal bloom off Dakshina Kannada coast. The marinepollution, though low at present, may lead tobioaccumulation of toxic chemicals in the long run. Thematrix transfer of heavy metal toxicity through consumptionof sea food is a possibility. The dredging leads to habitatdisruption due to removal of bottom sediments and/oraccumulation of sediments. The water quality changeconsequently leads to habitat inhibitions. As a result ofdredging, re-suspension of bottom sediments,accumulation/dispersion of toxic substances, oxygendepletion, reduced primary production, temperaturealteration, increased nutrient level and bed load movementtake place. This will alter the benthic community system.High stock density leads to increased pathogenicity andoutbreak of fish diseases in aquaculture farms. Excessivesiltation in estuaries has resulted in improper drainage,

32


Prioritisation matrix

fish, increased pathogenicity due to water and soil pollutionetc.

The non-acceptability and non-compliance of the coastalregulation zone rules and lack of integrated coastal zonemanagement causes significant environmental degradation.The varied forms of violation ranging from industrial andresidential structures, aquaculture units, bio-mining andplantations subjects the coastal zone to several biotic andabiotic factors. The lack of awareness on the provisions of

coastal regulation zone regulations and its administrativeprocedures is leading to considerable delay in implementingdevelopment programmes.

ACTION PLAN

The ongoing practice of seawall construction is leadingto end erosion. Construction of seawalls andbreakwaters should be restricted to areas where it is

Department of Ports and Inland Waterways

The major programmes of the department include construction of minor ports, landing and berthing facilities, breakwaters etc.,dredging of ports, modernization of navigational aids and facilities, implementation of inland water transport system andconstruction of seawall structures. The anti sea erosion works are in progress since 1979 In the 10th plan anti erosion work ofabout 7km stretch is envisaged. The coastal erosion problem is neither uniform nor induced by the same processes at differentlocations, giving rise to different erosion scenarios requiring different solutions. But only one type of intervention, constructionof sea walls, is made at present to combat beach erosion. The scheme lacks proper planning based on scientific studies andsite-specific evaluation. Regular beach profiling to understand the beach dynamics and plan protection requirements are scanty.The breakwater structures constructed were not subjected to impact assessment and no environmental management plans arein place to mitigate the adverse impacts due to the structure. The department is poor in monitoring the environmental andecological aspects while carrying out maintenance dredging. The water quality gets adversely affected due to accumulation oftoxic substances as a result of re-suspension of sediments during dredging. In a dredging site, the ecosystem response will bein the form of habitat disruption, habitat inhibition or stimulation due to water quality changes etc affecting phytoplankton,benthic community and movement of larvae and juvenile form of marine life. The required set up for monitoring re-suspensionof sediments, accumulation/dispersion of toxic substances, oxygen depletion, reduction in primary production, temperaturealteration, change in nutrient level, benthic community alteration and bed load movement is absent in the department. However,no port has a well documented on-site and off-site emergency preparedness plan and regular review of emergency preparedness.

Scale 1=low, 3=medium, 5=high

Impact on Public health

Loss of Biodiversity

Impact on Vulnerable

Groups

Productivity loss

Impact on Critical

Eco-systems

Irreversibility / Reversibility Urgency Total

Occupational pressure 5 3 5 3 5 3 3 27

Water pollution 5 3 3 3 3 3 5 25Salinity intrusion 3 1 3 1 1 5 3 17Siltation 1 3 3 3 5 3 3 21Coastal erosion 1 3 5 3 5 3 5 25Unsustainable marine fishery 3 5 5 5 3 3 5 29

Non compliance of the provisions of Coastal Regulation Zone

3 5 5 5 5 3 5 31

21 23 29 23 27 23 29 175

Environmental Problems

Socio-Economic/Ecological Impacts

33


extremely necessary for protecting vital installations.Since a beach is the best protection for the coast,technological interventions like appropriatelydesigned artificial reefs, submerged breakwaters,beach nourishment, strand vegetation etc, which canregenerate the beach should be preferred overconstruction of sea walls.

Though all the major industries are separatelymonitoring their emission load, effluent quality andwastewater discharge quantity, a composite picture ofthe pollution load of major industrial belts and thesurrounding areas are not known. The outflow fromsewage treatment facilities of the local bodies and theaquaculture farms to the nearby estuaries has highorganic pollution potential and is not monitoredregularly.

Construction of breakwater/seawalls should besubjected to comprehensive environment impactassessment.

All beaches should be declared as zero waste areasand plans should be initiated for achieving this withinthe next two years.

In the first phase, ecologically sensitive beaches likeMalpe beach, St Mary’s, island, Marvante , Ulal,Gokarna, Karwar need to be declared as zero wastebeaches.

It is necessary to conduct a detailed environmentalappraisal and holistic environmental overview of thefragile coastal zone of Karnataka.

Carrying capacity study of the region should beconducted so as to determine the supportive capacityof the resources and assimilative capacity of theenvironment, based on which optimum resourceallocation can be made and long term sustainabledevelopment plan can be evolved.

The degradation of coastal sand dunes has alreadyspoiled the turtle nesting grounds towards Karwarregion.

A study along the entire coastal belt to estimate theecologically sensitive areas should be done with specificreference to turtle nesting sites.

The mangrove afforestation as done in Kundapur andother regions should be extended to other potential

estuarine areas as well.

There should be limited use of low lying fields for paddycultivation and aquaculture since they may cause salinewater intrusion in groundwater aquifers.

A study should be executed by the Department ofFisheries in collaboration with Fisheries Survey of Indiaand Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute todevelop database covering fishery and non-fisheryfactors to evaluate and monitor the biodiversity stockpositions, fluctuations etc in the near and offshorewaters.

The present practice for solid waste management invarious local bodies are mostly using landfill method,which may not be viable in the long run due to limitedland resources. Therefore, alternate technology, whichhas recovery component and makes use of limited landarea and quick disposal methods should be adopted.

Existing catchment area conservation measures forwest flowing rivers are not adequate. Extraction of waterfrom these rivers is on the rise and the silt load is alsoincreasing. Consequently, there is a reduction influshing in these rivers leading to increase in thepollution load. Therefore, watershed managementprogrammes in these river basins should beimplemented on priority. Similarly the number of damsthat these river systems can sustain can be studiedand optimized.

Environmental clearance to projects in the coastal zonemay be given only after considering the project basedenvironment impact assessment findings in thebackground of carrying capacity of the region or basedon strategic environmental assessment.

Aquaculture Authority and Karnataka State PollutionControl Board should carry out monitoring of industrialareas on a cluster basis especially in the dry season.

In order to ensure sustainable development of thecoastal zone, it is necessary to evolve an IntegratedCoastal Zone Management Plans within the ambit ofcarrying capacity of the region.

Campaigns to generate awareness among the localcommunities together with training to local level officialsshould necessarily be initiated and continued.

34


Columnar joints in Basalt rock,St. Mary’s island, Udupi District.

Coastal Macrofauna

35

WATER RESOURCES

WATER RESOURCES

We never know the worth of water till the well is dry-Thomas Fuller

36


Current Status

Issues & Impacts

Causes

Hotspots

Trends

Causes

Prioritisation

Action Plan

WATER RESOURCES

37

WATER RESOURCES

the state is rainfed.

Of the total cropped area of 10.80 million hectares, only21.50 percent is irrigated while the balance 78.5percentof agriculture is under rainfed conditions. Two-third of thetotal geographical area falling in the semi arid zonereceives less than 750 millimeters of annual rainfall withfrequent drought conditions.

The National Commission for Integrated Water ResourcesDevelopment Plan 1999 has made the following remark“Water conservation in every sphere and increase inefficiency of water use in every activity should be the

CURRENT STATUS

Water resources constitute mainly surface andgroundwater, with rainfall being the basic source.Theenvironmental concerns pertaining to water resourcescentre around water resource management, specificallyrelate to both quantity and quality issues. The main issuesof concern are conservation of existing water resourcesand prevention of further degradation and depletion. Theassociated issues include rejuvenation of degradedtraditional surface water bodies, enhancing the availabilityof water through water harvesting measures, and rechargeof ground water resources. More important is the judiciousand economic use of both ground and surface water foragricultural, industrial and domestic purposes. Karnatakais subjected to repetitive droughts. The National IrrigationCommission has identified 12 districts and 88 taluks inthe state as chronically drought affected.

The mean annual rainfall in the state is 1355 millimeterswith more than 73 per cent of it being received from theSouth-West monsoon. In the period between 1970-2003,deficit rainfall was recorded on 22 occasions and thehighest deficit of 55 percent was observed in 1983. Annualrainfall variations across agro-climatic zones in the stateare too wide, ranging from 585 millimeters in the northerndry zone to 3893 millimeters in the coastal zone. Morethan 75 percent of the land in majority of the districts in

Harvesting the skies

Due to three consecutive years of deficit rainfall the Karnatakagovernement decided to implement cloud seeding. Theexperiment christened Project Varuna was taken up in 15districts. Following encouraging results, operations wereintensified from 14 September 2003 onwards.

Cloud seeding (also known as weather modification) is thedeliberate treatment of certain clouds or cloud systems withthe intent of affecting the precipitation process(es) within thoseclouds. Cloud seeding needs rain-bearing clouds which mustbe deep enough and in a suitable temperature range. For cloudsystems which are warm, hygroscopic or water attractingmaterial such as sodium chloride, urea, ammonium nitrate,are sprayed on. Where the precipitation is cold, glaciogenic orice-forming agents such as silver iodide, compressed liquidpropane and dry ice are used.

Percentage departure from normal rainfall in Karnataka

Source: Drought monitoring cell, GoK

38


overriding consideration in water resource developmentand management. The methods and means of waterresource management should be sustainable over timeboth from the point of development needs and preservationof environment”. Projects are being planned and executedto achieve the objective of optimal utilisation of availablewater resources.

Due to the efforts of the State Government in executing anumber of major, medium and minor irrigation projectssome of the taluks got relief from drought.

Availability : Surface water

There are seven river systems in the state namely, Krishna,Cauvery, Godavari, West Flowing Rivers, North Pennar,South Pennar and Palar. The annual average yield in theseven river basins is estimated to be 3438 TMC. Theyield in six basins excluding west flowing rivers isestimated to be 1440 TMC . However, the economicallyutilizable water for irrigation is estimated as 1695 TMC.Most of the water from west flowing rivers cannot be usedfor irrigation due to topographical and environmentalconstraints.

There are 36,679 tanks in the state having a command of6,84,518 hectares. The total irrigation potential of the minorirrigation surface tanks is estimated as 10 lakh hectares.There are about 448 lift irrigation projects in the stateirrigating an area of 0.97 lakh hectares.

Other sources under minor irrigation include anicuts, pickups and minor irrigation works having 1.24 lakh hectaresof irrigation potential.

Groundwater

Availability of ground water is estimated as 485 TMC.Exploitation of ground water in the dry taluks of North andSouth interior Karnataka are higher when compared toCoastal, Malnad and irrigation command areas.Groundwater development is not uniform in different partsof the state The stage of groundwater development variesfrom district to district.

Initiatives of the government

The Department of Water Resources has put in placenecessary legal provisions to enable the formation ofWater Users Societies or Cooperatives (WUCs) Thesesocieties are empowered to procure water from irrigationdepartment, prepare water budget, levy and collect watercharges and manage the water distribution system.Geo-metric centre has been setup in the WaterResources Development Organisation making the WaterResources Department self reliant in implementing GISand Remote SensingThe Karnataka Irrigation (Levy of Water Rates) Act, 1957,has been ammended enhancing water rates for differentcrops, domestic and non-domestic uses of water. Thiswould boost mobilisation of financial resources and alsoprevent excess use of waterThe Jala Samvardhane Yojana Sangha (JSYS), has beenset up to facilitate planning and implementing the task ofrejuvenation of tanks with community participation.The Raitha Kayaka Kere programme of the MinorIrrigation department focuses on improving rural livlihoodby developing and strengthening community-basedapproach for improving and managing selected tanksystems.The Lake Development Authority has been set up in 2002for restoration of tanks in urban areas.

Utilisation: Surface water

Moving on to the utilisation of available surface waterresources, of the ultimate irrigation potential of 55 lakhhectares, the state has been able to create a potential of35.35 lakh hectares (65 percent) from both surface andground water. About 35 percent of the potential remainsto be tapped.

Nearly 4.53 lakh hectares in the state has been irrigatedby 8 major and 32 medium completed projects. Theultimate irrigation potential of 19 major and 21 mediumongoing projects will be 15.17 lakh hectares. Upto the endof March 2003, a total irrigation potential of 19.70 hectareshas been created under major and minor irrigation projects(Water Resources Department, 2003).

Most of the major irrigation projects are multipurpose innature envisaging irrigation, hydropower, flood control andwater supply components. Medium irrigation projects aremainly single purpose projects. Major/medium irrigationprojects have been a great boon to the state and haveproved to be the sheet anchor for ensuring that the

39

WATER RESOURCES

River basins of Karnataka

40


Estimation of sectoral utilization of water for 2003(in TMC)

* Evaporation loss taken to be 6% appx. from total withdrawalfor irrigation** Utilization as on 1999 plus on-going schemesFigures in bracket are percentage to total

sustainability and reliability of food production is insulatedfrom recurring droughts and floods. Minor irrigation surfacewater projects are expected to irrigate about 10 lakhhectares.

Groundwater

Ground water utilization for irrigation has grown from 1.35lakh hectares in 1960-61 to 8.61 lakh hectares in 1997-98. In addition, there is also increase in the croppingintensity in well irrigated areas, indicating multiple croppingand cultivation of water intensive crops. 85-90 percent ofground water is used for irrigation in the state. About 6percent of the total ground water available in the state isutilized for domestic purposes. The dependency is higherin the rural areas .

Though the ultimate planned irrigation potential from majorand minor irrigation projects is 1035.76 TMC as on April,2003, the utilization is only 716.29 TMC. The gap betweenplanned potential, and potential actually created and utilizedis a cause of concern considering the economic costsinvolved. Delay in construction of field channels, levelingof land and lack of farmers’ participation are the mainreasons for delay in utilization. (Irrigation department datadated 02/05/2003). To create and utilize the balancesurface water of 319.47 TMC for irrigating the remaining10.26 lakh hectares under major and medium irrigationprojects, an amount of Rs 7372 crore would be requiredat the existing rates as in April, 2003.

ISSUES AND IMPACTS

The environmental problems linked to water resourcespertaining to availability, distribution, management,utilization and sustenance are discussed here

Inequities in sectoral distribution and inadequacy inavailability of water

In the national and state water policies, drinking waterreceives first priority followed by irrigation, industry, power,fishing and recreation. Irrigation however constitutes morethan 85 percent of the present utilization of surface and

ground water in the state. In the proposed master plan forutilization of water from the Cauvery and Krishna basin,domestic water supply gets 1 percent in the Krishna basinprojects, and nearly 10 percent in the Cauvery basin.

With increasing population, urbanization andindustrialization, drinking water naturally receives thehighest priority. If appropriate measures are not taken toachieve water use efficiency in all sectors, there would bereduced availability of water for irrigation and other sectorsin the future.

Construction of irrigation projects is not an end in itself.Operation and maintenance is more important for realizingfull benefits envisaged at the time of approval of the project.Equity, timely supply and efficiency in distribution of waterare the three attributes of successful operation. Theoperation strategy has to meet the requirements of waterthroughout the crop season. The operation of the waterdelivery system requires systematic study of croppingpattern in the command area and the crop waterrequirements.

Purposes Krishna Cauvery West Flowing**

443.87 320.9 42.68[93.2%] [88.62%] [9.72%]

4.3 15.36 3.78

[0.9%] [4.24%] [0.86%]0.34 1.36 3.58

[0.07%] [0.38%] [0.81%]

27.71 20.48* -[5.82%] [5.65%]

- 4 -[1.1%]

Total 476.22 362.1 439.04

I. Irrigation

389.00 [88.6%]-

IV. Water needed for Hydel Power generation

II. Domestic use

III. Industry use

VI. Other***

V. Evaporation loss

41

WATER RESOURCES

Inefficiency in use of water in domestic and agriculture

sectors.

The overall efficiency is measured by the extent of wateractually used by the crop out of the water released fromthe reservoir. Seepage, evaporation, leakages andwastage during nights reduce the overall efficiency. Thereis gross inefficiency in use of water in the agriculture anddomestic sectors. In the agriculture sector, generally only40 percent water-use efficiency is achieved. This can beattributed to percolation of water in the fields into theground, losses due to spillage, seepage of water fromunlined canals and evaporation. Percolation andevaporation are high in water logged areas mainly due toover application of water and poor drainage.

There is under utilization of water in other potential areasdue to non completion of irrigation projects in the stipulatedtime period. As of March 2003, only 69 percent of theplanned surface water irrigation potential in both majorand medium projects was utilized.

There is considerable scope to reduce conveyance lossesfrom the irrigation system by lining the entire canal system.The conveyance efficiency in the unlined irrigation system,which is about 56 percent, can be increased to 88 percentwhen the whole system is lined. Therefore there isconsiderable scope of improving the efficiency of wateruse by lining the system.

Models of water resource managementPani Panchayats organized in Maharashtra after 1972drought, are co-operatives based on the concept ofmanaging water resources at the community level on theprinciple of equal sharing and distribution.

Water users societies near Wagdad dam in Nasik,Maharastra recieve water from the Irrigation departmenton a volumetric basis and distribute the same amongparticipant farmers.

Those who own wells, charge incremental water rate ofRs.100 per hectare per watering. The farmers have agreednot to construct new wells.

Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Management Mission’sprogramme with bottom-up approach was initiated in 1994in Madhya Pradesh. In this programme government andnon-government agencies play a catalyzing, facilitatingand coordinating role. The mission aims at improving landand water resources in environmentally degraded villageswith community participation. Politicians, bureaucrats,technical experts, NGOs and beneficiaries are part of theprogramme.

Tarun Bharat Sangh in Rajasthan is actively involved inconstruction and maintenance of ‘Johads” (traditionalcheck dams of mud) with community help using onlymanual labour.

Ralegaon Siddhi –implements community initiatedwatershed development programmes under the leadershipof Anna Hazare. The program has acted as catalyst foroverall development of the village.

Sukhomajari village in Haryana- Water User Societyfounded in 1981, manages and distributes water on equalrights. In this government program, the beneficiaries alsotake active part. Other common property resources aretransferred to village societies.

Rejuvenation of “Ahar” (traditional flood waterharvesting system) and Pynes (channels) in Bihar- TheInstitute for Research and Action, with 100 percentcommunity participation has initiated rejuvenationprogramme since 1999. Nearly 75 Ahars have beenrejuvenated. This has increased production of paddy andwork opportunities.

Sectoral utilization of water in Bangalore (2001-2002)

Per capita fresh water availability

There are variations in per capita fresh water availability fordifferent population groups and other sectors in the state. Inrural areas, 36 percent habitations receive less than 55 litresper capita per day of water which is a norm prescribed underState Water Policy-2002. Of this, 7.8 percent of the habitationsreceive less than 20 litres per capita per day of water (2002).In urban areas, the availability is 67 litres per capita per day.88 percent of the towns in the state do not have adequatesupply of water as per the respective norms.

42


Steps like lining the system, provision of adequate controlsystems such as measuring devices at all outlets,prevention of leakage and pilferage, rotation of supplieslike WARABANDI with obligatory night irrigation andtraining of farmers for efficient water application practiceswill considerably improve overall efficiency.

The details pertaining to the extent of water wasted indomestic and agricultural sectors is not available.However, the details that are available on the extent ofwater logging and crop violation do support the conclusionthat there is inefficiency in water use or over applicationof water.

Farmers often misuse water from canals and tanks by overapplication and also violate the prescribed croppingpattern. They adopt water intensive monoculture crops likepaddy and sugarcane ignoring leguminous crops that arebeneficial to the soil. Thus, large extent of land has beenrendered unfit for cultivation due to water logging andsalinity. Crop violation and poor drainage in irrigation projectareas are the major factors contributing to inefficiency.Evaporation coupled with water logging causesaccumulation of salts leading to loss of fertility anddegradation of soil. This impact could be seen particularlyin the low lying areas. Water logging also retards plantgrowth by cutting off oxygen supply to the root system, inthe same way acidity and alkalinity are also caused.

Therefore, sustainable management of irrigation potentialis an urgent need. In the domesticsector, inadequate water supplycauses stagnation of waste indrains and due to inadequatewater flow, the village drainsbecome main centers formosquito breeding and spread of

diseases.

Depleting ground waterresources

Depleting groundwater is a majorproblem in many parts of the state.

As per the 1994 status, in about 43 taluks there wasextraction of groundwater in excess of 65 percent thatmade them Grey taluks. Further, the groundwaterexploitation exceeded 50 percent of the available groundwater resources in 29 taluks of the state. Thus, in these72 taluks (43+29), there was over drawl of groundwater.Out of the 4 lakh wells irrigating an area of 7.5 lakhhectares in these taluks more than 3 lakh dug wells driedup .

Twenty one taluks declared as dark and grey areas in 1994have been considered as safe watershed areas in 1999.This could be attributed to various regulatory measureslike cut in financial assistance for additional borewelldrilling and introduction of recharge measures in someaffected parts. But, watersheds in 12 additional taluks havebeen identified to be over developed areas in 1999. Kolar,Bangalore Rural and Tumkur are districts where groundwater depletion has reached critical levels. These districtsalso face acute problems of drinking water quality. Whencompared to the coastal, malnad and irrigation commandareas, ground water exploitation in the dry taluks of interiornorth and south Karnataka is very high.

Ground water draft in the overdeveloped areas is morethan net annual recharge. This has resulted in sharpdecline in ground water table and reduction in water yield.Large number of ground water structures have gone dryin these areas, due to lack of proper recharge measures.

Conveyance losses from unlined, partially lined and linedirrigation systems

Source: Perspective land use plan for Karnataka 2025

Main canal Distributary Field water

courses

Total conveyance

losses

Conveyance efficiency

Entire system unlined 15 7 22 44 56

Only canals lined 4 7 25 36 64

Canals and distributaries lined

4 2 26 32 68

Whole system lined 4 2 6 12 88

System details

Percent loss of water released from reservoir

43

WATER RESOURCES

More than 90 percent of rural public water supply schemesdepend on ground water. Due to inadequate water supplyground water has become a major source for private watersupply in the urban areas.

Inadequate treatment of watersheds

Prior to 1999, taluks were considered as the unit forcategorising groundwater extraction. From 1999, onwards,watersheds have replaced taluks as the unit. Based onthis methodology, watersheds have been categoriseddepending on the level of groundwater extraction as safe,semi critical, critical and overdeveloped. Of the 380watersheds in the state, 56 (42 over exploited, 6 criticaland 8 semi critical) have been categorised as overdeveloped.

Watershed management is a scientific approach aimedat resource conservation for sustained productivity. Itinvolves insitu conservation of moisture. It is widelyaccepted as the unit for planning and implementation

1994: Dark and Grey taluks

of programs relating to drought mitigation. Here,measures like afforestation, pasture development,percolation ponds, check dams, vegetative gully checks,bunding, ploughing across the slope and contour-ploughing help in drought mitigation. In addition,watershed management includes crop diversification,cultivation of fruits, trees and grasses in differentcombinations, livestock raising and other incomegenerating activities that minimize the risk of crop failureand enhance the stability of farm income.

Fifteen percent of the watersheds fall in the over developedcategory and are in critical condition. So far, less than 25percent of the area available for watershed developmentin 17 districts is covered under different programmes. In1999, the net recharge was estimated to be 2.50 millionhectare meters in safe watersheds and 0.27 million hectaremeters in over developed watersheds. The balance groundwater available after its uses for different purposes is, 1.568million hectare meters in safe areas and negative (–0.377million hectare meters) in over developed areas. As perthe 1994 ground water status report, net draft of groundwater in Bangalore was 13959 hectare meters whereasthe net recharge of water was 12198 hectare meters (-14percent).

Classification of Watersheds

The total recharge comprises of components such asrecharge from rainfall during monsoon and non monsoonrecharge from other resources such as return recharge fromgroundwater and surface water irrigation during monsoon andnon-monsoon, seapage from tanks and recharge fromgroundwater harvesting structures. Out of the total rechargeobtained, 5% has to be deleted as natural discharge. Theultimate value forms the net recharge. Total draft comprisesof draft for irrigation as well as domestic and industrial needs.

The stage of development is arrived at by dividing the draftfor irrigation and the draft for domestic usage during the yearof assesment by the net recharge.

The 1994 Methodology classifies taluk as

Dark- >85 percent , Grey->65 to <85 percent White- <65percent.

The 1999 Methodology classifies watershed based on thestage of development as

Over exploited- >100 percent with declining long term trendin ground water level.

Critical-90-100 percent with long term decline in ground waterlevel.

Semi- Critical- 70-90 percent with decline in pre or postmonsoon ground water level.

Safe-<70 or 70-90 percent without any significant change inground water level.

Districts TaluksBangalore (U) Anekal, Bangalore (N), Bangalore (S)

Bangalore (R) Channapattana, Devanahalli, Hoskote, Doddaballapur, Ramanagar

Belgaum Chikkodi, Hukkeri, Athani, BailhongalBellary Hagari bommanahalliBidar BidarBijapur Indi, Bagewadi, BijapurKoppal KustagiChitradurga Challakere. ChitradurgaD.Kannada Bantwal, Sulya, BelthangadiHassan Channarayapatna, Arasikere

KolarChikkaballapur, Kolar, Malur, Chintamani, Gouribidanur, Mulbagal, Sidlaghatta, Srinivaspur

CR Nagar Kollegal, C.R.Nagar

Tumkur Koratagere, Gubbi, Madhugiri, Tiptur, Tumkur, Turuvekere, Kunigal, Sira

Total 43

44


Groundwater status in Karnataka (as on 31st December, 1999)

*Over developed = Over exploitedSource: Hydrology Project, DMG, 2003

Deteriorating surface and groundwater quality

Quality of water is affected by the excessive use ofpesticides and fertilisers in agriculture, dumping of sewageand industrial effluents into water bodies withouttreatment.

Decline in groundwater levels can lead to deterioration ofwater quality. Of the total 1895 wells under observationby the Department of Mines and Geology, water levelshowed increase in 418 (22 percent) wells while, declinewas observed in 1109 (56 percent) wells. The tapping ofdeep seated groundwater through borewells withoutimplementing recharge measures accompanied byuneven/scanty rainfall has considerably reduced theavailability of groundwater in the state. Depletinggroundwater resources have enormous impact on theenvironment both in the form of inadequacy and quality.In the absence of effective recharge measures, theenvironmental impacts continue to be a cause for concern.

The effects on human health because of contaminationare also very serious. Since the industrial sector does not

get sufficient share of surface water there is heavydependence on groundwater which in turn aggravates theproblems relating to quantity and quality.

Degradation of traditional and community owned tanks

Minor irrigation works serve as a source for growingirrigated crops. Minor irrigation tanks have high rate ofdegradation due to silting. Their surface areas are usuallylarge in relation to their limited storage, causing substantialevaporation losses. These works also serve an importantpurpose of recharging groundwater and provide the only

means of irrigation to chronically drought-affected areas.

In the past, rural communities took responsibility ofrestoring and maintaining the water tanks in the villages,which are the oldest natural rain water harvestingstructures. As a result of State taking over ownership ofthe tanks, their degradation started and has continued tilltoday. Tanks have lost their water holding capacity to anextent of 30 percent due to siltation and with tanks dryingup, the water table has gone down in many parts of thestate.

Women, poor and those belonging to the weaker sectionsof the society suffer due to degradation of tanks as theyhave to find alternate sources, walk long distances and

Water quality affected by chemicals used inagriculture

Increased ferti l izer use results in rise in potassiumconcentration in ground water which in turn results in increasein the pH value of command area water. Pesticide residues ofBenzene Hexachloride (BHC), lindane, endosulphan, Di chlorodi phenyle tri chloro ethane (DDT), and dieldrin get absorbedin food and water. It is estimated that only 10 to 15 percent ofthe pesticide application reaches the target organism leavingthe remainder to be absorbed in air, water and soil. The rateof accumulation of pesticides in aquatic routes is higher thanthrough aerial and terrestrial routes due to the chemical natureof pesticides which are have high lipo-solubility and low watersolubility. Carcinogenic effects, immune suppression,respiratory problems, nausea, disturbances in sleep, geneticdisorders and joints deformity are reported to be associatedwith fertiliser and pesticide poisoning through water, air andfood. There are reports of physical deformity, childhoodblindness and cancer attributed to aerial spraying ofendosulfan, in some villages of Kasargod district of Keralawhich is bordering Karnataka.

1 380

2 3243 56

a) Over Exploited 42b) Critical 6c) Semi-critical 8

4 34

5 10

6 5692

7 8,65,818a. No. of dug wells 2,94,745b. No. of dug-cum-borewells 41,699c. No. of borewells 5,29,374

8a. Safe Watersheds Mha.m 2.502b. Overdeveloped Watersheds Mha.m 0.274

Total No. of Watersheds (300 – 1400 Km2

range)No. of Watersheds categorized as ‘SAFE’No. of overdeveloped* Watersheds

No. of taluks in which the Overdeveloped Watersheds are fully/partly coveredNo. of DistrictsTotal No. of Overdeveloped villages not feasible for Groundwater development programmesTotal No. of Groundwater Structures

Net Recharge

45

WATER RESOURCES

Before treatment After treatment

Watershed development programmes in the state

There are 380 watersheds in the state. The target area to be covered under various watershed programes is 1.25 lakh hectaresand the area covered as of November 2003 is 29.10 lakh hectares which forms 24.90 % of the total treatable area. There aremany examples of better natural resource management through watershed based treatment. In the Kutangere watershed, landuse pattern has undergone significant change. The gullies formed by erosion were reclaimed by implementing silvi pasturesystem. In addition, agro-horticulture systems have replaced agricultural crops.

In the Hirehalla watershed in Belgaum, as muchas 4285 hectares of wasteland was treated, and298 hectares of land brought under forestvegetation. In Allapura, sediment flow reductionwas acheived by implementing watershed basedland treatment.

In the Kallambella watershed, after the project wasimplemented, the average yield of groundwaterinside the watershed area was 2321 gallons perhour as compared to 850 gallons per hour outsidethe watershed.

Map of the Kuthanagere watershed

Some examples of watershed treatment

Name of Watershed ActivityArea before project (in hectares)

Area after project (in hectares)

%

Arasinakere, Mysore Plantation/ irrigated crop

5445 10198 87.29

Hirehalla, Belgaum Reclaiming Wasteland

7301 3016 58.69

Hirehalla, Belgaum Forest vegetation plantation

47 345 634

Margutti, Doddahalla Gulbarga

Increased area of water body

11 72 554.6

Chandakavate, Bijapur

Dryland horticulture

380 2437 541.3

Allapura Sediment flow reduction

4.06 1.11 72

46


Community approach to tank management…….success in innovative techniques(Jala Samvardhana Yojana Sangha)

Cheluvanahalli, a small village in Kolar taluk in Kolar district situated on NH4 is a shiningexample of community participation in improving a local tank, Papanaikanakere. Anintegrated tank development and management plan costing Rs.9.75 lakh was preparedin June 2002. The community contributed Rs.0.60 lakh and the balance money camefrom Jala Samvardhana Yojana Sangha. The tank users group of the village has blended

the traditional knowledge with modernengineering principles while restructuring theworn out tank bund.

Feeder channels in 2.08 square kilometers ofcatchment were treated with the check dams,boulder checks and vegetative stabilization with soil binding species like bamboo, agaveetc. The tank development was completed in 6 months. Now the tank can apart fromirrigating 80 acres of land directly supportlivelihood of the entire vil lage.Afforestation carried out in the tank

foreshore and catchment provides biomass needs and enhances the quality ofeco system.

The low cost gardens providing fruits and vegetables to the poor and landlessfamilies in Cheluvanahalli village have proved that developing tank systems canprovide sustainable livelihood. The strategy used for this was very simple andpractical. The silt removed from tank bed was used to develop small plots ofgarden approximately measuring 10 feet by 15 feet in public lands. The totalinitial investment was Rs 500 per plot including the cost of labour. Water wasmade available through low cost drip irrigation system. The beneficiaries growmore than ten varieties of vegetables. Apart from using the vegetables for the familythey have been able to earn additional income of Rs.200 per month.

Karnataka community based tank management project is focusing on optimum watermanagement. The Madagascar method of paddy cultivation is a good example of this.The unique feature of this system is maintenance of moisture level at field capacityinstead of the conventional method of continuous sub mergence. With this method,water requirement is reduced by 50 percent and the crop yield increases 2-3 times.Even the seed requirement for sowing is only 7.5 kilograms/hectare instead of 70kilograms/hectare in conventional method.

A weak tank bund

Low cost kitchen garden, Cheluvanahalli

Madagascar method of paddy cultivation

wait in queues to collect water for drinking as well asdomestic purposes. There is also loss of bio diversity dueto degradation of tanks.

The time series data shows a decline in the commandarea and fluctuations in area irrigated from year to yeardepending on tank fill due to rainfall variations, while thenumber of tanks and gross area irrigated in the last 10years remained constant.

Apart from irrigation of the agricultural lands, tanks playthe pivotal role in recharge of groundwater. Desilting oftanks with appropriate catchment area treatment measurescan bring back nearly 4.40 lakh hectares under irrigationwith existing the infrastructure.

Siltation in river basins and command areas

Reservoirs and tanks in the state are losing their storagecapacity due to heavy siltation. This in turn causesinadequate supply of water and also recurrent floods insome areas. Floods not only cause economic loss but alsoresult in inundation of fertile top soil and erosion.Siltation which results from soil erosion in the catchmentareas is one of the major problems in canal and tankirrigation systems. As a result there is loss of storagecapacity and reduction in water spread area and wateravailability. The problem of siltation is higher in Krishnabasin (Tungabhadra, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha andBhadra) and in Linganmakki (Sharavati river).

Rejuvnated tank bund

47

WATER RESOURCES

Causes, pressures and impacts: the Link

HOTSPOTS

The objective of presenting hotspots is to highlight themagnitude of the problems related to environmentaldegradation with a view to enable the decision makers toselect activities like recharge of ground water, prevent

pollution, step up watershed development programmesetc. It may be noted that some problems are unique to aparticular water basin as they depend on soil condition,utilization of water etc.

There is ground water pollution in the downstream of

Illegal/Unaccounted domestic water supply, Leakage in pipes, Unauthorized irrigation, Crop violation, Uneconomic water rates

Lack of recharge & rainwater harvesting, Increased dependence on ground water (rural & urban), Absence of regulation (on installation of bore well & withdrawal of water), Subsidy on purchase of pump set, electricity and easy credit, Sand mining

Discharge of industrial effluents; municipal sewage, Leakage and rusting of pipes, , use of pesticide & fertilizer and their run off from agriculture, Seepage of sewage from drainage and septic tanks

Over exploitation of ground water

Deficit rainfall, Low level of people’s participation or users group not being responsible, Lack of maintenanceLack of co-ordination, Lack of coverage of community land for development of forestry, pasture and water bodies

Inefficiency in water use

Depleting ground water resources

Deteriorating Surface & Ground water quality

Degradation of traditional water bodies – tanks

Drought prone areas-Need for holistic approach to Watershed Programme

Siltation (reservoir/ river basins, estuaries)

Failure of wells( dry), Decline in Agricultural production, Lesser availability of water for domestic / human consumption, Deteriorating water quality, Increased costs of energy & drilling

Health- water borne diseases, carcinogenic effects, decay & disorders of bones & toothOther – Decline in agriculture productivity, affect Aquaculture, livestock, Tourism, Bio-diversity

Hardship for community (women, poor, SCs/STs) Deprivation of water for livestock, Fall in ground water table, Biodiversity loss

Depletion of ground water, Migration of poor, small & marginal farmers, Bio-diversity loss, Scarcity of water & food, Power shortage, Degradation of land, Distress sale and death

Reduced water availability to irrigation and other purposes, Floods at downstream, Decline in water spread area

Poor watershed management in up stream of command areas (land degradation, Poor drainage & Lack of vegetation, lack of peoples participation, lack of maintenance and sustenance of the programme)

Rise in water related conflicts, Scarcity,Inequity, Tail-end problem, Waterlogging, Salinity,Acidity of soil

Inequity in distribution (Inter sectoral) & Inadequate water availability (within population, regions, areas)

Causes Environmental Pressures Impacts

48


Districts with overdeveloped groundwater utilisation

49

WATER RESOURCES

industries in Mysore and Shimoga districts. Policyintervention is needed on a priority basis to tackle thisproblem.

TRENDS

The Water and Land Management Institute, Dharwad(WALMI), has projected ( rough estimates based on allIndia figures) the future water requirements of Karnataka.The projections have shown that the requirement of waterfor industrial and other sectors would double in a time spanof 25 years. Though there is a likelihood of increase inirrigation demand, its share in the total projected waterdemand would decline in future due to increasing demandfrom other sectors.

The nonadherence to the planned cropping pattern posesproblems in water releases, equitable supplies to tail endfarmers in distributaries and canal network. Shortage ofwater in the reservoir during non rainy season posesproblems of serving the entire command during the yearsof low rainfall. Excessive cultivation of high duty cropslike rice in double cropping system leads invariably to waterlogging and salinity due to drainage congestion in lowerreaches.

In the ongoing Kabini project the actual coverage as of1999-2000 was 72,606 hectares rice, 14,922 hectares ofkharif semidry, and 4579 hectares of sugarcane as againstthe planned cropping pattern of 53,000 hectares rice, 1.02 lakh hectares rabi semidry and 60,000 hectares of kharifsemidry. In Harangi, as against the planned area of 1.17lakh hectares of kharif semidry and 14,466 hectares ofrice, the respective crops were grown on an area of 40,144hectares and 37,242 hectares respectively. No rabisemidry crops are grown even though an area of 35,129hectares was planned. In Hemavathy the area under ricewas 1.26 lakh hectares as against the planned area of13000 hectares. There was an area of 5713 hectares insugarcane (perennial) though it was not planned. Undersemidry kharif and rabi, areas planned were 3.90 lakhhectares and 2.66 lakh hectares respectively. The actualcoverage was 74,800 hectares in khaif semidry and nonein rabi season.

Violation of cropping pattern and poor drainage in irrigationproject areas are the major factors causing increase inwater logging and salinity. Cropping pattern violation hasbeen going on for many years without any institutionalintervention. The only instrument that is available but rarelyused is levy of penalty. Land irrigability analysis basedon soil surveys is made for every project area. Localisedcropping pattern is recommended along with the list ofcrops not suitable for the specified soil. But, farmers donot have enough economic incentives to follow the rightcropping pattern. Violation of cropping pattern is higherin the Krishna basin under major irrigation projects. Thearea under crop violation has increased during the period1996-97 to 2000-01 in the Krishna and Cauvery basins.Unauthorized irrigation results in over utilization of waterand is found to be high under lift irrigation schemes.

Seepage loss during conveyance and on field is also aproblem connected with water use efficiency. Conveyanceefficiency is estimated to be 56 percent in unlined canalsand 88 percent in lined canals.

Groundwater extraction for agriculture is higher andunregulated. Average annual gross draft for ground waterstructures in Karnataka is estimated to be 0.9 hectaremeters for dugwell with pumpset and 1.7 hectare metersfor borewell with pump set. This trend cannot continue inthe light of increasing number of overdevelopedwatershed areas and deteriorating ground water quality.

There is a sharp decline in the depth of water levels inBangalore (5.4 m), Chitradurga (8.44 m), Dharwad (5.4m), Bijapur (3.03 m), Bellary (5.93 m), Kolar (5.2 m),Tumkur (5.96 m) and Raichur districts during the periodfrom 1978 to 1996.

Pollution load due to sewage from towns and cities isestimated to be 785 tons per day in the state. Annually,5608 tons of waste is dumped in different towns of thestate. Solid waste, ranging from 210 to 500 gms/capita/day (population of the towns ranging from 5 lakh to 50lakh ), is generated The hazardous pollutants from all theseare carried into the surface and ground water through runoff water. Samples drawn from the rivers indicate presenceof high level of biological oxygen demand, total coliforms

50


Basin wise presentation of hotspots

and faecal coliforms.

Karnataka is the seventh largest consumer of fertilizer andpesticides and accounts for 5 percent to 7 percent ofcountry’s total fertilizer and pesticide use. The problem ofcontamination of surface and ground water would be more

in water logged and low lying areas.

Siltation directly affects the water holding capacity of tanks.Nearly 30 percent of the tanks in the state have lost theirwater holding capacity and the rate of silt deposition inirrigation tanks is estimated at 8.51 hectare meter /100

Krishna Basin Cauvery Basin Godavari Basin

West Flowing River Basin

Other Basins (Palar, South and

North Pennar)

Dharwad, Bellary, Bagalkot, Bijapur, Tumkur, Gulbarga, Belgaum, Haveri

Bangalore ( U), Kodagu , Hassan, C.R.Nagar - Uttar Kannada Kolar

Bellary, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Raichur, Gulbarga, Dharwad, Shimoga, Belgaum, Davengere

Bangalore (U),Mysore Bidar (Chulkinala)

Kali, Pavenje, Netravati, Gurpura(UK&DK) D.Kannada, U.Kannada

-

Davangere (Tungabhadra river-Davangere and Harihar), Shimoga(Bhadra river-Bhadravati and Thirthahalli), Bellary & Koppal (TB river), Bagalkot (Krishna river)

Mandya(Hebbal river), Bangalore (Arkavathi –Kanakapura town), Mysore (Kabini river –Nanjangud & Cauvery- Srirangpattana and K.R.Nagar) C.R.Nagar(Cauvery- Kollegal)

-

Uttar Kannada (Kali river-Dandeli), Dakshin Kannada (Netravati & Sullia)

-

Tumkur, Chitradurga, Gadag Bagalkot, Davanagere, Dharwad, Haveri, Bellary

Bangalore(R&U), Mandya, Tumkur (Kunigal), C.R.Nagar) Kolar

Raichur, Koppal, Belgaum, Dharwad, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Bellary

Bangalore (U &R), Mysore, Kodagu, Mandya, Hassan - D. Kannada Kolar

IV. Depleting ground water resources

Bagalkot, Bellary Chitradurga, Haveri, Belgaum, Gadag, Davangere, Tumkur, Dharwad, Koppal, Gulbarga

Chamarajnagar, Bangalore (R&U), Hassan, Mandya Bidar - Kolar

V. Drought prone area- need for watershed treatment

Chitradurga, Tumkur, Dharwad, Gulbarga, Haveri, Gadag, Bellary, Bijapur

Bangalore( R), Mysore - Kolar

VI. Siltation in reservoir, river beds & estuaries

Belgaum (Ghataprabha & Malaprabha reservoir); Bellary (Tungabhadra reservoir), Shimoga (Bhadra reservoir)

- -

Linganmakki reservoir (Shimoga), Kali(U.K) Netravati & Gurpur (D.K)

-

Seepage of Fertilizer and Pesticides

Decline in depth and low water table( 1990-2000) & 2002

Salinity and waterlogging

II. Inefficiency in water use

III. Deteriorating water quality

Surface Water

Ground Water

Problems

River Basins

I. Inequity & inadequacyPressure on existing water resource – surface

51

WATER RESOURCES

square kilometers/year.

The occurrence of high rate of sedimentation inMalaprabha and Tungbhadra reservoirs is reported byground surveys carried out by Karnataka EngineeringResearch Station. According to ground surveys,sedimentation rate is 0.38 percent in Tungabhadra and0.3 percent in Malaprbha reservoir.

Analysis of percentage water availability for past ten yearsin major reservoirs in Karnataka (1990-2000) shows thatthere is decline in storage capacity in Linganmakki, Varahiand Supa, lowest storage of 53 percent of average was

found in Malaprabha reservoir in 2001. These trends willhave drastic impact on water availability for hydel powerin Linganmakki and for crops and drinking supply incommand areas of Malaprabha reservoir and for Hubli-Dharwad city.

CAUSES

Scarcity of water in urban areas has made water aneconomic commodity and has lead to the emergence ofunregulated private water market. The absence ofregulatory mechanism to control this undesirabledevelopment is a cause for concern. Inefficiency in use ofwater across different sectors could be attributed to variousreasons. In the agriculture sector, the main causes includecrop violations, unauthorized irrigation etc. Poor lining ofcanals result in conveyance loss. Water supplied for

Basin–wise details ofunauthorized irrigation and Violation of

cropping pattern 2001(% to total area irrigated)

Sectoral water utilization with futurerequirement (in TMC)

Source –Water & Land Management Institute (1998), Dharwad

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is an important tool to address theproblem of water scarcity and effective conservation ofrainwater. It is the process of collecting and storing rainwaterin a scientific and controlled manner for future use.

Rainwater harvesting is based on a simple concept. Rainwateris collected from the roof of a building, communitystructures,landscapes, open fields, green parks, storm waterdrains, roads, pavement etc and stored ready for re-use asrequired. Water from these platforms can be filtered anddirectly be put into a percolation pit or open well or dispersiontrench to recharge the groundwater. It reduces runoff andflooding of storm drains and involves least capital investmentwith high returns at the household and community level.

In a normal domestic situation this water can be used forflushing toilets, general cleaning, garden irrigation andwashing clothes. Typically this can account for nearly half ofthe water used for most of the year. In most buildings, rooftop rainwater is removed through pipesand is let out into storm drains outside the plot area. Rooftopsgenerate large quantities of runoffs as losses due topercolation and evaporation are negligible.

Industries and institutions can benefit hugely from harvestingrainwater because on one hand they have to pay high tarifffor use of water and use the large roof area available on theother. Therefore, payback periods for rooftop rainwaterharvesting systems are shorter.

At present, there is a necessity to integrate designing ofrainwater water harvesting with conventional buildingpractices.

2000 202558.15 91.62

(4.4%) (4.95%)1110.06 1356.74

(84%) (73.33%)47.57 125.1

(3.6%) (6.76%)52.86 65.19(4%) (3.52%)

52.86 211.44(4%) (11.43%)

Total 1321.44 1850.1

Domestic (drinking)

Industries

Hydro/Thermal Power

Others

Sectors Year

Irrigation

Irrigation Krishna CauveryUnauthorized irrigationMinor - 8.71Medium 3.39 -Lift 25.19 -Major 11.89 0.09Crop ViolationMinor - 30. 34Medium 39.52 -Lift 12.48 2.34Major 33.22 28.15

52


irrigation is highly subsidized and water supply rates wererevised only recently. Though water rates have beenrevised by making appropriate amendment to the law, it isstill doubtful whether there would be full recovery of waterrate from farmers. The cooperation of water users societiesand their participation is also very important.

Increasing dependency on ground water for irrigation,domestic, commercial and industrial use due to non-availability of surface water in some parts of the state andinadequate and untimely availability of surface water inmany parts, lack of recharge initiatives by government,local bodies and community, are the major causes forground water depletion.

Artificial structures for recharge of groundwater need tobe constructed in critical areas where depletion andextraction are high. The Department of Mines and Geologyhas identified watersheds, where there is overexploitationof groundwater and those, which are in critical condition.But, the department does not take up any comprehensiverecharge measures and is implementing only experimentaland demonstration programmes for artificial recharge.

There is lack of coordination among the Command AreaDevelopment Authority, the Irrigation department, the Zilla

Panchayats, Gram Panchayats, Watershed departmentand users community in distribution, management andsustenance of water resources. Degradation of tanks dueto siltation is also a cause for declining ground water table.Changing life styles and urbanization also add to over useof water. There is excess use of water particularly in urbanareas, due to use of flush toilets. The absence of regulationin installation of ground water structures and spacing ofborewells is a major cause for over utilization of groundwater. Consequently there is an increase in the number ofwells over the years without proper hydro- geologicalsurvey.

Water contamination due to fertilizer and pesticides ismainly on account of over and improper application and,inefficiency in the use of water. Over application of waterleads to water logging and as a result there is rise in watertable.

Studies indicate that areas with high water table in irrigatedregions have higher ground water contamination.

Non point sources of contamination and usage of foreshoreareas of the tank for defecation and bathing and dischargeof sewage without treatment have resulted in degradationof tanks.

Sectors having impact on water resources

Agriculture (Irrigation major, medium & minor) watersheds, etc.

Industry

In adequate urban planning

and waste management

Household sector Mining

I. Depletion of water resources

(I) Surface High - Medium High -(ii) Ground High Low Medium High -

II. Inequity in distribution and inadequate water availability High Low Medium High -

III. Water pollution (I) Surface High High High High High(ii) Ground Medium High Medium High High

IV. Degradation of tanks High High High High LowV. Inefficiency in water use High - High High -VI. Drought prone areas High Medium - Low -VII. Siltation High - - Low HighTotal High High Medium High High

Environmental pressures

Sectors impacting the water resources

53

WATER RESOURCES

The consequent high pollutant inflow has resulted ineutrophication leading to proliferation of weeds.

There is a need for holistic approach for management oftanks for reducing in flow of silt and monitoring of waterquality. The degraded pasture lands should also berestored as degraded grazing lands lead to soil erosionand siltation in tanks and reduce storage capacity.

There is also a need to check encroachment over thefeeder lines or natural drains, which drain water to tanks.It may be noted here that in many urban areas, slumshave come up in tank beds.

Main causes of tank siltation are:• Over grazing and destruction of vegetative cover in

catchment area leading to higher runoff and soilerosion.

• Improper land and crop management practices, alongthe slope cultivation and inadequate soil conservationmeasures in the catchment area.

• Encroachment of forest for agriculture resulting inreduced tree cover and

• Extending cultivation to marginal lands inducingaccelerated soil erosion.

PRIORITISATION

The degree and severity of environmental pressures basedon quantity and quality issues vary from region to region.Considering this aspect a prioritization exercise has beenattempted to rank the environmental problems keeping inview their socio-economic and ecological impacts and theurgency of the problem.

For purpose of prioritisation five regions of the state wereconsidered namely Northern plateau, Southern plateau,Coastal areas, Western ghats and Bangalore. Thepriorities for each region were complied and a prioritisationmatrix for the whole state was arrived at.

The objective here is to highlight key issues and facilitateinstitutional intervention in terms of policies andprogrammes for attending to the problems.

The prioritisation matrix for the state as a whole has been


Scale: 1= low, 3 = medium, 5= high

Impact on Public Health



groups

Productivity loss

Impact on critical

Ecosystem

Irriversibility/ reversibility

Urgency of the

problem

Total scoring

1. Depleting Ground Water Resources 5 5 5 5 3 3 5 31

2. Inequity in distribution/ inadequate availability of water

5 5 5 5 3 3 5 31

3. Deteriorating water quality (I) Surface 5 3 5 3 3 3 5 27(ii) Ground 5 3 5 3 3 3 5 274. Degradation of tanks 3 3 5 3 3 3 5 25

5. Ineffieiciency in Water Use 3 1 3 5 5 3 3 23

6. Drought prone Area Need for Watershed treatment

1 3 5 5 3 1 3 21

Total 27 23 33 29 23 19 31 185

Problems


54


presented here. A close analysis of the prioritisation matrixbrings out the following problem areas.

• Depletion of water resources and inequitabledistribution with inadequate availability of water, arethe two major problems facing the State with respectto their severity and impact. These two problems havebecome acute in the recent period due to drought andwater quality problems. Depletion of ground water isa priority issue in all regions except Western ghatsand coastal region.

• In Northern plateau, on one side there is inefficiency(excess use) in use of water for agriculture and, onthe other side, there are drought prone areas whichneed watershed treatment. Water is polluted inTungabhadra river at Davangere and Harihar due toindustrial effluent discharge. High level of siltation isobserved in the Tungabhadra reservoir and theproblems of water logging and salinity are severe.

• In Southern part, surface and ground water pollutionand degradation of tanks rank second and third interms of priority.

• Water pollution in Bhadra and Kali river and inefficientuse of water in Bhadra command area add to theproblems of water quality, water logging and salinityin Western ghats region.

• In the coastal areas, prevention of further degradationof tanks and pollution of water in the ghat sections,and management in water distribution for domesticpurposes in the water scarcity areas appear to bepriority issues. Salinity and water logging caused byintrusion of salt water are also major problems in

coastal areas.

• Key issues for Bangalore city include degradation oftanks, depletion of ground water and inequity andinadequate availability of water for drinking purpose.Many tanks have disappeared/encroached and theexisting ones are sources of contamination. Domesticwaste discharge particularly from extension areas intothe lakes has lead to water pollution. Satelliteimageries and information available with the Surveyof India indicate that nearly 2789 lakes have dried upand there are only 330 live lakes in the medium tolarge range in Bangalore metropolitan region.

ACTION PLAN

• Basin wise planning and management system foroptimum utilization of groundwater and surface waterfor next 25 years should be evolved.

• Protection of water bodies: desilting of lakes, fencing,and other measures should be taken for protection ofwater bodies.

• All major commercial and industrial units should userecycled water.

• A comprehensive ground water recharge programeinvolving the concerned departments of WatershedDevelopment, Mines and Geology, Minor Irrigationand other Urban Local Bodies in over exploited anddrought hit areas should be conceived andimplemented.

• Bio drainage strategy may be taken up on anexperimental basis as a remedy for water logging,soil salinity and for prevention of mosquito breedingin command areas of irrigation projects

• Action be taken for the use of geo fabrics, low-densitypolyethylene and rigid plaster for lining the irrigationcanals to reduce the seepage losses.

• The existing data on water resources thoughvoluminous does not cover all important aspectsparticularly the following:

• Basin wise water flow in rivers.

Equitable distribution of water, the Bundi model

In Bundi district of Rajasthan, farmers have come together tomonitor water distribution and ensure sufficient canal irrigationin tail areas. This has been possible with the help of districtadministration, law (police), people and concerned publicofficials. To increase efficiency and reduce the seepage lossin canals, cutting of vegetation, application of chemicaltreatment to weeds and desiltation have been carried out bythe community with government assistance. Rotationirrigation, education to farmers and formation of water users’societies are initiatives undertaken in Bundi command area.Source: Planning Commission, 2003

55

WATER RESOURCES

• Utilization of surface and ground water by different sectors namely industries, domestic, irrigation andother uses.

• Large quantity of water is being exploited for non-domestic purposes like construction, gardening and by healthcare establishments and water is being supplied through tankers in urban areas. At present there is no control onthis activity. Legislation to be enacted to set up regulatory mechanism to prevent over exploitation of water incritical areas and to ensure water quality.

• Conjunctive water use involves management of all water resources in an area to optimize the total water use overa period of time. This method should be adopted to tackle the problems of salinity, water logging, and the associatedproblems of acidity and alkalinity.

Distribution of rainfall across the state

56


57

RURAL AND URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION


O Varuna deva, may water and flora bond us in friendshipforever

-Rig Veda:Varuniya Samhita 6-22

58



Current Status

Drinking Water Supply

Issues & Impacts

Trends & Projections

Hotspots

Causes

Sanitation

Issues & Impacts

Trends & Projections

Action Plan

59


CURRENT STATUS

It is estimated that poor quality and inadequate quantityof water accounts for about 10 percent of the total burdenof disease in the state. Waterborne diseases occur mainlydue to lack of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities.In india every year large number of deaths of childrenunder the age of five is attributed to poor quality of drinkingwater. Apart from health effects, inadequate quantity ofwater supply and sanitation services leave adverseimpacts on the environment mainly leading tocontamination of soil and water due to stagnation ofsewage (Government of Karnataka, Task Force on Health,2001). A recently published World Health Organisationreport places diarrhoel diseases at sixth place in the listof global killers and third in the list of morbidity.

According to the World Health Organisation and UnitedNations Children’s Education Fund (2000) estimatesglobally, 1.1 billion people lack access to any form ofimproved water supply within 1 kilometere of their homeand 2.4 billion people lack access to some form ofimproved disposal of excreta.

Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in thestate and in rural areas over 90 percent of the drinkingwater supply schemes are based on ground water. Of the208 urban local bodies under the Karnataka Urban WaterSupply and Drainage Board, 151 depend on river waterwhereas 47 depend on ground water.

Groundwater levels are fast declining in the state with 34

taluks considered as critical due to over exploitation.Besides, lacunae associated with operation, maintenanceand poor distribution systems, also add to the problem.All these pressures limit the availability of safe drinkingwater.

Sanitation facilities like sewerage system, storm waterdrain, latrines (public or private), and other communitysanitation services are important in maintaining goodhygiene and clean environment. Factors such as

Sources of drinking water in ULBs– 2004


The Karnataka Groundwater (Regulation for Protection ofSources of Drinking Water) Act, 1999 of the RuralDevelopment and Panchyat Raj Department has come intoforce from December 2003. This Act prohibits sinking ofborewells within 500 meters of public sources of drinking water.

Swajaldhara, a centrally sponsored programme based oncommunity participation to operate drinking water supplyschemes has been launched.

Nirmala Grama Yojana is under implementation since 1995to build household latrines in rural areas. Under thisprogramme, household toilets in the villages would besanctioned with a maximum financial assistance of Rs 2000or 80 percent of the unit cost.

Swachcha Grama programme has been initiated to promotetotal village sanitation and all round development of villages.The Panchasutras for total village sanitation include

paving of internal roads and streets in the village,

construction of efficient sullage and storm water drainage,

provision of community compost yards and removal ofmanure pits from the dwelling areas of the village,

provision of smokeless chullas/bio-gas for all households,

construction of household latrines/ group latrines withindividual ownership, community latrine complexes, andinstitutional latrines in schools.

Under the Sub-mission programme launched by the RajivGandhi National Drinking Water Mission, safe drinking wateris being provided to villages affected by Fluoride, Nitrate andBrackishness.

National River Conservation Plan is being implemented toprevent pollution in the catchment area of river Cauvery andBhadra caused by towns situated in the basins.

The state Government has launched on pilot basis a ruralwater and sanitation programme called the SampurnaNairmalya Yojana to cover Mysore, Dakshina Kanada andBellary districts.

The Department of Ecology and Environment has directedthat drinking water should not be used for non potablepurposes like washing, gardening, servicing of vehicles etc.

Source: Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board

Sources Number of ULBs

Bore wells (BW) 40Tank 5Open well + BW 6Open well 1BW + Tank 5River 112BW + River 34Tank + River 4BW + Tank + River 1

208

60


population pressure, discharge of effluents, addition ofagricultural chemicals into water bodies and inappropriatewater pricing mechanisms have contributed todeterioration of water quality, depletion of water andunhygienic sanitation.

Apart from adequate quantity , quality of water is animportant aspect as poor quality of water hasrepercussions on health and environment. The quality ofgroundwater is poor in 37 percent of rural habitations dueto contamination with fluoride, nitrate and iron. Surfacewater is also not free from pollution due to developmentactivities.

In order to provide drinking water as per the norms fixedat the rate of 55 litres per capita per day in rural areas, as

many as 2,18,703 different drinking water supply schemes,including 1.81 lakh Borewells with hand pump scheme,20.75 thousand Mini water supply scheme and 16,000piped water supply scheme have been created by the RuralDevelopment and Panchayat Raj Department uptoOctober 2003. The type of water supply scheme to betaken up is decided on the basis of the total population ofthe villages/habitation. Those villages having a populationof 1000 and above are provided with piped water supplyscheme. Villages having population between 500 and 1000are provided with a mini water supply scheme. The othervillages with population less than 500 are provided withborewells fitted with hand pumps. The above criteria ishowever relaxed in deserving cases wherevillages\habitations lie in areas having problems of highfluoride content and other problems.

About 64 percent of rural habitations are covered with morethan 55 litres per capita per day of water supply. However,nearly 34 percent of the habitations are yet to attain thelevel of 55 litres per capita per day water supply.

Water supply norms for urban areas of Karnataka*

* Norms stipulated by Central Public Health Engineering andEnvironmental Organisation

Habitations covered by drinking water supply in rural Karnataka

Per capita water supply in different Municipalities\Corporation areas in Karnataka 2004

Figures in red indicate inadequate water supplyNote: The Norms fixed for Class I towns is 135 LPCD

Level of drinking water supply (LPCD)in rural Karnataka- Oct 2003

Source RDPR, Department 2003

Source: RDPR department 2004

Year Fully covered % to total Partially

covered % to total Not covered % to total Total

1999 30800 54.34 25037 44.17 845 1.49 566822000 33135 58.46 23482 41.43 65 0.11 566822001 34562 60.98 22120 39.02 0 0 566822002 36187 63.84 20495 36.16 0 0 56682

Service levels of water

Number of habitations

0 LPCD - 1 to 10 695

11 to 55 19,273 Above 55 36,714

Total 56,682

Name of the Municipal Corporations

Level of Water Supply (in

LPCD)Hubli-Dharwad 100Gulbarga 86Belgaum 85Mysore 141Mangalore 152Kolar 45Kolar City 56Tumkur City 66Mandya 60Hassan 115Chickmagalur 50Udupi 50Bhadravati 110Shimoga 105Davangere 51Chitradurga 70Gadag-Batgeri 85Bijapur 100

Size of Population Class of ULB Norm (Litre per capita per day)

Above 1 Lakh Class - I 13520000 - 1 Lakh Class - II & III 100Upto 20000 Class - IV, V, VI 70

61


Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board

Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board is responsible for providing water supply, sewerage system and sewage disposalin the Bangalore Metropolitan Area. Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board has implemented and commissioned theCauvery Water Supply Scheme Stages I, II and III. 753 million litres per day of water is received every day in the city from theCauvery and Arkavathi sources. The Board is also maintaining 5850 borewells in the city. Since the Cauvery river is consideredas the reliable source for water supply, Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board has already implemented the CauveryWater Supply Scheme Stage IV, Phase 1 project for further augumentation of the water supply to Bangalore city by 270 millionlitres per day.

The per capita water supply in the city is about 100 to 110 litres per capita per day. The distribution system within the cityparticularly the core areas is 70 to100 years old and water quality has been affected by corrosion of the pipes. In addition, thishas resulted in leakage and loss of water to the extend of 35 to 40 percent .

Master plan: Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board has taken up preparation of a Master Plan for Bangalore watersupply and sewerage with a project horizon upto 2025 covering 1200 square kilometers. It aims at improving the capacity ofdelivery system, providing proper sewage facilities and environment sanitation. The Master Plan also envisages institutionalcapacity building and providing specialist input advice to the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board for enhancing itsEnvironment Management System. As part of the Master Plan, three pilot projects have already been taken up in the city.

Sources of water supply and potentialin Bangalore

Aerial view of Yelahanka tertiary treatment plantAerial view of 270 MLD water treatment plant atTorekadanahalli

Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board targetsdistribution loss

In order to reduce the distribution losses and ensure enhancedsupply of water, the Bangalore Water Supply and SewerageBoard has launched Unaccounted for Water project. Theproject is first of its kind in India. By the end of the project,the distribution loss in the project area is expected to reducebelow 10 percent.

The pilot project area includes Vasanthnagar, Ulsoor, AustinTown, Richmond Town, Sivan Chetty Garden, Bharatinagar,Langford Gardens, Ashoknagar, Shivajinagar, CommercialStreet, Victoria Layout, Jogupalya, Income Tax Colony,Shantinagar, Neelasandra and Adugodi.

The project involves identification of water feeder lines,providing mega meters called District Area Meters, Trial holesto assess the location and condition of pipes, and also surveysat customer's point. Replacement of valves and corrodedpipelines, fixing of pressure gauges, conducting pressure zerotests, and minimum night flow measurement tests are alsobeing carried out as part of the project.

The project will be completed by the end of March 2004. ByJune the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board aimsto provide daily water supply to these areas.

Sl. No. Type of Source Potential

(MLD) Reliability

1 River Arkavathia. Hesarghatta 36b. TG Hally 148

Sub Total 1842 River Cauverya Stage I 135b Stage II 135c Stage IIII 270d Stage IV Phase 1 270 -

Sub Total 8103 Ground Water

a Public5850

borewells (800 motorised)

High in short term and low in

long term

b Private >72000 borewells

Low (Rain dependent)

High

62


The Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board,which has the responsibility to provide drinking water andsanitation facilities to all urban areas, except Bangalore,has taken up various schemes to provide drinking water

and sanitation facilities to 208 urban local bodies. Urbanpopulation is covered with potable water supply to theextent of 78 percent, while about 24 percent of urbanpopulation is covered with underground drainage systemsas in March 2003.

Additionally, about 55 new water supply and 17 newunderground drainage schemes are being implementedin 2003-04 by the Karnataka Urban Water Supply andDrainage Board.

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY ISSUES AND IMPACTS

Availability of safe drinking water is a major problem havingenvironmental repercussions. More than 50 percent ofrural habitations in seven districts namely Belgaum (64.44percent), Bellary (57.28 percent), Dharwad (54.69

Rural water supply schemes and level of supply

Borewell with Handpumps - 91.7 percent of 470 ruralhabitations had less than 55 litres per capita per day.Mini Water Supply Schemes – Out of 646 schemes surveyed91.48 % reported less than 55 litres per capita per day.Piped Water Supply Schemes - 86.07 percent of 977 ruralhabitations had less than 55 litres per capita per day watersupplySource: High Power Committee Report, GoK, 2002

As many as 21 per cent of drinking water borewells, 7 percent of mini water schemes and 7 per cent of piped watersupply schemes were found to be defunct.(Department of Rural Development and Panchayat Ra,j 2001)

Status of water quality by habitations in Karnataka

Source: Department of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj survey-2002

Excess fluoride Brackishness Excess

NitrateExcess

IronBagalkote 624 414 65.3 21.29 24.92 5.21 13.88Bangalore (U) 1285 804 62.57 20.39 17.43 0 24.75Bangalore (R) 3394 1154 34 11.96 4.36 12.1 5.57Belgaum 1506 713 47.34 8.9 10.56 0.07 27.82Bellary 1168 644 55.14 41.87 7.79 3.25 2.23Bidar 812 217 26.72 4.56 6.9 15.2 0.12Bijapur 928 573 61.75 21.55 25.97 2.05 12.18C.R.nagar 830 659 79.4 4.1 3.25 51.2 20.84Chikkmagalore 3366 788 23.41 1.52 2.29 4.04 15.57Chitradurga 1369 1077 78.67 37.91 25.2 9.2 6.36D.Kannada 3137 300 9.56 0.06 0.13 0 9.37Davangere 1084 803 74.08 33.03 14.39 26.57 0.09Dharwad 494 239 48.38 9.92 23.28 0.2 14.98Gadag 350 169 48.29 36.29 12 0 0Gulbarga 2296 653 28.44 19.29 2.57 0.13 6.45Hassan 3900 702 18 4.08 4.64 1 8.28Haveri 630 518 82.22 12.22 17.94 20.63 31.43Kodagu 573 315 54.97 0.52 0 1.05 53.4Kolar 3742 1942 51.9 13.6 8.52 26.86 2.91Koppal 709 531 74.89 67.28 7.05 0 0.56Mandya 1873 1411 75.33 8.44 27.66 2.72 36.52Mysore 1934 948 49.02 5.43 22.44 6.26 14.89Raichur 1219 697 57.18 26.42 16 10.58 4.18Shimoga 4424 540 12.21 2.01 1.97 0.05 8.18Tumkur 5484 3709 67.63 12 10.67 17.8 27.17Udupi 5640 232 4.11 0.2 0.04 0.02 3.87Uttara Kannada 3901 256 6.56 0.62 1.9 0.33 3.72TOTAL 56682 21008 37.06 10.3 7.87 7.19 11.7

DistrictTotal No. of habitations

affected

% of Affected

habitations

Total No. of Habitations

% of habitations affected by

63


percent), Gulbarga (62.59 percent), Chamarajnagar (75.18percent) and Bangalore Urban (64.79 percent) have lessthan 55 litres per capita of water supply. In the droughtprone districts of Bijapur, Bidar, Bagalkot, Chitradurga,Davangere, Tumkur, Koppal, Raichur and Gadag, morethan 30 percent of rural habitations do not have access to55 litres per capita per day water supply.

The problem of inadequate drinking water supply is alsoobserved in urban areas of the State. Of the 208 urbanlocal bodies under the Karnataka Urban Water Supply andDrainage Board, in 161 urban local bodies (77percent) the drinking water supply is inadequate.In all major towns of Bangalore Urban, Kolar,Tumkur, Udupi, Chitradurga, Gadag, Haveri,Gulbarga, Belgaum, Dharwad and Raichur districtsthe drinking water supply is less than the acceptednorms. Only in Mysore and Mangalore the level ofwater supply is higher than the norm adopted bythe Karnataka Urban Water Supply and DrainageBoard. Water supply in the Municipal Corporationsof Gulbarga, Hubli-Dharwad and Belgaum is veryinadequate.

The presence of organic and inorganic substancesin excess of permissible limits adversely affects the

Standards prescribed for drinking water in India

Source: Bureau of Indian Standards: IS 10500:1991

Percentage of habitations having groundwater quality problems

health of people. For instance, presence of fluoride inexcess of 1.5 parts per million, causes dental and skeletalfluorosis. Consumption of brackish water leads to skindiseases and biological or organic contamination of waterleads to water borne diseases.

Ground water in more than 37 percent of rural habitationsand surface water in some river stretches is contaminated.Groundwater quality is a serious problem in more thanhalf of the habitations in Bagalkot, Bangalore Urban,Bijapur, Chamarajnagar, Chitradurga, Haveri, Mandya,

Substance / Characteristics

Desirable/ Essential

Highest desirable

Limit (ppm)

Max Permissible limit in Absence of Alternative source

(ppm)Calcium Desirable 75 200Magnesium Desirable 30 100Iron Essential 0.3 1Chloride Essential 250 1000Sulphate Desirable 200 400Nitrate Desirable 45 100Fluoride Desirable 1 1.5Total Dissolved Solids Desirable 500 2000

PH Essential 6.5-8.5 No relaxationTotal Hardness Essential 300 600

64


Tumkur, Bellary, Davanagere, Kodagu, Kolar, Raichur andKoppal districts. Excess Fluoride in ground water is a majorproblem in 14 districts ranging from 10 to 67 percent ofthe total habitations of these districts. Similarly, excessBrackishness in 13 districts (10 to 27 percent of thehabitations), excess Nitrate in 8 districts (10 to 51 percentof habitations) and excess Iron in 12 districts (10 to 63percent of habitations) have also affected the quality ofdrinking water.

A survey conducted by the Rural Development andPanchayat Raj department in 2002 covering 21008habitations across the state revealed that 5830 habitationswere affected by excess Fluoride, 6633 habitations byexcess Iron, 4077 habitations by excess Nitrate andbrackishness was a problem in 4460 habitations.

In an other survey conducted by the High PowerCommittee in 2002 in 76 towns having bore well basedwater supply, it was found that 16 percent had water unfitfor drinking, 5 percent of towns reported brackishness, 5percent hardness and 3 percent contamination. Amongthe districts surveyed, brackishness was a major problemin 33 percent of towns in Raichur district, 20 percent inBangalore Rural, 15 percent in Kolar. Hardness wasreported in 50 percent of towns in Shimoga, 40 percent inBangalore Rural and 17 percent in Haveri districts. InDavanagere and Tumkur water was contaminated, in 33and 12 percent of the towns respectively. Similarly waterquality test for tank based drinking water schemes showedthat in 8 percent of the 28 towns surveyed, the quality ofwater was low with high concentration of salt and hardnessin water.


The number of habitations covered with adequate drinkingwater supply grew from 54 percent in 1999 to 64 percentin 2002, showing an annual growth rate of 4.11%. If thisgrowth rate continues, the drinking water requirements of50000 rural habitations (81 percent) can be met by theend of 10th Five Year Plan (2003-2008) and all habitationsby end of 11th Five Year Plan (2008-2013) with adequatedrinking water supply.

Even though the number of towns covered with adequatewater supply increased from 24 to 47 between 1998 and2003, the state still has 161 urban local bodies withinadequate water supply. In Chitradurga and Dharwadthe groundwater level has declined to around 19 meters,while in Bangalore, Bellary, Tumkur and Kolar to around16 meters depth during 2002.

During 2001 poor water quality was a problem in about20929 habitations (i.e., 36.92 percent) (Government ofKarnataka, High Power Committee Report, 2002) the sameincreased to 21008 habitations in the 2002. If this trendcontinues, poor water quality would be a problem in 21235habitations (37.46 percent) by 2008, 21427 habitations(37.80 percent) by 2013, and about 21621 habitations(38.14 percent) by 2018.

HOTSPOTS

Bellary, Bangalore, Bijapur, Tumkur, Kolar and Chitradurgaare considered as hotspots for drinking water supply asthey show all the three problems of inadequate watersupply, declining groundwater level and poor water quality.Dharwad has problem of both inadequate water supplyand declining groundwater level. Chamarajnagar andHaveri have been listed as hotspots for inadequate watersupply and poor water quality.

CAUSES

Groundwater levels fluctuate depending on rainfall, rateof recharge and extraction. In addition, factors likegeographical and geological conditions also influence thelevel of groundwater. Depletion of water table (a supplyfactor) combined with over extraction of groundwater (ademand factor) leads to scarcity of water.

Degradation of forests, siltation and inadequate rainfallhas reduced the supply capacity of surface sources likerivers, lakes, reservoirs and tanks. The general neglect inconserving rainwater and discharge of untreated sewageinto the water bodies also has lead to depletion anddeterioration of water resources.

Apart from the supply and demand driven factors, lack of

65


Hotspots of drinking water supply

66


Protecting the Tippagondanahalli catchmentTippagondanahalli reservoir built at the confluence of Arkvathi and Kumudvathi rivers is one of the sources of drinking water toBangalore city since 1930. Tippagondanahalli reservoir in normal year supplies upto 125 million litres per day of water to the cityand in recent years, the inflow has been decreasing and the quality has been affected due to due to the effluent discharge.

A study conducted by the Indian Space Research Organisation for Bangalore Metropoliton Development Authority revealed thatthis environmentally sensitive area has been adversely affected by the unplanned activities like increasing urbanization,indiscriminate and unscientific waste and sewage disposal both by house-holds and industries and increasing load of industrialeffluents in the catchment. Conservation measures have been initiated to protect the Thippagondanahalli reservoir catchmentmeasuring 1453 square kilometres. The Environment and Ecology Department has issued a government order under section 5of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, dated 18th November 2003 envisaging comprehensive conservation program.

The entire catchment has been categorized in four Zones.Zone-1 Entire tippagondanahalli resevoir catchment: exploitation of ground water will be monitored and no fresh leases orlicence for mining, quarrying and stone crushers shall be granted.Zone-2 Area covered within 2 kilometres from the Tippagondanahalli reservoir boundary: except agricultural activitiesall other activities are prohibited without prior permissionZone-3 Area that falls with in 1kilometres distance from the river banks of Arkavathi and Kumudvathi: no activitiesother than agriculture and related activities are permitted without prior permissionZone-4 Area that falls within 1 to 2 kilometresdistance from the above mentioned rivers upto Hesaraghatta tank: onlyGreen category industries having scientific waste treatment facilities and rainwater harvesting system are permitted.

The concerned government departments like Urban Development Department, Mines and Geology Department and urban civicbodies like Bangalore Water Supply and Sewage Board, Bangalore Development Authority have been made responsible for thestrict implementation of this order.

67


operation and maintenance of water supply schemes (amatter of management and governance) is a major causeof inadequate drinking water supply. Other managementrelated issues include leakage in distribution network andpower fluctuations which make water supply schemessuboptimal.

Inorganic contamination of groundwater may occur duenatural factors. This leads to excess Fluoride (Koppal,Bellary), Iron (Mandya, Haveri) and Nitrate(Chamarajanagar, Kolar). Anthropogenic factorsinfluencing groundwater quality include over extraction ofground water, discharge of pollutants, inadequate andimproper drainage and sewerage systems, and improperlydesigned sanitation facilities. Contamination in thedistribution network due to leakage or broken pipes mayresult in sewage getting mixed with water.

SANITATION ISSUES AND IMPACTS

Sanitation issues in urban areas include lack of latrinesand underground drainage facilities. According to a studyconducted by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics(1998), out of 8634 latrines constructed under the NirmalGrama Yojana, 13 percent were misused and 3 percentwere not used. It is significant to note that misuse oflatrines was more in Bijapur (69 percent), Gulbarga (56percent) and Raichur (51 percent). In Raichur around 40percent of the latrines were being used as bathrooms, inGulbarga 34 percent were being utilized for otherpurposes.

Only 36 urban local bodies, except Bangalore and the CityMunicipal Councils around Bangalore have been coveredwith underground drainage facilities. Even in those townswhere the underground drainage is being provided thepercentage coverage of the households is relatively less.Further, 182 urban local bodies are yet to be providedwith underground drainage system in the state.

Most of the urban local bodies do not have sewagetreatment plants to treat wastewater. For instance, out of36 urban local bodies where underground drainage systemis provided, 9 urban local bodies do not have treatment

plants. Even among other urban bodies where sewagetreatment plants are provided, they are either oxidationplants (in 16 towns) or primary treatment plants (in 6towns). In none of the towns secondary and tertiarytreatment plants are established. Belgaum and Hubli-Dharwad Corporations do not have treatment plants.Treatment plants in Jamkhandi, Bhatkal, Chikmagalur andIlkal, were not functioning.

Lack of proper sanitation facilit ies increases theenvironmental problems particularly during rainy season.Overflowing soak pits contaminate water and soil andalso affect the health of people. The problem getsworsened in low lying areas, where usually poor peoplelive.


With the present rate of Nirmal Grama Yojana programmeabout 13 lakh households by the end of 10th Five YearPlan, over 15.3 lakh households by the end of 11th FiveYear Plan and nearly 17 lakh households towards the endof 12th Five Year Plan could be provided with latrine facility.This is still far away from covering all the 66 lakh ruralhouseholds as per the Census, 2001.

Underlying causes for lack of sanitation

Ignorance among rural people about the pollution causedby defecation in open area

Low priority among the rural households for having latrinesnear the houses

Lack of space near the house for construction of latrines

Non utilization of existing latrines facility

Insufficient water supply in both rural and urban areas

Lack of resources like land or earmarked space for manurepits outside habitations

Lack of knowledge of scientific composting methods amongpeople

Low priority assigned by local government bodies such asGrama Panchayat, Regional Development Boards forcreation of adequate sanitation facilities like drainage andsullage system in rural habitation

Improper design and implementation of drainage andsewerage system, lack of or inadequate place for divertingthe drainage in both rural and urban areas

68


ACTION PLAN

• Supply of water through tankers for non domesticpurposes should be regulated

• The local authorities should have adequateadministrative powers to control supply of waterthrough tankers, by way of licensing, prescribingstandards and periodical checks to ensuresupply of good quality of water.

Sanitation in Bangalore City

According to Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, about 80 percent of the water supplied in the city gets into thesewers as wastewater, which amounts to about 528 million litres per day. At present only about 38.6 percent of the geographicalarea of Bangalore City is covered with sewerage system.Some of the sewers are in a critical condition due to crown corrosionand require immediate replacement. Thus a project has been formulated by the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Boardto upgrade trunk system to convey the estimated sewage flow into all the sewage treatment plants. This scheme funded underthe National River Conservation Programme will also ensure prevention of pollution of the Ponniar and Cauvery rivers. BangaloreWater Supply and Sewerage Board has identified 66 Km length of sewers for rehabilitation. These works are to be completed inorder to acheive the goal of zero discharge of raw sewage into storm drains and lakes.

Out of the the 7 sewage treatment plants in the city, 5 are extended aeration tanks whereas 2 are with up flow anaerobic sludgeblanket reactor (UASB) followed by extended aeration. The existing sewerage system of Bangalore City is divided in to 3drainage zones, namely Vrishabhavathi, Koramanagala-Challaghatta and Hebbal. In addition there are three minor valleysnamely Kethamaranahalli and Arkavathi, Tavarekere and Kathriguppe with inadequate capacity to carry the sewage whichcontributes to wastewater stagnation and other related problems.

Issues of sanitation services in Bangalore City

The problems in existing sanitation facilities in Bangalore Cityinclude

Siltation, blocking of solid waste and damage in the seweragesystem.The sewage is left in open at many places creating unhygienicconditions in the surrounding area.Hennur, Halgevadayarahalli sewage pumping stations notworking properly.Dumping of solid waste in manholesSewer lines having crown corrosion and reverse gradient anddiscontinuity.Absence of sewers in slum and isolated areas. Sewage treatment plant at Koramangala and

Challagatta valley

Inadequacy of latrines

About 65 percent of the rural area has been covered bysanitation system in the state. The concerted efforts made bythe Government through programmes like Nirmala GramaYojana resulted in the construction of over 9.78 lakh householdlatrines up to October 2003. However, this is highly inadequate(over 6 households depending upon one latrine unit)considering that there are 66 lakh rural households.

Source: Rural development and panchayat raj department 2004

Status of sewage treatment plants

Present Capacity

(MLD)

Expanded Capacity

(MLD)

Kormangala & Challaghatta Valley 163 218 Activated

SludgePrimary and Secondary

are operational

Vrishabavathi Valley 303High rate trickling filters

Primary is operational

Hebbal Valley 60 90 Activated Sludge

Total Capacity 526 308

Process Status

Treatment Plant

Name of Plant

69


• The village Panchayats should be encouraged to takeup rainwater harvesting in the common areas throughcommunity water harvesting structures.

• The urban local bodies should prepare action plan forreplacement of old pipelines to prevent leakages. Theyhave to generate income for this purpose by increasingwater charges, preventing unauthorized connectionsand proper manpower deployment.

• An integrated water quality testing and monitoringsystem for surface and ground water in rural and urbanarea should be developed in order to avoid involvementof multiple agencies.

• The State Pollution Control Board, Mines and Geologydepartment or private sector laboratories should bemade responsible for testing of organic and inorganiccontamination of water.

• In Grama Panchayats private participation for providingpay and use toilets especially for women should beintroduced.

• The women self-help groups like Streeshakti should beencouraged for:

• Creating awareness on sanitation• Managing community toilets

• Slum improvement programmes should be given highpriority to provide basic facilities like drinking water,sanitation, covering all slums in all urban local bodies.Private management of community toilets may also beconsidered.

• The Urban Development department during the processof comprehensive development plan, should provideadequate land at appropriate locations for seweragesystem, public toilets/latrines, garbage disposal andsewage treatment plants.

• Water supply charges should be fixed on scientific basisto cover the all maintenance costs and variable costslike electricity charges.

• In the same way, the sanitation charges should also becollected/levied on a scientific basis to cover operationand maintenance charges and implementation of newsanitation projects.

• The revenue earned by the urban local bodies fromwater supply and sanitation services should bedeposited in a fund created for this purpose. This fundshould be used exclusively for the purposes mentionedabove.

Nirmala Bangalore, pay and use toilet

Impact of other sectors on water supply and sanitationMainly household, agriculture, urban planning and industrial sectors adversely affect the drinking water supply and sanitationsector. Increased demand for drinking water and sanitation services due to high growth in population, urbanization, economicactivities (irrigation, industry), etc., has lead to more pressure on availability of drinking water, its quality and sanitation facilities.

Household Agriculture Urban Planning

Mining and Quarying Industry

Inadequate Drinking Water Supply High High High Medium MediumDepletion of Ground Water High Medium High Medium LowDeteriorating Drinking Water Quality High High High High HighLack of Household Toilet Facility High Low High NA NALack of Sewerage system and Disposal Facilities High Low High NA High

Lack of Community Sanitation High Medium High NA NAIncreasing Number of Slums High NA High NA NATotal High High High Medium High

ProblemsSectors

70


Habitations affected by ground water quality problems

71

AIR QUALITY AND INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

AAAAAIRIRIRIRIR Q Q Q Q QUUUUUALITYALITYALITYALITYALITY ANDANDANDANDAND I I I I INDOORNDOORNDOORNDOORNDOOR A A A A AIRIRIRIRIR P P P P POLLOLLOLLOLLOLLUTIONUTIONUTIONUTIONUTION

There is so much pollution in the air now that if it weren’t forour lungs there’d be no place to put it all.

-Robert Orben

72


AAAAAIRIRIRIRIR Q Q Q Q QUUUUUALITYALITYALITYALITYALITY ANDANDANDANDAND I I I I INDOORNDOORNDOORNDOORNDOOR A A A A AIRIRIRIRIR P P P P POLLOLLOLLOLLOLLUTIONUTIONUTIONUTIONUTION

Current Status

Problems and Causes

Trends and Projections

Prioritisation

Action Plan

73



Task force for the control of air pollution in Bangalore city setup on 10-9-2001 under the Chairmanship of Additional ChiefSecretary

State Level Steering Committee on “Development of Bio-fuel”constituted on 16-7-2003 under the Chairmanship of AdditionalChief Secretary and Development Commissioner

To reduce traffic congestion, 108 roads converted to one-way,5 flyovers, 3 railway under pass on Outer Ring Road and 2railway over bridges completed, 206 km of road asphalted inBangalore city and Bangalore Metro Rail Project is proposed

Supply of green diesel (low–sulphur) and green petrol (sulphur0.05%) in Bangalore Outer Ring Road area from 1-04-2003

Supply of 5 percent ethanol blended petrol in 20 districts from9-5-2003 and in the remaining 7 districts from the end ofSeptember 2003

219 emission testing centres in the State provided with webcamera for issue of “Pollution Under Control” certificate

Order providing a subsidy of Rs 2000 towards interest on loanfor retrofitment of autorickshaws with authorised LPG cylindersissued by Transport department.

Measures enforced by Food and Civil Supplies Departmentto prohibit the misuse of public distribution system kerosenein adulteration of petrol

! Supply of public distribution system kerosene denied tothe cardholders with LPG connection

! Introduction of coupon system to ensure supply of publicdistribution system kerosene to genuine cardholders sothat public distribution system kerosene is not diverted forother purposes

! Public distribution system kerosene made distinguishableby adding blue dye. Some oil companies use furfural inaddition to blue dye.

Air Quality Improvement Action Plan for Bangalore City (within Outer Ring Road limits of Bangalore)In compliance with the Supreme court judgement the following action plan has been prepared by the Department of Ecology andEnvironment! Mandatory conversion of in-use 3-wheelers registered after 1-04-1991 onwards to bi-fuel mode (such as LPG and petrol) in

a phased manner from 1-12-2003 onwards with authorized LPG kits and fixed LPG cylinders.! Register only new 3-wheelers having bi-fuel mode (such as LPG and petrol) only from 1-12-2003 onwards! To take action for conversion of nearly 35,000 auto rickshaws which are running with unauthorized LPG kits and detachable

cylinders by October 2004.! “No pollution under control certificate - No fuel” scheme in petrol and diesel dispensing stations by October 2004.! Setting up of electronic Emission Testing Centers in each petrol bunk from 1-12-2003 onwards wherever feasible.! Increase sales tax and to impose entry tax on white kerosene (superior kerosene oil) to curb adulteration with petrol.! Strengthening strict vigilance and surveillance actions in order to check adulteration of fuel.! To make mandatory for kerosene wholesalers to register themselves and produce end use certificates before Civil Supplies

Department! To establish 5 Auto LPG dispensing stations in Bangalore city by March 2004.! To convert 5 roads into one way by Home and Transport Department by March 2004.! To construct 2 flyovers and one railway under pass by March 2004 as proposed by the concerned Departments.! To increase fleet size of Bangalore Metropoliton Transport Corporation BMTC from 3106 at present buses to around 4330

buses by the end of October 2005.! Karnataka State Pollution Control Board to install one On-line Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Station by June 5, 2004.! Karnataka State Pollution Control Board to take action to promote use of cleaner fuels used by major industries in diesel

generator sets and boilers.

""""" CURRENT STATUS

The major air pollutants include gases like carbon

monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and

particulates like respirable suspended particulate matter

and suspended particulate matter. These air pollutants in

the atmosphere have an adverse effect on human life and

are contributed by various sources. In order to protect

human health, property and environment from the adverse

effects of air pollution, the National Ambient Air Quality

Standards have been set by the Central Pollution Control

Board. The air quality standards have been developed

primarily on the dose effect/dose response relationships.

The standards set are an integral part of air quality

management which is required to set long term as well as

short-term goals for air quality improvement and

formulation of strategies and implementation of various

programmes.

The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme was

initiated by the Central Pollution Control Board in 1984-

85 to identify those areas in need of restoration of air

quality. In Karnataka the monitoring of air quality under

the National Air Quality Monitoring Programme is

undertaken by Karnataka State Pollution Control Board in

the cities of Bangalore (Anand Rao Circle, AMCO

Batteries, Graphite India) and Mysore (KSRTC building

74


A majority of air polluting industries registered with the

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board have air pollution

control systems in place and in operation. The percentage

of industries with air pollution control systems has

increased from 67.4 percent to 84.0 percent for large

industries and from 57.5 percent to 78.2 percent for

medium industries during the period 1997-2003 indicating

better compliance.

and KIADB building).

Under it’s own progra-

mme, the Karnataka

State Pollution Control

Board has also been

carrying out ambient air

quality monitoring at

Bangalore and has

recently started air

quality monitoring in the

towns of Belgaum,

Bellary, Bidar, Chickm-

agalur, Chitradurga,

Davanagere, Dharwad,

Gadag, Gulbarga, Has-

san, Hubli, Karwar,

Mangalore and Raichur.

Apart from the stationary

sampling locations, the

Karnataka State Pollu-

tion Control Board has

also been carrying out

monitoring at strategic

locations in the city of

Bangalore using a mo-

bile van. Most of the

commercial and sensi-

tive locations monitored

during August and De-

cember 2003 registered

carbon monoxide levels

higher than the stan-

dards stipulated. The ox-

ides of nitrogen were

found to exceed the stan-

dards at commercial locations of KR Market, Kimco Circle,

M.G. Road (opposite Cauvery Emporium) and Town Hall.

For sensitive location on Residency road (opposite

Baldwin’s Girls School) the levels of oxides of nitrogen

exceeded more than 4 times the standard. The suspended

particulate matter also was found to exceed the standards

for the sensitive location of Victoria Hospital, Residency

road (opposite Baldwin’s Girls School) and commercial

location at the KR Market and Town Hall.

Air Quality data monitored by mobile van in the months of August to December 2003

** Time weighed averages are for 1 hourRed indicates values above the stipulated standards

SPM SO2 NOx CO **

µg/m3 µg/m3 µg/m3 mg/m3

200.0 80.0 80.0 4.0

BMTC Bus stand Subashnagar 30.8.03 147.0 3.8 38.3 3.1

KR Market Bangalore 29.8.03 504.0 6.8 93.0 10.4

20.9.03 137.8 6.3 91.7 8.3

30.8.03 135.0 6.5 88.8 9.9

1.11.03 162.0 3.8 - 3.7

1.12.03 89.0 4.5 - 4.7

1.9.03 218.0 5.5 90.5 4.0

7.10.03 183.2 5.9 103.7 6.8

1.11.03 156.0 4.4 - 4.1

1.12.03 147.0 4.8 - 5.4

Indiranagar, Defence colony 27.8.03 75.0 3.6 32.6 2.5

28.8.03 58.0 3.7 22.4 3.1

8.10.03 74.6 4.1 24.6 2.5

1.11.03 93.0 3.8 - 2.5

1.12.03 79.0 3.7 - 3.5

Kimco Circle. Mysore Road 31.8.03 95.0 4.4 62.5 3.2

500.0 120.0 120.0 10.0

Bommanahalli IA 27.8.03 74.0 3.3 14.5 2.3

26.8.03 119.0 3.6 37.9 2.1

24.9.03 73.7 4.4 66.0 1.7

1.10.03 145.0 4.1 53.0 1.9

1.11.03 279.0 5.1 - 3.7

1.12.03 225.0 5.3 - 4.4

Rajajinagar IA 26.8.03 101.0 3.2 26.1 2.5

100.0 30.0 30.0 2.0

MS Ramiah Hospital 31.8.03 65.0 4.1 35.3 2.0

28.8.03 200.0 5.8 118.1 7.8

26.9.03 146.3 5.8 119.2 5.8

29.8.03 64.0 3.3 8.6 1.8

9.10.03 111.4 3.7 11.0 2.2

1.11.03 94.0 3.7 - 3.0

1.12.03 76.0 3.7 - 2.5

Peenya I.A (TVS Cross)

Residency Road, (Opp.Baldwins Girls School)

Victoria Hospital

Commercial

Residential / Commercial

Industrial

Sensitive

Air Quality (average values of the air pollutants monitored)

Standards for Residential, Rural, and Other areas

Standards for Industrial areas

Standards for Sensitive areas

Location of Mobile stationDate of

SamplingClassification of

area

M.G. Road (opp Cauvery Emporium)

Town Hall

Jayanagar, 4th Block

75


Details of vehicles registered in Bangalore urban and rural district

These numbers are cumulative total of the vehicles registered with the transport authority. Itdoes not reflect the actual number of vehicles plying on the road.Source: Transport Department

Personalised means of transport

especially 2-wheelers, cars and jeeps

account for 88.8 percent, 88.9 percent,

80.5 percent, 85.0 percent, 75.9

percent and 78.3 percent in the six

cities of Bangalore, Mysore,

Mangalore, Belgaum, Hubli-Dharwad

and Gulbarga. Of the personalised

means of transport, 2-wheelers form

the major group. Autorickshaws too

account for significant total suspended

particulate emissions in these cities

despite their smaller numbers. The percentage contribution

to carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions of 2-

wheelers similarly is also very high in these cities.

Further, unlike most developed countries, India is a diesel-

based country and the State of Karnataka is no different.

Diesel consumption is around five times the consumption

of petrol on account of the following

(a) Large scale use of trucks for goods movement.

(b) Use of buses for short and medium distance travel

instead of personal transport.

(c) Use of diesel in agricultural machinery, like

tractors, threshers, pumpsets, earth moving

machines etc.

(d) Large scale use of diesel powered generator sets.

(e) Use of diesel as industrial fuel.

The presence of sulphur in diesel contributes to fine

particulate emissions through the formation of sulphates

both in the exhaust stream and later in the atmosphere. It

can lead to corrosion and wear of engine septums. The

sulphur content in both petrol and diesel has now been

reduced from 0.5 percent to 0.25 percent. From February

2000, only unleaded petrol is being supplied in the entire

country. From April 2000, bezene content of petrol and

diesel is also being monitored with limits set at 3 percent

maximum.

Indoor air pollutants include tobacco smoke, pollen, mites,

moulds, insects, micro-organisms, pet allergens smoke,

volatile organic compounds, oxides of nitrogen, lead,

carbon monoxide, asbestos, various synthetic chemicals

and others. Degradation of indoor air quality has been

associated with a range of health effects, including

discomfort, irritation, chronic pathologies and various

cancers.

The contribution to air pollution loads due to domestic fuel

consumption is likely to be significant as the levels and

forms of fuel consumed by the household sector depend

on income levels, size of settlements, price of fuels, the

availability and access to modern commercial fuels and

the efficiency of the end-use equipment used. The rising

per capita income, changes in life styles associated with

urbanization increases demands for both end-use energy

and energy-intensive products and services.

The most important factor contributing to indoor air

pollution is indoor heating and cooking using solid fuel. A

significant proportion of these activities take place in the

Diesel

Petrol

Consumption of Petrol and Diesel inKarnataka and Bangalore

Kilolitres

Kilolitres

Source: Indian Oil Corporation Limited

Yea

r

Tw

o

Wh

eele

rs

Au

tos

/ te

mp

os

Car

s/ C

abs

Bu

ses

Go

od

s C

arri

ages

Tra

cto

rs /

Oth

er

To

tal

01-04-1985 195,210 12,375 58,971 3,812 12,217 5,881 288,46601-04-1990 415,854 15,754 85,037 4,243 18,298 6,555 545,74101-04-1995 594,639 34,335 120,103 6,454 34,625 14,220 804,37601-04-2002 1,183,752 64,520 259,001 10,077 49,037 30,171 1,596,55830-09-2003 1,388,058 71,269 277,569 26,975 57,623 46,878 1,868,372

Year KarnatakaBangalore

RuralBangalore

Urban1998-1999 354,965 10,201 225,566 1999-2000 381,958 10,852 239,964 2000-2001 433,252 15,168 273,649 2001-2002 481,642 18,609 310,151 2002-2003 503,619 19,073 314,852

Year KarnatakaBangalore

RuralBangalore

Urban1998-1999 1,976,547 69,137 274,339 1999-2000 2,155,062 73,550 291,850 2000-2001 2,154,653 79,748 301,340 2001-2002 2,158,390 83,834 320,434 2002-2003 2,241,602 91,521 349,284

76


living areas. It has been noticed that some of the highest

concentrations of particulate matter and other pollutants

occur in rural, indoor environments and in the urban poor

households. Biomass and coal smoke contains significant

amounts of pollutants like carbon monoxide, particulates,

hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides

and heavy metals such as lead and oxides of nitrogen

which are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic .

In Karnataka, wood and other biomass fuels consisting of

wood, crop residues and dung-cakes are still the primary

source of energy for the majority of people, particularly

the poor. As per data collected during the 1991 census,

97 percent of rural and 73 percent of urban households in

Karnataka use fuels such as wood, dung, kerosene and

coal to meet their requirements of energy (fully or partly),

for cooking. Wood is a major fuel in urban as well as rural

areas whereas crop residues and dung-cakes are used

largely in rural areas.

Firewood and chips is still the main source of energy for

cooking in rural areas with 84.7 percent of households

using it. This can be attributed to poor socio-economic

conditions of the rural areas as well as the lack of

penetration of commercial fuels in rural Karnataka. The

penetration of LPG in rural Karnataka has increased from

0.8 percent in 1989-90 to 4.61 percent in 2000-01 which

is still very low. The percentage of urban households using

firewood however shows a marked reduction from 55.3

percent in 1989-90 to 27.63 percent in 2000-01. LPG sales

in Karnataka has almost doubled from 247656 metric tons

in 1998-1999 to 413358 metric tons in 2001-2002 which

may have decreased the use of firewood in urban

households. Kerosene consumption in urban households

which increased from 19 percent in 1989-90 to 26.5

percent in 1993-94, has shown a reduction to 23.77

percent in 2000-01. A similar trend for kerosene

consumption has also been seen for rural households.

The consumption of biomass across Karnataka in the

various agro-climatic zones indicate variations in the type

of biomass usage. Wood is the primary fuel in all the

taluks studied and ranges from 1.0 to 1.3 kilograms/day

Sources of Air Pollutants

The particulate matter in the air can be solid or comprising of liquid droplets of diameter ranging from 0.002 to 500 microns andhaving a suspension lifetime varying from few seconds to several months. The suspended particulate matters are those particleshaving diameter less than 100 microns that intend to remain suspended in the atmosphere for a long period of time. Theseparticles may be directly emitted into the atmosphere. The particles which are less than 10 microns in diameter tend to posehealth problems as they are inhaled and get accumulated in the respiratory system. Sources of respirable suspended particulatematter include municipal solid waste, agricultural residue, burning of materials, construction activities, fuel combustion in industries,power plants, cement plants, industrial firms and boilers, power generating stations and motor vehicles. Of all the air emissions,the prevalence of suspended particulate matter and respirable suspended particulate matter are most critical. The presence ofextensively large and dry tracts of land, increased removal of topsoil have resulted in moisture loss. This has facilitated soilerosion by wind movement and are the natural cause for the increase in suspended particulate matter and respirable suspendedparticulate matter. Also, the extensive urbanisation, construction activities, increase in vehicular population, two-stroke petroldriven vehicles, frequent use of captive generating units, extensive use of fossil fuels, burning of bio-mass generate fine particlesin the ambient air leading to high levels of suspended particulate matter and respirable suspended particulate matter .

The major atmospheric man-made sources of sulphur dioxide are burning of fossil fuels, stationary combustion and industrialprocesses. Oxides of nitrogen are found in combustion processes mainly because of oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen and toa lesser degree by oxidation of organic nitrogen in the fuel. The transport and industrial sectors are major contributors of oxidesof nitrogen by the combustion process. Other non-combustion sources of oxides of nitrogen are nitric acid plants, fertilizer unitsand other chemical plants.

Distribution of households by primary source offuel for cooking

Source: Census of India-2001

Cooking fuel State Rural UrbanFirewood 64.89 84.75 27.63 Crop residue 5.29 6.95 2.16 Cowdung cake 0.24 0.29 0.14 Coal, Lignite, Charcoal

0.03 0.02 0.07

Kerosene 9.17 1.40 23.77 LPG 18.32 4.61 44.04 Electricity 0.43 0.21 0.85 Biogas 1.22 1.52 0.66 Any other 0.40 0.25 0.70

77


in the semi-arid Deccan plateau to 1.1 to 1.8 kilograms/

day in the eastern ghat region. There is higher

consumption in the coastal plains and western ghat region

of about 2.0 kilograms/day. The damp wood used in the

high rainfall areas of the western ghats could result in

increased particulate matter emissions. Cow dung use

varies from 0.03 to 0.22 kilograms/day in the semi arid

regions to 0.38 to 0.6 kilograms/day in the eastern ghats.

Crop residues use is quite high in the coastal plains and

Western Ghats regions to the tune of about 0.5 kilograms/

day.

Studies related to indoor air pollution show that the

concentration of suspended particulate matter during a

cooking session varies from 3 to 6 milligrams/m3 and that

of carbon monoxide from 5 to 50 parts per million. Women

in households using biofuels for cooking have to cope with

a daily pollution load equivalent to spending one hour in a

room that has as much as 40 milligrams/m3 of suspended

particulate matter, as against a value of 1.2 to 3.0

milligrams suggested by World Health Organisation.

Supply of kerosene through the public distribution system

is the main source of supply for rural consumers. The

subsidised rate of the public distribution system has

caused kerosene to be cheaper than petrol and has

resulted in the adulteration of petrol in urban areas leading

to an increase in the pollution loads.

" " " " " PROBLEMS AND CAUSES

The key problems of ambient air pollution include:

• High particulate matter levels in towns and cities

The key problem in indoor air is

• High indoor total suspended particulate matter and

carbon monoxide levels in the rural and urban

domestic sector

High particulate matter levels in towns and cities

Industries causing problems of high particulate matter

emissions and sulphur include the power generating,

cement, iron and steel, sugar, stone crushing units and

industries using diesel generators. Small scale stone

crushing units in Belgaum, Bangalore and Gulbarga are

present in large numbers, which are likely sources of

particulate matter in ambient air in those areas.

Bangalore has 1068 medium and large industries and

about 20 percent of the 252,671 small scale industrial units

of the state. The industries in Bangalore are predominantly

engineering, electronics and information technology

based. Mysore, Nanjangud, Shimoga, Bhadravati, Harihar,

Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad, Tumkur, Belgaum, Gulbarga,

Raichur, Bidar, Bellary and Kolar are other important

Concentrations of RSPM and COfrom different fuels

Figures in brackets are the coefficients of variation

Concentration of pollutants as a result of burningbiofuels in traditional cook stoves in Karnataka

Source: TERI Energy Data Directory & Yearbook 2001-02

Equipments at Karnataka State Pollution Control Boardlaboratory

PollutantsSample size (numbers)

Average concentration

(mg/m3)Total suspended particulates

38 3.2

Carbon monoxide 38 17

Wo

od

Oth

er

Bio

mas

s

Cro

p w

aste

Ker

ose

ne

Co

oki

ng

g

as

Respirable suspended particulate matter

1.1 (0.5)

1.1 (0.5)

0.90.53 (0.6)

0.42 (0.5)

Carbon monoxide10

(0.7)9.1

(0.7)5

7.8 (1.5)

2.8 (1.2)

Pollutants

Concentrations (mg/m3)

78


industrial locations in Karnataka. Air polluting industries

are mainly petrochemical and power industries in the

Mangalore region, cement and power industries around

Gulbarga, iron and steel and sugar in Bellary, aluminium,

sugar and cement in Belgaum and sugar industries in the

Mysore region.

The transport sector in urban areas has caused major air

pollution problems of high particulate matter due to rapid

growth of motor vehicles, poor road quality, inadequate

road space leading to traffice jams, old technology

vehicles, fuel quality and adulteration of fuel.

Rapid growth in the number of motor vehicles has far

outpaced the growth of the urban population. In the

absence of any integrated urban transport policy, both at

the national and state levels, and the public transport

system has not been able to keep pace with the growing

demand, there has been a rapid growth in personalized

vehicles in the last two decades. The occupancy rate of

personalized vehicles in urban areas is very low, further

increasing density of vehicles. Poor road quality and

maintenance in urban areas has further obstructed the

smooth movement of traffic, leading to congestion, which

also increases air pollution.

Inadequate road space cannot accommodate the rise in

the number of vehicles. Traffic jams and congestion

impede the flow of traffic, reduce the average speed,

change driving patterns and thus increase emissions.

During idling, cruising and deceleration, the weight of

particulates per cubic metre of exhaust gases is 25 to 50

times higher in the case of diesel vehicles but during

acceleration this increases by 500 to 800 percent above

the average value for petrol engines.

It is well recognised that current vehicle technologies in

India are still inferior compared to those in the developed

countries. Buses are built on a truck chassis and designed

for optimal speeds that are possible only on highways and

not within the city. The largest segment of the vehicular

fleet, namely two-wheelers, use the highly polluting two-

stroke engine. New emission efficient vehicles are likely

to account for only a small proportion of the vehicle fleet

and the emissions from older vehicles would continue to

Motor vehicle technologies and emission benefits

New generation engine technologies for cars and threewheelers using either liquid or gaseous fuels have resulted inreducing pollution from auto exhausts.

In the case of older model petrol passenger cars, a changeover to gaseous fuels, in most cases, results in reduction incarbon monoxide emissions, however oxides of nitrogen insome cases may go up. Particulates are low in both cases.

In the case of old generation diesel cars and three-wheelers,conversion retrofitment / replacement of the engine to four-stroke engine on petrol or gaseous fuel gives benefits in termsof reduced particulate matter emissions.

In the case of old generation two stroke petrol three-wheelers,a change over to four-stroke engine provides particulateemission benefits, both with petrol and gaseous fuels,however, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen emissionmay increase.

Road performance of alternative fuel vehicles depends onthe use of standard kits of the right quality. While adulterationin liquid fuels affects emission performance, use/fiting of sub-standard conversion kits adversely affects emissionperformance in alternative fuel vehicles.

Both conventional auto fuels and alternative auto fuels havetheir inherent advantages.

be an issue. Ensuring proper maintenance of vehicles

would therefore be an important aspect to check air

pollution in cities. Lack of awareness and indifference

among the vehicle owners towards proper maintenance

are major hurdles to address such problems.

The potential of using CNG as an alternative auto fuel in

Karnataka as is being done in Delhi is limited as feasibility

of laying gas pipelines connecting cities with the supply

sources is less and LPG is seen to be a more viable option

in Karnataka especially in Bangalore. The emissions from

vehicles retrofitted with LPG kits are dependent largely

on the LPG conversion kit used and not on LPG by itself.

The availability of unauthorised substandard kits in the

market and their use in vehicles is thus an important issue

that needs to be addressed.

Replaceable LPG tanks used only for stationary purpose

are currently being used in retrofitted vehicles in Bangalore

raising safety concerns about the possible use of spurious

and sub standard fuel tank, accessories not meeting the

safety requirements, handling of cylinders by untrained

and ill-equipped mechanics, tendency to store the spare

cylinder in the auto and diversion of subsidised domestic

79


Bio-Fuels

Deteriorating air quality, diminishing stock of fossil fuels, increasing vehicular volume, demand for energy have warranted theneed for alternate fuels. Bio-fuel is a natural, environment friendly energy alternative to petroleum fuels. Apart from beingrenewable, biofuels also provide an opportunity for waste land development, employment generation and savings on foreignexchange. Ethanol and bio-diesel are the two bio-fuels which are being considered as potential fuel for surface transportation.Ethanol can be used in a 5-10% blend with petrol for vehicles to conserve petrol, improve urban air quality and reduce emissionsof green house gases. Ethanol, enhances combustion resulting in a more efficient burn and reduced emissions. The governmenthas ordered blending 5% ethanol with petrol in the country, which is being supplied all over the state with effect from 1-10-2003.

All vegetable oils (edible and non-edible) and animal fats on esterification gives fatty acid esters which burn like diesel and henceare termed as biodiesel. Biodiesel when used directly gives rise to operational problems like ignition problem and durabilityproblems like deposit formation, cabonization, piston ring sticking due to the high viscosity and low volatility. These problems canbe mitigated by developing vegetable oil derivatives thatapproximate the properties and performance and make themcompatible with diesel through chemical processes likepyrolysis, micro emulsification, dilution andtransesterification. Vegetable oils such as rapeseed oil,sunflower, soybean, palm, linseed, cottonseed, jatropha,pongamia, neem and animal fats like beef tallow, lard arebeing used as bio-diesel.

A study carried out by Environment Management and PolicyResearch Institute shows that there exists a great potentialin the state with respect to the non-edible oil seeds likepongamia, neem, and mahua. From the survey it was foundthat around 50% of the honge seed produced in the state iscommercialy traded, while the rest is consumed in domesticsector. Similarly, in case of neem, 65% of the total seedproduced is traded for commercial exploitation. The gapbetween seed production potential and the quantity tradedis enormous. This wide gap is mainly due to huge demandof seeds for the local (domestic) consumption. Also, lowopportunity cost of seed collection as compared to dailywage rate is also responsible for the low seed collection.On an average pongamia seeds yield 25 percent weight byweight of oil, neem yields 15 percent weight by weight of oiland Mahua yields 50 percent weight by weight of oil . Thereare around 1050 oil extraction units registered in the state(non-edible) with the extraction capacity varying between10 to 100 tons per year. However very small number of oilextraction units are currently working.

Pongamia: Based on the survey done in Tumkur andBangalore district, it is found that nearly 30% of oil is usedfor illumination purpose in the temple and houses, followedby 30% by industries. Similarly for Ayurvedic medicines it is20%, however for the bio-fuel use in tractor and generators itis nearly 20% of the oil is used.Neem: In case of neem about 50% of oil is used in soapindustries, followed by 25% in case of pharmaceuticals andpesticides. For ayurvedic medicines and home industries 20%of the oil is used. About 5% is used in veterinary hospitals andfor boat polishing.Mahua: About 40% of the oil is used in hydrogenated fatmanufacturing and 30% in soap industries. Local people use15% of oil for illumination and 10% for medicine purpose. Intemples about 5% is used for cleaning the stone idols.

Extent of oil production in domestic market

Extent of oil production from oilextraction units

PongamiaNeem

Seed production in the 17 districts surveyed and theprojected seed production in the state

SpeciesProductivity (MT)

in districts surveyed

Projected Productivity (MT) in

the statePongamia 66,989.93 101,696.89 Neem 112,289.25 170,465.43 Mahua 12,259.93 18,611.70 Other oil seeds 2,336.89 3,547.61 Total 193,876.00 294,321.63

Oil Production (Tons) Pongamia Neem MahuaPotentiality (Surveyed and Estimated)

25,424.20 25,569.80 9,305.90

Oil Expeller 11,523.00 21,343.00 1,572.50 Estimated Domestic consumption

13,901.20 4,226.80 7,733.40

Non-edible Oil species

No of Units (Oil Extraction)

Quantity in MT (survey)

Pongamia 29 11523Neem 40 21343Hippe 6 1572Others 112 1587

80


LPG to auto LPG cylinders. The unauthorised kits are

marketed at prices substantially lower than that of standard

conversion kits. The common perception that conversion

of an engine from liquid auto fuel to gaseous auto fuels

irrespective of the kit technology brings about all round

emission improvements is really not true.

Emissions from diesel generators are mainly oxides of

sulphur and nitrogen, carbon monoxide, particulate matter

(especially PM10

) and hydrocarbons. Since the emission

standards for diesel generators that are applicable to new

generators are effective only from July 2003, the emissions

from this source are expected to be quite significant,

especially since the only standards governing air

emissions from DG sets at present is the height of the

chimney. Smaller capacity DGs used during power cuts in

commercial areas are a source of localized pollution and

adds to the contribution from vehicular emissions.

The increased use of diesel generators by both industries

and commercial establishment has lead to an increase in

particulate matter in urban environment. The number of

diesel generator sets has increased from an installed

capacity of 2254.64 MW as on March 2000 to 3516.57

MW as on March 2002, and is a significant contributor to

pollution loads. Bangalore has the largest installed capacity

of 1473.1 MVA of which the largest group is diesel

generator sets with 51-100KVA capacities. Independent

power production capacities make up a sizable proportion

in the other 5 districts. Belgaum has about 60 percent of

the installed DG capacity rated below 10 KVA, while Hubli-

Dharwad has 37 percent of the installed capacity rated

between 11-50 KVA.

High indoor total suspended particulate matter and

carbon monoxide levels in the rural and urban

domestic sector

Traditional fuels like firewood, crop residue and dung

cakes still constitute more than 93 percent of fuels used

for cooking. Pollutants from stoves are mainly released in

poorly ventilated homes and due to the high concentrations

of households and the large populations involved, the total

human exposure to air pollutants can be very high in the

homes of the poor in rural and urban areas. Strong

associations between bio-fuel exposure and increased

incidence of chronic bronchitis in women and acute

respiratory infections in children have been documented.

Added to this, is the low rate of change over to commercial

fuels due to poverty and low penetration of such fuels in

rural areas.

""""" TRENDS AND PROJECTIONS

The registered vehicles in Karnataka during the period

1992-2002 have grown at an average rate of 9.74 percent

per year. The annual two-wheeler growth during this period

has been at an average of 10.0 percent, the two-wheelers

accounting for about 70 percent of the total vehicles. The

growing number of vehicles in cities, especially two

wheelers, is likely to continue at the same rate if adequate

measures are not taken to reduce personalised means of

transport.

Projections for Bangaloreas per the Committee on Auto Fuel Policy 2001

The Auto Fuel Policy 2001 for the country indicated that if thebusiness-as-usual scenario were allowed to continue till 2010,the pollution loads due to traffic would remain virtually thesame as in 2002 in major cities such as Delhi, Mumbai,Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and Hyderabad. This has beenattributed to a higher proportion of upgraded vehicles expectedto replace the older vehicles in future. The pollution loadsestimated by the Committee are based on primary datagathered in 9 major cities of India.

Pollution loads from vehicles in Bangalore (tonnes/day)based on business-as-usual scenario

Fuel-Cells

Fuel cells produce electricity by electrochemical reactionbetween hydrogen and oxygen gases. Fuel cells are efficient,environmentally benign, compact, modular and reliable forpower generation. Fuel cell operate on oxygen from air andhydrogen from variety of fuels. Different types of fuel cellswhich are currently under development include the protonsexchange membrane fuel cell, Phosphoric acid fuel cells,molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, directmethanol fuel cells and alkaline fuel cells. They offer highefficiency and low emissions especially of carbon dioxide.However, a lot of research in terms of safety, availabilty ofhydrogen producing resources, cost effectiveness needs tobe carried out to make this environmentally safe fuel userfriendly.

Year CO NOx HC PM2000 207.04 29.72 117.37 8.112010 199.9 44.17 103.32 8.14

81


Industrial production in Karnataka has been growing at

an average annual rate of 6.1 percent between the years

1996-2001. In recent times, Karnataka’s industrial growth

has been in information technology, bio-technology and

related industries, which do not contribute to air pollution.

The New Industrial Policy 2001-06 aims to achieve an

average industrial growth rate of 10-12 percent per year

and focuses on small and medium industries. The policy

however, makes no mention of environmental protection,

optimum resource utilization or non-conventional energy

utilization that was an important feature of the earlier policy.

The trends in power generation in Karnataka show an

increase in thermal generation and from independent

power producers. Thermal generation in the state has been

increasing due to capacity addition at the Raichur Thermal

Power Station, which currently has its 6 units in operation

and has only recently commissioned its seventh unit. With

plans for the Bellary Thermal Power Station in the next 10

years, localised emissions due to thermal power

generation is likely to increase at these locations.

The trends of air pollution in Bangalore indicate that the

levels of suspended particulate matter and respirable

suspended particulate matter have been above

permissible limits for the past five years. The projected

loads continuing to remain the same in the business-as-

usual scenario would therefore imply that the

concentrations of pollutants would not decrease even with

better technology of vehicles and fuel quality unless the

mass rapid transit system being proposed for Bangalore

could be implemented.

The other smaller Municipal Corporations could have

increased pollution loads in 2008 and 2013 as it is likely

that older vehicles would continue to ply on their roads.

The moderately high particulate matter concentrations in

these cities could consequently increase in later years to

beyond permissible levels if adequate steps are not taken

in these cities.

The quality of petrol and diesel which are the main auto

fuels has been improved in the past few years. Unleaded

petrol (0.013 grams/litre) has been introduced in place of

the low-leaded petrol (0.15 grams/litre) and the sulphur

content in diesel was reduced to 0.25 percent for the entire

country. However, measures are necessary to check

adulteration of petrol and diesel using kerosene, naphtha,

hexane and benzene to achieve reductions in emissions.

For diesel generator sets, the trend indicates an increase

in the use if the power situation does not improve thereby

increasing the pollution loads.

With the increasing non-availability of traditional fuels, and

LPG being a convenient and safe cooking fuel, the

government has decided to commence marketing of LPG

in the rural areas. Further, with a view to increase

penetration into the rural areas, the Ministry of Petroleum

Source: KSPCB

Trends of annual mean concentrations of suspendedparticulate matter, sulphur dioxide in air quality

monitoring stations of Karnataka

82


and Natural Gas, Government of India, has approved a

special scheme in July 1999 for release of new LPG

connections in the rural sector against the surrender of

corresponding kerosene quota. It is estimated that in the

next decade there is going to be a rapid increase in the

consumption of LPG, rural areas accounting for a large

portion of the increase. The low buying capacities of the

rural communities and the absence of mechanisms for

the provision of easy credit however, is likely to affect the

penetration of LPG in rural

areas.

Though the LPG sales in

Karnataka for the last five

years have almost doubled,

a majority of rural

households do not have

access to LPG. The

unreliable supply of LPG in

rural areas acts as a

disincentive for people to

switch over to it in the long

run. Further, kerosene is

rationed and therefore, its

use is restricted only to

lighting and not cooking.

" " " " " PRIORITISATION

The two major issues with regard to air quality and indoor

air pollution in Karnataka have been prioritised based on

six socio-economic and ecological parameters and

summarised in the prioritisation matrix.

The high particulate matter levels in most towns and cities

Health impacts of air pollutants

Prioritisation Martix


Imp

act

on

pu

blic

h

ealt

h

Lo

ss o

f b

iod

iver

sity

Imp

act

on

vu

lner

able

gro

up

s

Pro

du

ctiv

ity

loss

Imp

act

on

cri

tica

l ec

osy

stem

s

Irre

vers

ibili

ty /

reve

rsib

ility

Urg

ency

of

the

pro

ble

m

TO

TA

L

High PM levels in towns / cities

5 1 3 5 - 1 5 20

High indoor total suspended particulate matter and carbon monoxide levels in the rural and urban domestic sector of Karnataka

5 - 5 5 - 1 5 21

Socio-economic / Ecological impacts

Problem

83


in the state would have a high impact on public health,

productivity loss and is an urgent problem as the population

affected is large. As air pollution is likely to have moderate

impact on women, children and the poor, the impact on

vulnerable groups has been rated as moderate. Low score

has been given for the reversibility of the problem as the

causes are mostly anthropogenic and reversible.

High indoor total suspended particulate matter and carbon

monoxide levels in the indoor environment, have very high

impacts on public health and productivity in both rural and

urban Karnataka. The impacts are more pronounced on

women, children and the poor and ‘impact on vulnerable

groups’ has been given a score of 5 for both rural and

urban areas. The urgency of the problem is much higher

in rural areas than in urban areas as almost the entire

rural population uses low efficiency traditional fuels.

""""" ACTION PLAN

• The functional role of the Municipal Corporations

should be extended to ensure compliance of

environmental rules and stipulations to minimize

pollution in small scale units, commercial

establishments set up in residential and mixed land

use areas, for which trade license is given by the

municipal body.

• Environmental Cells should be set up in all the

Municipal Corporations.

• Trade licenses attracting the provisions of Air and

Water Act and opening in residential and mixed land

use areas (residential commercial and residential-

industrial) should be granted only when consent from

the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board is

obtained. The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

should not levy any consent fee on such small units.

• Action to be taken to develop a new enhanced

“inspection and certification” procedure that includes

high polluting vehicles like two stroke engine vehicles,

three wheelers, and vehicles above a certain age.

• The pollution under control certificates issued for two

stroke engine vehicles, diesel vehicles should be for

three months period and for the cleaner vehicles of

Euro series or Bharat I/II compliant vehicles, this period

is to be extended to 6 months.

• Technological aspects like compliance with Bharat

norms, two stroke/ four stroke engines should be

considered while registering vehicles.

• Karnataka state pollution control board shall install one

on-line ambient air quality monitoring station by June

2005 and should promote use of cleaner fuels used

by major industries, DG sets and boilers

• Fitness certificates for the renewal of the permit to auto

rickshaws should be granted only to those which have

the bi-fuel mode retrofitment units and vertically fitted

LPG cylinders from 2004-2005.

• A detailed computerised information database on

registered vehicles to be developed for better

Recommendations and Action Plan of the ExpertCommittee on Auto Fuel Policy, Govt of India

Monitoring of air quality by the Central Pollution Control Boardand State Pollution Control Boards is undertaken only in alimited number of cities. Air quality data being the very basisof major policy and investment decisions, are a crucial input.It necessary that air quality monitoring network is strengthenedsignificantly so that Pollution Control Boards will be able toscientifically collect/monitor the data comprehensively.

Contribution of inter-city/passing through traffic to the totalpollution load in the cities which do not have bypass roads, issubstantial. Further, contribution of different categories ofintra-city vehicles to the total vehicular pollution load variessubstantially in different cities. The schemes to reducepollution from in use vehicles need to be city specific, whichshould be prepared after assessment of contribution to thetotal vehicular pollution load from different categories ofvehicles.

The relative importance of the sectors namely, transport andindustries and domestic depend on the pollutants. Forachieving significant reduction in carbon di oxideconcentration, transport sector needs to be primarily targeted.For achieving significant reduction in oxides of nitrogen, boththe industrial and transport sector need to be primarilytargeted. For achieving significant reduction in respirableparticulate matter emissions, industrial sector, stationaryengines like diesel generator sets, domestic sector, and oldheavy duty diesel vehicles need to be targeted. For achievingsignificant reduction in sulphur di oxide industrial sector is tobe primarily targeted.

84


inventorization of pollution loads. Database to be created as a priority action plan for 2003-2004. Information on

the age of vehicles plying on the roads and the mix of vehicles with various technologies needs to be obtained.

• All taxis plying in Bangalore city to switch over to LPG within a short span of time. The transport department to

develop an approriate action plan.

• Promote cost effective renewable and non-conventional energy sources for domestic sector

• Encourage industries and households to use solar heating devices

• Awareness about indoor air pollution to be created among the masses

• The actual status of air quality in industrial areas needs to be established by increasing the coverage of air monitoring

activities.

• Pollution load apportionment studies are also necessary for all cities to establish the contribution of different

sources and to estimate the resultant increase in pollution levels.

85

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION


Unforunately, our affluent society has also been an effluentsociety

-Hubert H. Humphrey

86



Current Status

Problems and Causes

Impacts

Prioritisation

Action Plan

87


CURRENT STATUS

Karnataka is home to many industries, specifically in thesectors of iron and steel, pulp and paper, cement,chemicals, fertilizers, silk, textiles, mining, machine tools,and pharmaceuticals. The environmental problems thatarise due to industrial activities are water pollution, airpollution, generation of hazardous waste and noisepollution. The nature of emissions and effluents fromindustries are varied and industry specific.

Among the various industrial sectors, a substantial por-tion of effluents containing heavy metals are generatedfrom electroplating (nickel, zinc, copper), tanneries (chro-mium), textiles, and chemical industries, while organicpollutants are mainly generated from distilleries, sugar,pulp and paper, food processing, textile, pharmaceuticals,dye and dye intermediates and tannery industries. Thecontribution to air pollution from the industries in Karnatakais mainly from cement, thermal power units, pulp and pa-per, sugar, stone crushing, foundries, lead acid batteriesmanufacturing units, refinery, fertiliser, basic drugs andpharmaceuticals, and chemical industries. The main pol-

Salient features of Water, Air and Water Cess ActsRealizing the role of rapid industrialization in deteriorating water and air quality, the Government of India introduced the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, with the primaryobjective of prevention and control of water and air pollution. The Central Pollution Control Board and the State Pollution ControlBoards administer the Water and Air Acts. An investor intending to set up an industry, operation or process or any treatment anddisposal system is required to apply in the prescribed form and fees to the concerned State Pollution Control Board and obtainthe consent to establish as well as the consent to operate the industry after its establishment. While granting the consent, theState Pollution Control Board stipulates specific conditions relating to the temperature, volume, composition, rate and point ofdischarge of emission and effluents. This consent is granted for a specific period. The State Pollution Control Boards areauthorized to carry out random checks on any industry to check if the standards prescribed are being complied by the industry.In case the standards are not being met, the State Pollution Control Board is authorized to serve a notice to the concernedindustry. In the event of non-compliance of the standards, the State Pollution Control Board may issue directions for disconnectingelectricity and water supply or any other services to the industry, in extreme cases even to close down the unit. Stringentpenalties are prescribed in these Acts for those who operate their industry without a valid consent or in violation of consentconditions. Any persons aggrieved by an order of the State Pollution Control Board in the above context may appeal to theAppellate Authority constituted by the concerned State Government as per the provisions under the Water and Air Acts. No civilcourt has jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceedings in respect of any matter, which an Appellate Authority constituted underWater and Air Acts is empowered to determine.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 was introduced to provide for adequate funds to the StatePollution Control Boards. A cess is levied on local authorities which are entrusted with the duty of supplying water and certainspecified industries. The cess levied is based on the amount of water consumed and is collected by the State Government andpaid to the Central government. After due appropriation, the Central government rolls back to the State Government 80 percentof the money collected by it. Apart from utilising the cess fund for its administrative purposes, the Boards also use it for trainingpurposes. The local authorities or the industries liable to pay cess should furnish cess in the prescribed form at definite intervalsto the Pollution Control Board, failing which action against the erring party can be initiated. Where the local authorities orindustries liable to pay cess, installs any treatment plant for effluents, it is entitled to a rebate of 25 percent of the cess. Howeverin case where the local authorities or industries consume water in excess of the maximum quantity prescribed or fails to complywith the prescribed discharge standards, they would not be entitled for the rebate.

Charter on corporate responsibility forenvironmental protection

Industrial activities should comply with the regulatory normsfor prevention and control of pollution. Alongside, it is alsoimperative to go beyond compliance through adoption of cleantechnologies and improvement in management practices.Commitment and voluntary initiatives of industry forresponsible care of the environment will help in building apartnership for pollution control. With this in view, a series ofindustry-specific interaction meetings were organised by theMinistry of Environment and Forests during December 2002and January 2003 to formulate the Charter on CorporateResponsibility for Environmental Protection for the seventeencategory of industries. The action points enlisted in the Charterare addressed to corporate bodies as well as regulatoryagencies and thus, the Charter is a commitment forpartnership and participatory action of the concernedstakeholders towards progressive improvement inenvironmental management systems. The charter is notnecessarily limited to compliance of end-of-the-pipe effluentand emission standards but also sets targets ahead of effluentand emission standards for a number of industrial sectors.

lutants from these industries are particulate matter, ox-ides of sulphur and nitrogen which are emitted due toburning of fuels. Though these pollutants are also gener-ated from vehicular sources, specific pollutants such ashydrogen sulphide, volatile organic compounds, hydrocar-

88


bons, lead, etc., areemitted from the in-dustries like pulpand paper, refiner-ies and lead acidbattery units. Mostof the industriesgenerate hazardouswaste in the form ofwaste oils and sol-vents. Oil refineries,ferti l isers andpharma industriesgenerate spentcatalysts that arehazardous. A sub-stantial portion ofthe hazardouswaste is generatedin the form of pro-cess dust from ironand steel industries.

Certain categoriesof industries likepower looms and

tiny fabrication units which are in large numbers in theState pose serious problems of noise pollution to thesurrounding areas as these are located in residentialareas. The use of diesel generator sets with inadequateacoustic measures by a large number of industries is alsoa major source of noise pollution.

In the recent past, the growth of industries in Karnatakahas been oriented towards information technology, bio-technology and related industries. Though less polluting,the use of captive diesel generators in these industriescontribute to increased air pollution loads and centralisedair conditioning is a major cause for indoor air pollution.

In Karnataka, there are 160 industries that are classifiedunder the 17 category of highly polluting industries as onMarch 2003. The Karnataka State Pollution Control Boardhas categorised 118 types of industries as highly pollutingin nature. Industries such as electroplating, foundries,paints, enamels and varnishes, etc., are identified underas ‘Red’ irrespective of their investment levels. Of the totalindustries registered with Karnataka State Pollution ControlBoard, about 39 percent fall under red category. About 51percent of these industries are located in four districts,namely Bangalore Urban, Belgaum, Bellary and Mysore.The remaining industries are scattered in other districts.

Pollution control status of 17 categories of Industries as of March 2003

Industries registered under theDepartment of Industries andCommerce, November 2002

Districts IndustriesBagalkote 162Bangalore Rural 445Bangalore Urban 4036Belgaum 554Bellary 687Bidar 268Bijapur 131Chamarajnagar 21Chitradurga 195Dakshina Kannada 666Davangere 303Dharwad 414Gadag 31Gulbarga 631Hassan 217Haveri 32Kodagu 109Kolar 296Koppal 138Mandya 213Mysore 671Raichur 291Shimoga 363Tumkur 193Udupi 294Uttar Kannada 327Total 11688

Total No ClosedAluminium smelter 1 - BelgaumCaustic Soda 1 - Uttar KannadaCement 10 3 Gulbarga, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Tumkur

Distillery 28 1 Bangalore, Belgaum,Bellary, Bidar, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Dharwad, Haveri,Kolar,Mandya, Mysore,Shimoga, Tumkur

Dyes & Dye Intermediate 6 4 Bangalore, Dakshina Kannada, Mysore, RaichurFertilizer 2 - Dakshina Kannada, RaichurIntegrated Iron & Steel 1 - BellaryTanneries 4 2 Bangalore, BidarPesticides 4 3 BangalorePetro chemicals 1 - KoppalBulk Drugs & Pharmaceutical 33 10 Bangalore, Bangalore (Rural), Belgaum, Bidar, Mandya, Dakshina Kannada,

Mysore, RaichurPulp &Paper 5 1 Dharwad, Mandya, Uttar KannadaOil Refinery 1 - Dakshina Kannada

Sugar 60 4 Belgaum, Bellary, Bidar, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Dakshina Kannada, Dharwad,Gulbarga, Hassan, Kolar, Mandya, Mysore, Raichur, Shimoga

Thermal-Power Plant 3 - Bellary, Gulbarga, RaichurTotal 160 28

IndustriesCategory Districts where industries are located

89


The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has identified51 types of industries as moderately polluting in natureand has categorised these as Orange. Orange industriesconstitute a small percentage (18 percent) of the totalindustries and almost half the Orange industries arelocated in three districts of Bangalore Urban, Gulbargaand Dharwad.

The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has identified111 types of industries as being less polluting in natureand has categorised these as Green. Green industriesconstitute 43 percent of the total industries and arepredominantly located in Bangalore-Urban, DakshinaKannada, Bellary and Mysore districts.

No data is available on unregistered/informal small & tinyscale units in Karnataka. Based on an all India average,it is estimated that about 77271(27 percent of totalindustries) of such units are present in Karnataka. Theseinformal industries could be a source of environmental

Siting Guidelines for IndustriesFor Red category industriesIndustries should be located:

At least 25 kilometers from ecologically and/or otherwisesensitive areaAt least 500 meters from flood plain or modified flood plainaffected by dam in the up-stream or by flood controlsystemsAtleast 500 meters from highway and railwayAtleast 25 kilometers from the projected growth boundaryof the settlement

Projects require to follow the coastal regulatory zonenotification issued by the Government of IndiaNo forest shall be converted into non-forest activity for thesustenance of the industryNo prime agricultural land shall be converted into industrialsite.

For Orange category industriesNo industry shall be permitted

within city/municipal limitswithin 500 meters from the riverbanks/reservoirs/majortankswithin 75 meters of national and state highways, 50 metersof main district roads, 17.5 meters of other district roadsand 15 meters of village roadswithin 12 kilometers from notified archeologicalmonumentswithin declared biosphere reserves and eco sensitivezones.

For green category industriesFor green category industries the siting guidelines would beminimal.

Procedure for Environmental Clearance

The project proponents of red/orange/green categoryindustries will have to submit an application to theKarnataka State Pollution Control Board.30 Categories of projects listed in the Schedule I ofEnvironmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994 haveto apply in the prescribed application form given inSchedule II. The industries listed in Schedule I with aninvestment above 100 crores will have public hearing. Theindustries listed in Schedule I with an investment between5 crores and 100 crores and red category industries haveto apply for environmental clearance to the StaeGovernment.Site clearance is required from the the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Government of India for sitespecific projects.Environmental Impact Assessment / EnvironmentalManagement Plan is required for red category projects.Based on the internal arrangements, the Karnataka StatePollution Control Board head office or regional office willissue consent for the orange and red category industries.

Industries registered with the Karnataka PollutionControl Board as on 27/01/2003

Inclusive of hospitals and hotels

Consent for establishment issued by the KarnatakaPollution Control Board in last five years

Industries Red Orange Green TotalLarge 563 104 310 977Medium 527 235 595 1357Small 3991 1993 5390 11374Total 5081 2332 6295 13708

90


pollution, which presently go unnoticed. A census of bothregistered and unregistered industries is now being carriedout by Department of Industries and Commerce to updatethe inventory of industries in Karnataka.

Water Pollution

To ascertain the problem of water pollution in the Stateriver water quality monitoring is being carried out at 55stations for different stretches of rivers under the GlobalEnvironmental Monitoring Stations, Monitoring of IndianNational Aquatic Resources and Karnataka State PollutionControl Board’s programmes. Some of the sampling spotsare located adjacent to highly polluting industries/industrialareas and the quality of water in these stretches is beingmonitored every month and designated with classes from‘A’ to ‘E’ (‘A’ being the best and ‘E’ the least) by theKarnataka State Pollution Control Board. The analysis isbased on key parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen,biological oxygen demand and total coliforms.

As per the Karnataka State Pollution Control Boards 2002-2003 annual report stretches of Bhadra river at Kudremukhand Bhadravathi, Tungabadhra river at Harihar and Kaliriver at Dandeli receive treated trade effluent directly.

Certain highly water polluting industries like distilleries,that are in large numbers in Karnataka, currently adopttechnological options such as bio-methanation and

Options And Limitations Of Effluent Treatment For Distilleries

composting for the treatment of wastewater. However,these technologies have their limitations.

Air Pollution

The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board as well asthe industries monitor stack emissions periodically forvarious parameters depending on the type of industry. InKarnataka as of 2002-03, 9003 (75.22 percent) industrialunits of the 11968 industries brought under the Air Act werefound to have air pollution control systems and theKarnataka State Pollution Control Board has identified 718defaulting industries for not implementing air pollutioncontrol systems.

The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has also beenmonitoring ambient air quality in industrial locations ofBangalore, Belgaum, Bidar, Davangere, Dharwad, Hassanand Mangalore. The ambient air quality concentrations inindustrial areas of these cities for three parametersnamely, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, and respirablesuspended particulate matter in 2002-03 have remainedbelow the permissible limits. The suspended particulatematter concentrations have also remained below thepermissible limits for all cities excepting Hassan during2002-03. However, the monitoring is not representative ofall industrial areas and has not been carried out accordingto guidelines laid down by the Central Pollution ControlBoard.

The stack samples are collectedby regional offices of theKarnataka State PollutionControl Board using bulky andcumbersome equipment andare then sent to regionallaboratories for analysis. Thewhole process is timeconsuming making it difficult forthe Karnataka State PollutionControl Board to cover allindustries.

The large and highly air pollutingindustries such as cement in

Available Technologies Limitations

Colour removal – not effectiveHigh Operating cost for secondary biological treatment system

Tertiary treatment for the colour removal to meet the specified BOD limits and color removal are yet to be commercially established

High spent wash (wastewater) generationLand requirements are highRegular availability of press mud is difficult as the sugar industry (producer of press mud) operation is seasonalOperation during the monsoon period is very difficultThe process is laborious and slowOperation during intermittent rains (other than monsoon) poses problemsHigher capital & operating costsSensitive operation & maintenance required

Incineration

Biomethanation followed by Secondary Biological treatment systems

Composting

91


ambient noise monitoring only in cases of complaintsagainst industries for noise pollution and no regularmonitoring is done. In work environment, noise levels arespecified in the Factory Act, 1948.

During the period 2000-01, about 15 percent of the 280complaints received by the Karnataka State PollutionControl Board pertained to noise pollution from industriessuch as power looms, engineering units and D.G setslocated close to residential areas. The high noise levelsare attributed to the absence of adequate acousticmeasures to keep the noise levels within the prescribedlimits. Many small scale industries, are reluctant to installnoise abatement systems due to the additional costburden.

The ambient noise measurements conducted by Dr. S.R.Chandrasekhar Institute of Speech and Hearing in 1999for five small scale industries in Bangalore (which aremainly engineering and machine tool units) revealed thatnoise levels were above the prescribed standards (75 dBA)in daytime in three industries. The noise measurementstudies conducted in the work environment of six smallscale units (flour mill, engineering and machine tools units)

Gulbarga, thermal power plant in Raichur, drugs andpharmaceuticals in Bangalore (urban and rural), fertiliser,chemical and refinery units in Mangalore could cause highambient air pollution due to their clustering despite thefact that these industries have air pollution control systems.Scientific ambient air quality monitoring in these locationsneeds to be carried out to assess the effect of suchindustrial clusters on ambient air quality.

A serious problem in clusters of small highly air pollutingunits such as puffed rice industries is that they use lowgrade fuels such as rice husk and used tyres. There areabout 5500 such industries which are located in clustersin Davanagere, Hubli-Dharwad, Haveri, Bellary, Gulbarga,Belgaum, Mysore and Bangalore rural districts. In theselabour intensive units, a large number of workers aredirectly exposed to dangerous pollutants such as dioxinsfrom tyre burning apart from other pollutants.

Noise Pollution

Under the Air Act, the Noise Pollution (Regulation andControl) Rules, 2000 have been formulated under whichthe Karnataka State Pollution Control Board carries out

* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval--- means data not availableSource: KSPCB

Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in Industrial Locations, 2002-03

SPM RSPM SO2 NOx

Annual Average* 360 120 80 8024 hours 500 150 120 120

Bangalore Amco Batteries 365 119 55 12 26Bangalore Graphite India 365 111 52 16 16Belgaum KSCPB Building Autonagar 60 18.75 27.08 --- ---Belgaum SSI Assocaition Udhyambhag 60 27.08 85.41 --- ---Bidar Regional office building 50 116.19 --- --- ---Davanagere M/s,HPF Ltd 57 131 --- 5.3 3.21Dharwad Hinduatan Lever Ltd 86 108.6 73.29 2.18 7.85Dharwad Office building, Lakamanhalli 123 153.59 --- 3.33 3.98Hassan B.Katihally Indl.Area 45 96 --- 6 9.3Hassan KIADB Indl.Area 45 128 --- 7.4 5.5Hassan HSSK ltd. 45 477 --- 12 19Mangalore Regional office building, Baikampadi 45 111.6 --- --- ---

Standards for industrial areas

City Location of sampling station Total No. of samples collected

Air Quality (average values of the air pollutants monitored) in

µg/m3

92


indicated very high noise levels exceeding 90 dBA in fourunits. In the other two units, the noise levels varied between75-90 dBA . The study also revealed that workers in thesmall scale units were not provided with ear protectiondevices indicating occupational noise health problem dueto noise.

Ozone Depleting Substances

A study carried out by the Karnataka Cleaner ProductionCentre in 2003 identifies that there are no industries whichmanufacture ozone depleting substances in the state.However, about 122 industries in Karnataka consumeozone depleting substances in their manufacturingprocesses. These units are located in Bangalore (56.6percent), Belgaum (18.8 percent), Mysore (5.7 percent),Mangalore (8.2 percent), Hubli (8.2 percent) andTumkur(2.5 percent). Out of the total 122 industries, 83.6percent of the industries belong to refrigeration and airconditioning sector and the rest 16.4 percent of the unitsconstitute sectors of foam, fire extinguishers, solvents andaerosols. In 2003, 122 units have been identified as usingozone depleting substances as against 521 during year2000-01 indicating decreasing trend. This is a reduction

of about 75 percent in terms of number of ozone depletingsubstances consuming industries. Of the 122 industriesconsuming ozone depleting subtances duringmanufacturing process that are identified, 51 percent areregistered units by the Karnataka State Pollution ControlBoard, 37 percent are unregistered, and no information isavailable on the registration of 12 percent of the units.The inventory has not taken into consideration of ozonedepleting substances in old air-conditioning andrefrigeration units that are still in use, which could be ofsignificant quantity.

Corporate responsibility for environmental protection

The action points enlisted in the Charter call for acommitment for partnership and participatory action of theconcerned stakeholders towards progressive improvementin environmental management systems. The charter doesnot limit to compliance of end-of-the-pipe effluent andemission standards but also sets targets ahead of thestandards for a number of industrial sectors.

Responsibility of air polluting industriesAll air polluting industries including cement, fertilizers,

petrochemical, pesticides, thermalpower plants, pulp and paper, oilrefineries should

• continously monitor for operationparameters as well as specificparameters in the tail / flue gas• continously control fugitiveemissions through leak detectionand repair programme, especiallyfor solvents• continously carry out stackmonitoring as well as regularlymonitor ambient air quality forsulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen,particulate matter, fluoride, acidmist, hydrocarbons, benzene, etc.• install efficient scrubbers withbest technology for control ofhydrogen chloride, chlorine, methyl

Substitutes for Ozone depleting substancesbeing used in Karnataka

Sectors Name of ODSYear since

substitute is being used

Substitue being used in Karnataka

Air Conditioners

CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-22, CFC-113, CFC-114, CFC-115, HCFC-123

1998 HCFC-134a

Refrigerator CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-22, CFC-115 1987 HCFC-134a

Solvent Cleaning (PCB's & Metal parts)

CFC-113, CFC-13, CCL4, Methyl chloroform, CFC-12

1992 Trichloroethyl and Isopropyl Alcohol

Foam productionHCFC-22, CFC-11, CC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114

1992

HCFC-141b(rigid PUF insulation) Liquid CO2

(Flexible PUF), Methylene chloride

Fire extinguishers halon-1301, halon-1211, halon-2402 1998 HFC-122ea, NFS-3

AerosolsHCFC-22, CFC-11, CC-12, CCL4, Methyl chloroform

1995 LPG (deodorised)

93


chloride, phosphorus pentoxide, ammonia, hydrogensulphide, etc.

• control use of hazardous air pollutants like bezene,carbon tetrachloride, 1-4 dioxane, methanol, toluene,methyl chloride

• control odourous compounds like mercaptan, hydrogensulphide, etc., by installing odour control system

• install sulphur recovery unit, especially in refineries• route all hydrocarbon and halogenated organic to the

incineration system having end-on pollution controlfacility.

• not send, under any circumstances, halogenatedorganic to the flares as flaring leads to formation ofpersistant organic pollutants

Responsibility of water polluting industriesAll water polluting industries including distilleries, dye anddye intermediate, fertilizer, oil refineries, pesticides,petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, paper and pulp, sugar,tannery should• conserve water and reduce wastewater generation• install water meters and flow meters to measure actual

consumption and wastewater discharged• not discharge effluent arising from process plants and

associated facilities in any water polluting industriesto the storm water drain. The industries, where wastewater/effluent flows through the storm water drainsshould install continuous systems for monitoring thestorm water quality and route the storm water througheffluent treatment plant before discharging.

• segregate waste streams into high COD waste, toxicwaste, low COD waste, inorganic waste etc. for thepurpose of providing appropriate treatment.

• select appropriate unit operations for detoxification ofeffluent in order to control high COD and persistentorganic pollutants including toxic constituents beforesending to the biological treatment systems orthermally destroyed in incinerator.

• install automatic monitoring instruments, separateenergy meters, replace open anaerobic lagoons withcleaner technology options and in all common effluenttreatment plants and effluent treatment plantsimplement guidelines developed by Central PollutionControl Board for health and safety of workersemployed.

• submit pollution load, concentration of final dischargealong with water balance to state polllution controlboard for formulation of strategy for giving consentsbased on pollution load and concentration of pollutants.

• regularly monitor ground water quality.

• carry out monitoring of environmental parameters,audit it at regular interval and submit the same to statepolllution control board.

• start the operation of effluent treatment plant atleastone month before starting of process to achieve thedesired biomass so as to meet the prescribedstandards from day one of the operation in case ofseason based industries like sugar, distilleries.

• ensure proper and complete nitrification and de-nitrification, wherever such process is used for effluenttreatment

Responsibility of industries for safe disposal• Proper facilities should be provided for handling and

storage of hazardous waste.• Before final disposal of hazardous waste, recycling

and reuse should be given priority, either within thepremises or outside with proper manifest system.

• In case of incinerable waste, properly designedincinerator should be installed within the premises oroutside as a common facility.

• The non-incinerable hazardous waste should bedisposed of in properly designed secure-landfill eitherwithin the industry’s premises or in a common facility

Responsibility of industries for resource recovery andreuse• All industries to prepare and implement action plan

for conservation of water resources and maximizingreuse/ recycling of treated effluent

• Resources such as spent catalyst, solvents, chromium,salts, by-products in process sludge and wastestreams, other chemical should be recovered byinstalling proper recovery systems.

• Biogas from process sludge and effluent treatmentplant sludge to be recovered as an resource.

• Reuse of flyash for ash based products, charge of tarsludge to coke oven, steel melting shop / blast furnaceslag, are some of the uses where waste can be utilised.

Responsibility of Central/State Pollution Control BoardThe Central/State Pollution Control Board has been giventhe following responsibility of revising and setting newguidelines and standards.• Development of guidelines / standards for mercury and

other toxic heavy metals emissions for thermal powerplants

• Development of sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogenemission standards for coal based plants

• Reviewing of stack height requirement and guidelines

94

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT - 2003for power plants based on micro meteorological data

• Evolving load based standards for sulphur dioxide,oxides of nitrogen emission standards for the cementIndustry

• Finalize the guidelines for groundwater monitoring

CAUSES

The main causes of industrial pollution include• unregistered small scale units• lack of pollution control systems• lack of common treatment facilities• lack of economically viable treatment technologies• lack of awareness

Unregistered small scale unitsIt is very likely that most of informal/unregistered units donot have any treatment facilities. Discharges from most ofthe small and tiny scale industries are let into municipaldrainages or into other receiving bodies with minimal orno treatment leading to surface and ground water pollution.

Lack of pollution control systemsThe overall status of effluent treatment plants in operationset up by large, medium and small scale industries doesnot indicate any significant increase during the last threeyears. Lack of effluent treatment plants in a large numberof industries in Karnataka is a cause forconcern with regard to both surface andground water pollution. Proper operationand maintenance of the effluenttreatment plants is critical for ensuringthat the effluents are treated to desiredlevels. However, most of the industriesdo not give due importance to operationand maintenance as it involvessignificant expenditure.

Lack of common treatment facilitiesA large number of small scale and tinyindustries do not have individual effluenttreatment plants as it is not aneconomical proposition for them.Common treatment facilities that cater toa cluster of homogeneous/

heterogeneous industries are the only viable alternativesfor such industries. At present only three common effluenttreatment plants have been established and are inoperation namely, Lidkar Tanners Enviro Control Systemsfor tannery wastewater, M/s Pai & Pai Chemicals Pvt. Ltd.,Kumbalgod for Electroplating wastewater and BangaloreGolf club for Muncipal sewage.

Additional cost in the form of initial investment andrecurring operating expenses that would have to beincurred by the industrial units are the possible cause fornon establishment of common effluent treatment plants.The Karnataka Industrial Area Development Board hasno policy on the allocation of land for establishment ofcommon effluent treatment plants and none of the 78industrial areas developed by them have a commoneffluent treatment plant.

In addition to this, annual operation and maintenancecharges would be in the range of 10-20 percent ofinvestment. Though common effluent treatment plants canaddress this problem, for clusters of small and tiny scaleindustries, isolated industries cannot be connected tocommon effluent treatment plants. Because of spaceconstraints and high operation and maintenance costs,small scale industries in isolated locations pose problems

Sector specific environment friendly technologies

Type of industry

Environmentally Sound Technologies Anticipated benefit

Textile IndustryRecovery of ethyl acetate (solvent) from the print blanket wash waste by distillation method

Recover of print paste, reduced chemical pollution and less water requirement

Paper and pulp industry

Pulping technologies based on alcohol solvent, bio- pulping and ozone bleaching

Recovery of lignin, enhanced machine life and better product quality

Leather industry Chrome recovery from effluent Reduced heavy metal

pollution

Foundry Heat recovery system for furnaces

Reduced suspended particulate matter in stack and recovery of heat energy from flue gas

Rice Mills Gasifier to convert biomass wastes into energy

Captive power generation and self-sustaining on energy requirement

Agro Industries Bio-gas generation and vermi-composting of biomass residues

Captive power generation and on-site heat generation

95


in so far as water pollution is concerned.

Lack of economically viable treatment technologiesMost of the treatment facilities available are too costly andbeyond the capacity of small scale industries. Added tothis is the fact that most of the industries have spaceconstraints and treatment facilites need substantial area.

Lack of awarenessMost of the industries do not have or cannot afford to havededicated personnel for treatment facilities. The lack ofeducation and motivation has led to industries not beingaware of state of art technologies. Further, there is nocentralised database where industries can get information.

IMPACTS

The common chemical pollutants harmful to human healthfound in ground water due to industrial discharges arechlorides, nitrates, heavy metals and organic matter. Thecommon health problems caused by ground waterpollution include miscarriage, low birth weight, birth defectsand premature infant death. Adults and children suffer fromskin problems, eye irritation and neurological problemslike dizziness, seizures, fainting, etc.

Surface water streams are also affected by industrialeffluents and organics. Most of the treated industrialeffluents are disinfected with chlorine which reach thereceiving bodies and react with organic compounds to formchlorinated organics. The presenceof these compounds in the watercan cause cancer. Nitrates andnitrites are common inorganicpollutants that are released fromfertiliser industries and excessnitrite levels are fatal to infants(blue disease) and also lead toeutrophication of water bodies.

Human health is affected byindustrial air pollution mainly dueto release of particulate matter andgases such as sulphur dioxide,hydrogen sulphide, carbon

disulphide, etc. The major pollutant from the cement andthermal power industries is particulate matter, that causediseases. The people of Gulbarga, Mangalore, Raichur,Shimoga and Davanagere are likely to experiencepneumoconiosis (respiratory allergies, asthma and lungdiseases).

Prolonged exposure to intense noise causes permanenthearing loss. There is fairly consistent evidence that noiselevel of 80 dB or more for more than 8 hours a dayincreases tension, changes in breathing patterns andcauses deafness. As towns and cities become moredensely populated as a result of industrial growth, theproblem of unwanted noise is bound to increase bothduring the day and night.

PRIORITISATION

The priorities for industrial pollution in Karnataka are basedon socio-economic and ecological impacts of each issue.The predominant issues arising out of industrial activitiesare surface water pollution, ground water contamination,air pollution and disposal of hazardous waste.

The priority issue in Karnataka is surface and ground watercontamination. The use of poor quality ground water fordrinking purposes in the vicinity of highly pollutingindustries and industrial areas have impact on public healthand vulnerable groups. The contamination of the surfacewater can be reversed, while that of ground water can be



Impa

ct o

n pu

blic

he

alth

Loss

of b

iodi

vers

ity

Impa

ct o

n vu

lner

able

gro

ups

Prod

uctiv

ity lo

ss

Impa

ct o

n cr

itica

l ec

osys

tem

s

Irrev

ersi

bilit

y /

reve

rsib

ility

Urg

ency

of t

he

prob

lem

TOTA

L

Surface Water Pollution 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 29Ground Water Contamination 5 1 5 3 1 5 5 25Air Pollution 3 1 3 3 1 3 5 19Disposal of hazardous waste 3 1 3 1 1 3 5 17Noise Pollution 3 1 5 1 1 1 5 17Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances 1 - - - 1 1 1 4


Problem

96


reversed with great difficulty by controlling the pollution atsource.

Air pollution assumes priority due to human settlementsin the vicinity of industrial areas or group of highly airpolluting industries. However the impact of the air pollutioncan be reversed by appropriate control measures at sourceand also land zone planning.

The disposal of hazardous waste is a priority issue inKarnataka as it impacts the public health especially, thehandlers (poor) can get affected due to handling ofhazardous waste without safety precautions. As thescientific common disposal facilities does not exist in thestate, considering potential impacts which can be causedby hazardous waste has increased the urgency of theproblem.

The consumption of ozone depleting substances and noiselevels in the vicinity of industrial areas have assumed lowpriority as their magnitude and impacts are minimal andcan be reversed with low cost interventions.

ACTION PLAN

• Commerce and Industries department and PollutionControl Board should take action to promote cleanerproduction technologies. Allocation of funds forresearch to develop cleaner production technologiesrelated to 17 categories of highly polluting industriesand polluting small scale and tiny units andimplementation of the same should also be included.

• Environment audit has to be made mandatory for allred and orange category industries.

• Statutory status needs to be given for the ‘Zoning Atlas’for siting of industries.

• Encourage industries to take up a proactive role forthe protection of the environment, Karnataka StatePollution Control Board may institute an annual greenaward.

• The option of outsourcing monitoring activity shouldbe considered.

• Monitoring for air quality should be as per the CPCB

procedure of 104 measurements in a year taken twicea week 24 hourly at uniform interval.

• Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Systems to be set upin areas where there are clusters of highly air pollutingindustries such as cement (Malkhed, Gulbarga district)and thermal power (Raichur). Ambient Air QualityMonitoring Systems should be situated in thedownwind direction of industrial areas. Monitoring ofadditional industry specific pollutants such asMercaptans (Pulp & Paper), Ammonia (Fertiliser unitat Mangalore) and Hydrocarbons (Near Refinery atMangalore) etc. should be done.

• Karnataka State Pollution Control Board should imposestricter norms for existing industries or should not allowany new air polluting industries in any area whereambient air quality parameters exceed the prescribedstandards in the downwind direction of industrial areas.

• Suitable amendment is required to include ElectronicWaste (E-Waste) under Hazardous Waste(Management & Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000.

• River water quality monitoring should cover allwatercourse stretches adjacent to large industries/industrial areas.

• Additional chemical and heavy metal parametersspecific to the location, which would indicate the sourceof pollution, need to be analysed. This needs to bedone by the Department of Mines and Geology. Forexample, concentration of chlorides, lignin andabsorbable organic halides (AOX) can be indicatorsof pollution from pulp and paper industries.

• Categorisation of monitoring stations into industrial orresidential requires to be done to help the assessmentof ground water quality.

• KIADB/Karnataka Small Scale Industries DevelopmentCorporation should mandatorily set aside land forestablishment of common ETPs, for their industrialareas either in or around the industrial areas inpartnership with the industries. These commonfacilities can be developed on a Build, Own, andOperate basis by the industries.

• The Industries department should promote setting upof industries such that the waste of one industry

97


becomes the raw material for another and recycling industries are set up in close proximity of existing industries.

• Environment Cells should be set up in the offices of the Industries Department.

• Tradable Permit system: This is a system of accounting for pollution loads by the industries. Depending upon theextent of actual emissions, all polluting industrial units get a credit or debit card showing the extent of pollutionloads they are responsible for (as against the standards). Any unit polluting less than the standards gets a credit, interms of pollution loads below the standard (e.g., tons of carbon per unit of production, and hence the total credit).A unit polluting above the standard will have a deficit in its pollution load account. Units having a credit for lowpollution loads have an advantage of selling or trading their credits, and units exceeding the limits can buy thesecredits and make up for the debit in their own account. The underlying principle is to maintain pollution loads at theestablished standards. This would be the bubble system and useful in industrial estates.

The ozone hole reached a record size in September 2000 — 28.3 million km2, three times the size of the UnitedStates. Dark blue areas denote high levels of ozone depletion

Source: NASA 2001

98


99

TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

TRANSPORT

While we commute, our vehicles pollute-Anonymous

100


TRANSPORT

Current Status

Issues

Impacts

Trends

Action Plan

101


CURRENT STATUS

The relation between transport and the environment isparadoxical in nature. On one side, transportation activitiessupport increasing mobility demands for passengers andfreight, whereas on the other, transport activities result ingrowing levels of motorization, congestion and harmfulemissions. As a result, the transportation sector isincreasingly linked to environmental problems. With atechnology that is heavily dependent on the combustionof hydrocarbons to provide momentum, the impact of thetransport sector over environmental systems hasincreased. In recent years, this has reached a level wherethe spatial accumulation of transportation is a dominantfactor behind the emission of most pollutants and theirimpacts on the environment.

In India, the total estimated pollution load from the transportsector increased from 0.15 million tones in 1947 to 10.3million tones in 1997 (State of Environment Report, India,1999). Thus the significance of studying the links betweentransport and environment cannot be underestimated.

Karnataka has substantial transportation infrastructure thatutilizes road, rail, air, and sea modes, and a pipeline fortransport of petroleum products.

Karnataka’s population of 52.73 million (2001 census) isspread over an area of 1,92,000 square kilometers andlives in 27575 inhabited villages and 270 towns. Thesevillages and towns are connected by about 1.34 lakhkilometers of road. This total road length is exclusive of10801 kilometers of road maintained by Panchayats andMunicipalities.

National and state highways constitute 11 percent of thestate road network and carry the bulk of road traffic. 71percent of state highways and 93 percent of major districtroads are of single lane (3.75m). A few districts such asGulbarga, Raichur and Kodagu have no national highwayspassing through them. The national highways, statehighways and major district roads constitute nearly 32percent of the road length and are maintained by the statePublic Works Department. The remaining roads aremaintained by the Zilla Panchayats. On an average, about

69 kilometers of road exists per 100 square kilometers ofgeographical area and 250 kilometers per lakh populationin the state.

In terms of length, National highways account for about2.8 percent of the total road length in the State. NationalHighways account for 70 percent of total traffic volume inthe state.

An important function of the road system is to provideconnectivity to settlements. Nearly two fifths of the villagesdo not have all weather connectivity, and are not easilyaccessible during the rainy season.

The total length of railway lines in Karnataka, is 3041kilometers. Of the 27 districts, only Kodagu has no railwayline. The lowest railway length is in Chamarajanagardistrict (18 kilometres). However, an important railway linkbetween Sakleshpur and Mangalore is not in operationdue to gauge conversion work. Some new railway lines,like Hassan-Bangalore and Kadur-Sakleshpur have beentaken up for construction.

Karnataka has three functioning airports handling pas-senger and freight traffic, namely Bangalore, Hubli andMangalore. An international airport near Devanahalli,

Road length in Karnataka (2003)

Source: Karnataka Road Development Corporation Ltd., 2004

Percentage of villages connected

Source: Public Works Department, 2003

Road typeLength in

KilometersNational Highways 3,728State Highways 9,829Major district roads 28,247Other district roads, village roads, irrigation & forest Roads 92,258Total 134,062

Type of Road Percentage of villages connected

All weather roads 60.3 Fair weather roads 23.7 Kuccha roads 15.7 No roads 0.3 Total roads 100.0

102


north of Bangalore would be operational by December2006. There are also plans to expand the capacity ofMangalore airport to handle wide bodied aircraft.

A major sea port of the state is the New Mangalore portwhich is an all-weather port situated at Panambur. Thisport handles crude oil meant for the Mangalore Refinery.A number of minor ports such as old Mangalore, Bhatkaland Karwar are also in operation and cater to a smallamount of cargo. The Karnataka port policy envisagesdevelopment of at least 3 minor ports at strategic locations,so that port facilities are made available to all districts ofthe State at the shortest distance. The facilities inKarnataka ports are inadequate in view of the variousmega-projects coming up in the state in power,petrochemicals, steel, etc. Development of the handlingcapacity of the ports is urgently needed.

The bus system is the main public transport mode in urbantransportation in Karnataka. There is no sub urban railwayservice being operated anywhere in the state.

ISSUES

Increasing vehicular emissions

The pollution load due to vehicles in the state is increasing.Preference for personalised mode of transport, increasingcommuting hours and lack of efficient traffic managementmeasures have all led to traffic congestion resulting inlonger travel times, extra fuel consumption, high-level ofpollution, discomfort to road users, and degradation of theenvironment.

The number of vehicles in Karnataka has increased from


An example of the efforts underway in Karnataka to enhanceroad safety is the initiative undertaken with Asian DevelopmentBank funding to upgrade the 259 kilometersTumkur-Haverisection of the Western Transport Corridor (WTC) from a two-lane, single-carriage highway to a four-lane, divided highway.The safety features will include a dual carriageway to preventhead-on collisions and service roads to separate slow-movingand fast-moving traffic. They include overbridges forpedestrians, bypasses to separate through traffic from localtraffic, and fences to prevent unlawful crossing and reducenoise pollution in populated areas.

The national initiative to improve the highway system,particularly through the construction of the GoldenQuadrilateral and North-South Corridor has a beneficial effecton Karnataka. The stretch of national highway in Karnatakathat falls in the Golden Quadrilateral (623 kilometers) connectsBangalore with Bombay and that which falls in the North-SouthCorridor (125 kilometers) connects Bangalore with Hyderabad.These stretches will get converted into four-lane, dualcarriageway systems and this will help in ensuring the smoothflow of traffic and in reducing accidents.

Karnataka State Highway Improvement Project (KSHIP) is amajor effort to upgrade and improve road transportationinfrastructure with assistance from the World Bank. It will widenand strengthen 991 kilometers of road to two-lane width (7meter) and also rehabilitate 1277 kilometers of existingcarriageway in two phases between 2001-2007.

Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor: This is a majorproject that is proposed to be undertaken on a Build-Own-Operate-Transfer basis and has been initiated by a privatesector entity. Its aim is to provide fast road access betweenBangalore and Mysore through an expressway. The length ofthe highway is 111 kilometers.

An underground pipeline of about 364 kilometers has beenconstructed between Mangalore and Bangalore to transportpetroluem products. This pipeline will replace the nearly 2.2lakh tanker trips that are undertaken annually to transport 2.2million tones of petroleum products.

Portwise cargo handled : 2000-01 to 2001-02(in thousand tons)

Source: Economic survey of Karnataka, 2002-03

14.33 lakhs in 1990-91 to 39.96 lakhs in 2001-02 showingalmost a threefold increase over the twelve years. Whenexamined across the districts, the highest growth rate isseen in Bangalore Urban district. Of the total number ofvehicles in Karnataka, nearly 38.22 percent are plying inBangalore Urban area and the problems emerging fromthe traffic in Bangalore are uniquely different from that ofother districts in Karnataka.

Among the various types of vehicles plying on the roads,two wheelers constitute 71.81 percent, followed by cars(9.50 percent) and other vehicles (9.57 percent). The

2000-01 2001-02Karwar 552 556 Malpe 12 9 Mangalore (old) 111 182 Mangalore (new) NA 1,750 Other ports 1 1

YearPort

103


highest number of two wheelers are seen in Bangaloredistrict (10,49,281) followed by Mysore (1,95,307) andMandya (45,840). About 39.58 percent of the state’s two-wheelers are registered in Bangalore. Similarly, a largepercentage of cars (57.55 percent), cabs (31.36 percent),autos (39.48 percent) buses (34.75 percent), goodsvehicles (30.75 percent) are in Bangalore.

Air pollution problems are severe where the number ofvehicles and distance traveled is maximum. Increasingtwo wheeler population leads to enhanced per capitaemissions. The problem is severe in Bangalore, moderatein other major urban centres like Hubli-Dharwad, Mysore,Belgaum, Mangalore and Gulbarga, and relatively less inother urban centres. Even in these cities, the problem willbe concentrated in the city centres rather than in theextended suburbs. The main impacts of the air pollutionare on the people who reside or work on the sides ofarterial roads and in the city centres. The vulnerable partiesare typically pedestrians, traffic police and roadside shopowners.

Problems of automobile technology

Automobile technology has improved over the years bymaking the manufacturers to adhere to stricter emissionnorms. These include improvements in combustionprocesses, treatment of exhaust gases (i.e., with catalyticconverters), and use of cleaner burning fuels. However,the improved engine combustion and exhaust gastreatment will have virtually no effect on energy efficiencyor green house gas emissions. The use of natural gas,alcohol fuels, and propane in petrol engines will providereductions of about 20 to 30 percent in green house gasemissions, but their use in diesel engines will not reducegreen house gas emissions and may even slightly increasethem. Efforts are underway by auto manufacturers in Indiato introduce improved technologies for engines runningon alternative fuels.

Even though, the number of four stroke vehicles isincreasing, two wheelers still form a sizable amount ofthe total vehicle population plying on the roads with twostroke engines. Two stroke vehicles consume more fuelwhen compared to the four stroke ones and also cause

relatively higher pollutant emissions. For two-wheelers andautorickshaws, conversion to four-stroke technologyresults in 35 percent improvement in fuel economy andreduction in hydrocarbon emissions.

A Euro II compliant vehicle requires multi-point fuelinjection system. There are two basic types of engines,spark ignition and compression ignition engines. In theformer, fuel ignition is triggered by an electric spark froma spark plug, while in the latter, atomized liquid fuel isinjected with the help of a fuel pump and a nozzle into acylinder full of hot compressed air, which results in ignitiontaking place. Larger cylinders which need more fuel requiremore than one injector, thus resulting in a multi-point fuelinjection system.

Even though battery driven cars have been introduced inthe country, they have failed to garner a sizable proportionof the automobile market in the country. This can beattributed to the cost of the vehicle and the shorter distanceof travel per charging session.

Vehicles running on blend of ethanol and petrol are alreadyplying on state roads. There is no need to modify theengine of the vehicles to run on a blend comprising 5percent ethanol. However, for vehicles to run on 10 percent

The need for a mass rapid transport system

From the energy-efficiency and environmental point of view,the use of mass transport is vastly superior when comparedtousing personalised mode of transport. Available literaturereveals that to meet each kilometre of passenger traveldemand,

A car consumes nearly five times more energy than a 52seater bus with 82 percent average load factor, while twowheelers consume about 2.6 times and three wheelers 3times more energy

A car occupies over 38 times more road space incomparison to a bus. The corresponding figures for twoand three wheelers are 54 and 15 respectively.

The fuel cost of two wheelers is 6.8 times, three wheeler 7times, and car 11.8 times, when compared to a bus. Whilethe total cost of operation of two and three wheelers isover 3 times and car 9.5 times higher than the bus.

A 52-seater bus enjoys similar level of advantage overother vehicles when emission of all types of air pollutantsand greenhouse gases are considered.

104


blend, the engine needs to be modified.

Thus, it is seen that the automobile technology in Indiastill needs to evolve in order to develop more energyefficient, eco friendly and cost-effective vehicles. Unlessthese factors are addressed, it will be quite long beforevehicles operating on clean technologies become popular

Age of vehicles

Age of vehicle fleet is also an important factor as, oldvehicles require more maintenance and consume morefuel per unit distance traveled. The Mashelkar Committeehas estimated that 9.49 percent of two wheelers, 90.63percent of cars, 6.94 percent of auto or three wheelersand 35.97 percent of commercial vehicles in Bangaloreare aged vehicles. (The Mashelkar Report considered allthree-wheelers registered up to 1 April 1990 and all othervehicles registered up to 1 April 1985 as aged).

Vehicle mix on roads

The traffic mix, in the state consists of motorised and nonmotorised vehicles and they fight for the same road space.These vehicles with different space occupancy, ridershipcharacteristics, acceleration and cruising speeds, coupledwith insufficient road space, drastically reduce the averagespeed on the roads. Reduction in speed increases thetravel time and leads to increased consumption of fueland emission of carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and oxidesof nitrogen.

Insufficient road width and lack of medians

From the point of view of road carrying capacitycarriageway widths are very important. Carriage width isclassified into three categories: Single lane (3.75 meters),Intermediate lane (5.5 meters), and Two lanes (7 to 7.5meters). A large part of the road network in Karnataka ismade up of single-lane roads or narrower and much ofthe network is in poor condition. Nearly 71 percent of statehighways are single lane, 22 percent are intermediate laneand only 7 percent are two lanes in width. Among the majordistrict roads 98 percent are single lane while two percentare wider than single lane. Almost all the village and rural

Alternative fuel vehicles

With increase in the number of vehicles, India’s dependenceon foreign sources of crude oil will increase in the future unlessalternatives are found.

Working with automakers, fuel producers and util itycompanies, and the private and public sector, countries aremaking progress towards achieving a truly diversetransportation landscape. One that will offer the consumercompetitive choices in transportation technology, fuels andfuelling options, while meeting country’s increasingly stringentclean air goals. These choices will include not onlyreformulated petrol (a cleaner- burning petrol that usesoxygenates to assist in more complete combustion) and cleandiesel to fuel our transportation but also electric, ethanol,methanol, natural gas and propane powered vehicles, eachplaying their own role.

The use of alternative fuels for transportation can have manybenefits for the economy. Using alternative fuels can help stop/reduce the outflow of foreign exchange caused by purchaseof oil produced outside of our country.Source: Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers

roads are single lane in width. Narrow carriage width leadsto more congestion and reduced speed. A study on thevolume-capacity ratio in Bangalore reveals that 8 roads inthe city were congested. These roads were handling moretraffic than they are designed to handle.

Of the overall 1,34,062 kilometers of road network inKarnataka, only 57 kilometers have medians. TheBangalore-Nelamangala stretch of National Highway 4 hasnow been converted into a four-lane dual carriagewayseparated by a median and this stretch has seen theaccident rate drop down to 0. Other improvements, suchas creating bypasses away from population centres (e.g.,the Narasapur bypass on National Highway 4) have alsodecreased the rate of accidents.

Poor road surfaces

Almost all the state highways (99.9 percent) are surfacedwhile 65 percent of major district roads are surfaced. Themajority of the village and rural roads, however, are notsurfaced. Often urban roads and highways haveunexpected road humps, many times deliberately andunauthorisedly placed due to some accident in the past.Potholes and wavy road features (resulting from faultyconstruction and maintenance), rutting due to constant

105


movement of iron hooped carts, all contribute to poor roadquality. Bad quality roads put extra stress on the engine,cause more fuel consumption and result in wear and tear.In addition, engines produce higher emissions whileaccelerating, deccelarating and climbing so any featurethat encourage these actions, also encourage emissions.

Poor network geometry

Bad intersection geometry is one of the main causes forlow speeds. When the number of approaches increases,the conflict points increase exponentially. Since driversbecome watchful for approaching traffic paths, speedreduces drastically. There are many junctions in the urbancentres with five or more approaches.

When traffic volume and geometry are consideredtogether, the degree of saturation becomes a key factor indetermining congestion level. For instance, in Bangalore,according to Karnataka Road Development CorporationLimited, 19 intersections were oversaturated. Out of the19 important intersections chosen for the study, 17 had acongestion index of more than 1 during morning peakhours and 16 had more than 1 during evening peak hours.It was concluded that in all these 19 intersections, gradeseparators would offer economical and optimal solutionfor the transport problems. Many roads also showed avolume to capacity ratio of more than one in Bangalore.

Out of these 19 intersections, construction of flyovers inthe priority 10 selected would provide 16 percent to 44.29percent relief in terms of delays. This low speed and

saturation at traffic signals contributes to air pollution andalso to noise pollution, as many of the two wheelers andvehicles with diesel engines are not switched off.

According to a study conducted by Rail India Technicaland Economic Services, average network speed hasreduced from 25 kilometers per hour in 1989 to 13.3kilometers per hour in 2000. The average speed of aBangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation bus in 1997was 16.02 kilometers per hour whereas, the samedeclined to 14.20 kilometers per hour in 2003. A proposalfor a one-way system (for the central area) would lead toan estimated fuel saving of 3 million litres per year, and aone-way system would also result in improvements inspeed of vehicles. In addition, speed can be increased tomore than 35 kilometers per hour in the one way systemwhereas in 2 way arterial roads, the speed is 15 kilometersper hour. Majority of vehicles operate most efficiently atconstant cruising speeds between 80-100 kilometers perhour.

Location of vehicle stops

Location of centralized bus terminals in major towns andcities at the heart of the city contribute to congestion oftraffic on the roads leading to bus terminal. This isexperienced in Mysore, Tumkur, Kolar, Chitradurga,Raichur etc. Even in small towns such as Gowribidanur,Tiptur, Harihar, Chikmagalur etc., the congestion on theroads leading to bus stands is high. The shifting of thebus-stand from the busy commercial area of Hampankattain Mangalore has helped in easing the congestion on theroads leading to Hampankatta. However, inability toprovide separate space for private vehicles is still causingthe congestion in areas around old bus stand in townssuch as Doddaballapur, Tumkur, Kolar etc. Faulty location

Poor road quality and accidents

Experts ascribe 70 percent of accidents to poor road qualityand bad driving. Roads are not maintained as well as theyshould be, and their condition tends to deteriorate after themonsoons, which leads to increased wear and tear on vehiclesand eventual mechanical failure. Further, the mixed nature oftraffic causes more accidents, and also because of the speeddifference between heterogeneous traffic the severity ofaccident also increases.

Source: Press Trust of India, 2002.

Note : All highway roads entering the city are also highly congestedSource: Bangalore Traffic Police, 2004

Volume to capacity ratio on major roads in Bangalore

Name of road Volume - capacity ratio

Nrupantunga Road 3.62District office Road 2.51K.G.Road 2.51Lalbagh Fort Road 2.67Puttanna Chetty Road 2.45Richmond Road 2.26M.G.Road 2.76Chord Road 2.51Tumkur Road 2.62Sankey Road 1.52

106


of bus stands lead to congestion as, buses stop in themiddle of the road and flow of traffic is hindered.

The location of autorickshaw stands, taxi stands, and busstops near intersections has caused problems in almostall urban centers in the state. Absence of parking controlnear intersections has added to the problem.

Land use and transportation planning deficienciesalong roads and railways

Location of administrative offices, shopping areas andservice centres on both sides of the main streets of smallertowns and in district headquarters is a contributing factorto air pollution. The problem is complicated as these roadsact as both local access roads as well as regional arterials.As a local access road, there is lot of crisscrossingmovement due to pedestrians and local traffic. As aregional arterial they also carry quite a bit of through traffic.This high traffic and the many interruptions have causedsevere speed reductions. This phenomenon isexperienced in Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore, Chikmagalur,etc., and other district headquarters and in smaller townssuch as Tiptur, Koratagere, Madhugiri, Bangarpet, KolarGold Fields, Anekal, Ramanagaram, Sindhanur, etc.

Expansion of cities and towns towards the bye-pass iscausing congestion in towns such as Nelamangala,Mulbagal, Sira, Chitradurga, etc., and is contributing tothe congestion of the bye-pass. The bye-pass constructedat Ramanagaram in the 1970s is presently at the centreof the town and is congested.

Land use and the transport system have not developed inan integrated manner in urban areas of Karnataka.Adequate consideration has not been given by thedevelopment authorities to the provision of land for busstand and bus terminus locations, wider roads for busroutes, and land reservation at junctions (for flaring of laneswith signal systems and for grade separation). Multi nodalcity development to minimize travel has not developed inthe cities. Junction treatment is especially bad withinsufficient space for traffic movement, and is furtheraggravated by location of petrol bunks, bus stands andtaxi / auto stands and road humps.

Indeed, intercity roads that pass right through thesettlements (leading to deteriorating air quality in populatedareas) are common in Karnataka. When bye-passes havebeen planned, they are often located too close to the cityand soon development begins around the bye pass turningit into an inner arterial road.

Inadequate land use control and regulation is found morenear railway lines where slums develop to the approachof railway stations and also along railway lines. The impactof these types of land use development results incongestion, higher air and noise pollution and adverselyaffects safety. Other land use related deficiencies that leadto transport-related environmental problems include:a) No specific areas are reserved for bus terminuses,

especially for city buses in many localities ofBangalore. Consequently, parking of buses on the roadaffects the traffic flow and contributes to congestion.

b) In Bangalore and in many towns and cities ofKarnataka, a large numbers of petrol bunks are locatedat the intersections of roads leading to accidents andcongestion of roads.

c) Multiple approaches to intersections (circles) arecontributing to accidents in Bangalore and in othercities.

d) Road designations (main road and cross roads) areunrelated to road importance, road width and plyingof public transport.

e) Insufficient parking space compared to the demandgenerated by public places such as temples, shoppingcentres, cinema halls, function halls, etc., again leadsto congestion.

Public transport and mass transit inadequacies

Public transit represents an alternative that delivers lowenergy use per passenger kilometer, low emissions perpassenger kilometer, and consumes low road space perpassenger kilometer. In Bangalore, the BangaloreMetropolitan Transport Corporation operates 3116 buses(45000 work trips per day) and moves around 26.25 lakhpeople a day. However, according to a study by The Energyand Resource Institute, its contribution to the total pollutionload in the city is not more than 0.02 percent. The share

107


of Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation busesregistered to the total vehicle population is nearly 0.17percent.

Efficient and reliable public transit, priced marginally belowthe private cost (not including environmental costs suchas pollution and congestion) of making the same trip towork or school, would provide an incentive to people toavoid private transportation alternatives in favour of publictransport options. The benefits of mass transport systembecome apparent when one looks at the economics oftransporting people across distance. A car would requirenearly 400 litres of fuel to transport 10000 people acrossa distance of 1 kilometer compared to 34 litres consumedby a biarticulated bus for the same.

In the absence of an efficient and affordable mass transitsystem, people increasingly turn to private vehicles bothduring peak and non-peak hours. In Bangalore, peopleare opting for personalised mode of transit inspite of thehuge fuel costs. The consequence of increased vehicleusage gets reflected in high air pollution (higher emissionper capita with the growth in private vehicles), noisepollution, and accidents.

Rail-based mass transport systems are highly efficient bothin terms of energy efficiency per passenger kilometre andpollution emitted per passenger kilometre compared toany other road based petrol or diesel transport system.They are also efficient in terms of land requirement formovement and parking. However, the high initial capitalcost involved is a significant negative factor. No urbanarea in Karnataka has a rail-based mass rapid transportsystem operating at present. All the mass transit systemsoperating in the larger urban centres of Bangalore, Mysore,Hubli-Dharwad, Mangalore, Gulbarga, etc, are bus-based,including both government-run networks and private sector

operated networks consisting of buses and maxicabs(sometimes operating in contravention of rules regardingstage carriage).

The provision of a mass transport system like a bus systemcan definitely wean away a substantial number of privatetransport users (mainly two wheeler users) to the bussystem in all major urban centres. The traffic volumes andinvestment can be justified from the environmental benefitsalone. However, a mass rapid transit system, such as asuburban railway system, can be economically justifiedonly in the Bangalore region where the traffic intensity isvery high.

Though it may not be economically and financially feasibleto provide such a system for other cities in Karnataka suchas Mysore, Hubli-Dharwad, Mangalore, etc., it is possibleto take an approach of reserving land in these cities whichcan be currently used by a road based mass transit systemsuch as bus to be upgraded later to a rail based system.

Going green, the BMTC way...

The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation hasinitiated many measures in its drive to become a eco friendlytransport service provider. Some of which are listed below:

BMTC has started procuring high speed diesel (0.05 mg ofsulphur content)

Replaced all buses aged 15 years and above.

Formulated a policy of inducting buses confirming to Euro-II standards. From 2005, all buses inducted would confirmto Euro III standards.

Introduced bi articulated buses on peak routes.

All surfaces of BMTC bus depots are being made of cementconcrete to prevent dust pollution.

Formulated an effective preventive maintenance scheduleconsistent with guidelines issued by chassis manufacturers.The efficiency of this process is reviewed once a week atcorporate level.

To transport 10,000 people for 1 kilometere

Parameters Car Minibus Regular Heavy Articulated Bi-articulated

Persons/vehicles 3 25 80 105 180 270Vehicles needed 3333 400 125 95 55 37Area occupied (m2) 48000 8800 3900 3260 2600 2370Fuel consumption(L) 400 120 40 38 31 34

108


Fuel adulteration

Fuel adulteration not only affects engine performance, italso leads to higher emissions. While systematic evidenceis difficult to obtain, there is concern that there is a highprobability of adulterated fuel being used in vehiclesconsuming petrol.

Adulteration of fuel especially in diesel vehicles is directlyrelated to the price difference between diesel andkerosene. Whenever the prices of diesel and kerosenesold through the Public Distribution System are narrow,the chances of any adulteration seem to be low as thecost of risk is not beneficial.

Sea ports

Ports require regular maintenance. The main maintenanceactivity carried out in ports is dredging. Due to severesiltation, the New Mangalore Port requires annual dredgingof the order 2.87 Mm3; 1.79 Mm3/year from the channeland 1.08 Mm3/year from the lagoon. The siltation in Karwarport is relatively low.

Unscientific dredging can have adverse impacts on thelocal eco system in the form of re-suspension of bottomsediments, accumulation/dispersion of toxic substances,oxygen depletion, reduced primary production,temperature alteration, increased nutrient level and bedload movement.

Air ports

Bangalore airport is another source of noise pollutionparticularly from night flights. One study reported noise

levels of 86-102 decibels(A) at the airport, which exceedsthe level permitted by the Environment Protection Act inindustrial areas which is 75 decibels in the day and about70 decibels at night.

Earlier airports were located far from the city. But with thegrowth of the city, localities have sprung up near airports.Most of the international flights from Bangalore take offduring night time and this creates nuisance for the peopleresiding near the airport.

IMPACTS

Impact on environment due to transport can be dividedinto following categories. The direct impacts arise as animmediate consequence of transport activities. The causeand effect relationship is generally clear and wellunderstood. The second category is that of indirect impactsthese impacts are often of higher consequence than directimpacts, but the involved relationships are often difficultto establish. Third category is that of synergetic impactsarising out of transport activities. These take into accountthe varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on anecosystem. The specific impacts can be classified as:

Impact on air quality

The transport sector, especially road and air transport,contribute to air pollution. Vehicular air pollution is a verycomplicated phenomenon that depends on many factors.

The emission is determined by fuel composition, enginemaintenance (filters, pollution control devices, fuelsystems), vehicle age (older vehicles have higheremissions), engine temperature (catalytic converters donot work before the engine reaches normal operatingtemperature), road geometry (decreasing and increasingthe speed causes higher emissions), type of vehicle (largeengines pollute more; petrol engines emit more carbonmonoxide and hydrocarbons diesel engines emit moreparticulate matter, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen). Carbonmonoxide is the single biggest pollutant emitted byautomobiles.

Vehicle speed and congestion are other important factors

To own a vehicle in Bangalore

Owning a vehicle in Bangalore is a costly affair when oneconsiders the fuel prices in the city. A litre of petrol in Bangalorecosts Rs 5.98(Jan 2004) more than Delhi(having the lowestprice). Added to this, Bangalore comes second only to Mumbaiin terms of Diesel prices.The difference in pricing is due to theadditional cost involved in transporting fuel from the oil refineryin Mangalore(350 km away). In addition, the State governmentimposes a surcharge of Rs 3 per litre of petrol. The state alsoimposes the second highest sales tax on petrol in the countryat 28 per cent. All this however has not discouraged people inthe city who still prefer personalised means of transit.

109


as vehicles are most efficient at speeds between 80 and100 kilometers per hour. The quality of fuel affects engineperformance and use of adulterated fuel results in higheremissions. The age of the vehicle fleet is important sinceolder vehicles contribute more to air and noise pollution.

Impact on water bodies

Activities of the transport sector cause surface andgroundwater flow modifications, as well as degradation ofwater quality. Modifications in the flow of surface watersare due to diversion of water flow, which contribute to soilerosion. These impacts often happen far from the placeof diversion and the road itself.

Transport of hazardous wastes, refined petroleum productspose significant risk in terms of soil contamination, waterpollution and adverse effects on eco systems. Till recently,petroleum products destined for Bangalore weretransported from Mangalore in trucks, which crossed theecologically sensitive Western Ghats.

Another area of concern is that of marine pollution fromshipping vessels carrying petroleum products. The annualoil production in the world over is 3452 million tons, out ofwhich 2026 million tones are transported to different partsof the world. The Arabian Sea is a major route for oil tankersto South East Asia, and beyond, probably accounting forthe tar like residue deposits found on the West coast ofIndia. This chronic problem is however a seasonal featureand is largely regulated by the monsoons and associatedwinds.

The World Watch Institute estimates that alien species ofthe order of several thousand per day are transported viathe ballast water which when let out, spread throughcanals linking bodies of water and fishery enhancementprojects. These alien species compete with native speciesand reduce biological diversity which can have a directbearing on the local economy in terms of reduced fishcatch. They may also introduce new marine diseases andassociated increased incidence of algal blooms. This is amajor problem in many ports around the world.

From this we may be able to assume the vulnerability of

our seas and coastal environment to oil pollution. Oil slickscan cause irreparable damage to the fragile coastalecosystem and with increasing tanker traffic, the risk of aecological disaster also increases. In Karnataka, the crudeoil for Mangalore Refineries and Petrochemicals Limitedis delivered at the New Mangalore Port.

Contribution to noise pollution

Noise is probably the most obvious impact coming fromthe transport sector. Vehicular noise pollution is relatedto the number of vehicles, vehicular types, speed andgradients.

The basic impacts are felt in terms of speech interference,sleep interference and progressive loss of hearing. TheWorld Health Organization’s guidelines recommend anighttime average level suitable for undisturbed sleep from35 to 30 decibels, including a peak nighttime maximum of45 decibels. A study by a team from Bangalore Universityto ascertain the levels of noise in sensitive areas ofBangalore city showed noise levels ranging from 71-111decibels (A) in traffic zones, 51-69 decibels (A) inresidential areas, 72-98 decibels (A) in industrial zonesand 86-102 decibels (A) at the airport. The maximum noisewas attributed to vehicular movement in the high trafficzones, followed by airways, followed by industries.

Another study in Bangalore on noise levels at two majortraffic junctions turned up alarming statistics. Most buses,auto rickshaws, and motorcycles grossly exceeded thenoise level, with one bus touching as much as 100decibels. In 2001 on Bangalore’s Mahatma Gandhi Road,the noise levels were as high at 82.5 decibels. Anotherstudy by the Dr. S. R. Chandrashekar Institute of Speechand Hearing in Bangalore showed that nearly a quarter ofthe police force in the Bangalore were suffering fromhearing disabilities due to increasing noise pollution. Trafficconstables at the city’s main junctions are the worst hit.The study also revealed that noise levels in the city’sresidential areas were as high as 76 decibels almost 10decibels above the levels prescribed by the CentralPollution Control Board for commercial areas.

Noise level grows arithmetically with speed. For instance

110


Measures for developing sustainable transportsystem

Traffic management and demand restraint measures:Trafficmovement can be streamlined by implementing better trafficmanagement measures like synchornised signals, gradeseparation of fast and slow traffic,exclusive busways at leastalong the main arterial city roads,well designed arterial roadintersections, well designed and maintained pedestriancrossings and display of traffic diversion maps during peakhour of traffic flow. This will not only result in lower emissionsand better fuel efficiency, but also smooth flow of traffic.

For ensuring sustainable transport, a traffic volume count database should be prepared. This will help in assessing the natureand magnitude of emissions load of various pollutants by typeof vehicles in a given area.

A significant amount of additional vehicle travel is generatedby drivers who fail to select the best route for their journey.This extra travel could be avoided by better directional signingincluding available car parking.

Further a combination of strategies can be adopted including:

Restricting access to sensitive areas.Encouraging walking, cycling, public transport.Generating awareness among people to make them awareof the implications of their transport choices and improvingthe alternative routes.Promote car poolingAugmenting public transportLand use planning with regulations

a car traveling at 20 kilometers per hour emits 55 decibelsof rolling noise, at 40 kilometers per hour 65 decibels, at80 kilometers per hour 75 decibels and at 100 kilometersper hour 80 decibels. Noise pollution increases with trafficcongestion, as irritated drivers lean on their horns. Underthe Central Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Rules 1999Government has banned the use of shrill horns and multitoned horns . But some vehicle owners continue to usethem. In the year 2003, 844 vehicles were booked by theTransport department for noise pollution.

Another cause of noise pollution arises from auto rickshawdrivers removing mufflers from their vehicles with the beliefthat this improves their pickup. Removal of mufflersincreases the noise levels. Autorickshaws rolling out ofmanufacturing units comply with noise emission norms.But some auto rickshaw owners replace the silencers withcheap ones manufactured locally. These silencers referredto as ‘dolly silencers’, are easily available.

Overall, noise pollution is a result of cumulative effects,both of the number of vehicles on the road and the ambientnoise from industrial sources and other sources like electricgenerators. Therefore, individual vehicle-orientedstandards may be limited in terms of helping to mitigateexcessive noise levels.

Rail traffic accounts for 10 percent of total noise emissionsby transportation. Noise comes from the engine (mostlydiesel), the friction of wheels over the rails, and whistleblowing. Furthermore, when trains are moving at highspeed, areoacoustic noise becomes more important thanother sources. Depending on the train aerodynamics, noiseemissions are from 50 to 80 times the logarithm of trainspeed.

Another negative effect related to transport is vibration.Vibration, mostly caused by road freight transport and airtransport, is very damaging to lightly built structuresalong the road, as well as cultural heritage monuments.Vibration can also have negative impacts on people,causing sleeping problems and general disturbance ofnormal living patterns.

Impact on soil

Soil best suited for constructing transport infrastructure isalso best suited for agriculture, as it is both stable andflat. Therefore, transport infrastructure developmentinevitably leads to the loss of productive soil for agriculture,and thus causes damage to the socioeconomicdevelopment of an area. Not only does the soil coveredby the transport infrastructure become lost, but alsoadjacent soil, which is damaged by the construction worksas a result of compaction by heavy machinery.

Transport infrastructure construction often requires at leasta partial clearance of vegetation. This often leads toerosion as an indirect effect of construction. In some cases,erosion may occur far from the transport infrastructure thatactually causes it, as a result of cumulative impacts.Pollution of soils in close vicinity of roads by chromium,lead, and zinc, may be a result of a very busy traffic. These

111


Recommendations and Action Plan of theExpert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy,

Govt of India

Grade separators to be provided wherever feasible across ofall the major roads.

The reduction of idling and stop time and number offrequencies of speed changes will considerably reducepollution and improve environment.

There should be a strategy to discourage the use of privatevehicles (cars and two-wheelers) by levying of high parkingfees.

Road pricing may also be considered so as to make the usespay for the use of the roads. The charges for using the roadsduring peak hours would be higher by 2-3 times than thoseother hours of the day.

Physical restrictions could be imposed on entry of vehicleseither during part or the whole of the day into certain areas.This would minimize traffic volume within the cordoned areaand will enhance the speedy operation resulting in reductionof pollution. The restrictions can also be by class of vehicles.

metals tend to remain in the soil for several hundred yearsand cause damage to the soil microorganisms andvegetation.

Impact on biodiversity

There are three ways in which the transport sectorcontributes to biodiversity loss: direct damage,fragmentation, and disturbance. Loss of habitat is aninevitable consequence of land use change during theconstruction of the transport infrastructure. However, bycareful planning, it is possible to keep the damage at anacceptable level. If the construction is not carefullyplanned, especially in sensitive areas, it can destroy orseriously damage natural ecosystems, thus causing directdamage through loss of habitats for sensitive plant andanimals, which is the main cause of biodiversity loss.

Roads cause fragmentation of habitats, preventing freemovement of animals and exchange of genetic material.Habitat fragmentation damages ecosystems’ stability andhealth. Habitat fragmentation in biodiversity rich regionslike the Western Ghats or national parks etc can causecorridor restrictions and result in man-animal conflict. Inother areas, the emissions and dust generated by roadtraffic would settle on crop leaves and reduce agriculturalproductivity.

Road construction also opens the ways for intrudingspecies, disrupting in this way the ecological balance ofthe ecosystems. Noise, lights, and runoff of hazardouscompounds from roads cause disturbance in theecosystems, and lower the reproduction rates of flora andfauna.

The water based ecosystems also suffer disruptionscaused by the land transport infrastructure. Erosion leadsto accumulation of fine earth particles downstream, whichaffects habitats for fish spawning. The changes in waterflow caused by diversions during road construction workoften have negative effects on plankton, upsettingeventually food chains in the ecosystem. Roads can alsocut through the migration routes of fish, causing disruptionsin the spawning cycle. Avenue plantations along roadsidescan go a long way in reducing the impact of road

construction on the environment.

TRENDS

A substantial amount of economic growth in the state iscentred in and around Bangalore. It is likely that the trendin vehicular growth will continue, perhaps even at anaccelerated pace. Rising incomes are likely to inducepeople to purchase and utilize personalised transportoptions. Statistics reveal that around 38.22 percent of thevehicles are in Bangalore and 90 percent of the growth invehicles within Bangalore Urban Area already representspersonalised modes of transport (two-wheelers and cars).

The annual growth rate in traffic on the road system, hasexceeded the annual growth rate of road network in thepast two decades. On the national highways there hasbeen 20 percent increase in traffic each year and on thestate highways the annual growth has been 25 percent,but in the past two decades the road network hasexpanded to an average rate of 2.6 percent per year only.The absence of a Rapid Transit System in BangaloreUrban Area has also contributed to high private transportsystems in terms of two wheelers and cars. This trend islikely to pose a tremendous challenge to policy makers to

112


manage the expected fallouts in the form of trafficcongestion, accidents, air pollution, and decreased qualityof life.

Bangalore’s population has grown from 12.06 Lakhs in1961 to 41.3 Lakhs in 1991 to 56.86 Lakhs in 2001, and isabout 60 Lakhs currently. At the same time the area of thecity has grown rapidly over the years, from 101.21 squarekilometers in 1961 to 445.91 square kilometers to 531square kilometers in 2001. While the city has grown radiallyover the decades and added more roads as a result, it isimportant to note that the core areas of the city haveessentially stayed the same in terms of road infrastructure.According to the Bangalore Traffic Police, the vehiclepopulation in Bangalore City is expected to touch the fivemillion mark by the year 2011.

Thus the huge growth in vehicles has only seen morecongestion, alleviated somewhat by the construction of afew flyovers and grade separators, and also theintroduction of one-ways on various roads. In Bangalore,the construction of flyovers has reduced congestion atsome junctions however, the entry and exit points to theseflyovers continue to be congested.

According to the report of the Expert Committee on AutoFuel Policy, the estimated vehicle kilometres of travel forBangalore City for 2010 is going to increase. The travelkilometres will increase for all type of vehicles. Howeverthe percentage of travel by two wheelers will be reduced.Even though this can be a change in the right direction,the demand may increase for public transport vehicles andprivate cars. This may increase the traffic and the pressurewill be for better traffic management.

When long route vehicles pass through cities and townsthey contribute to increased pollution levels as the overall

Traffic congestion in Commercial street, Bangalore

Vehicle use and travel patterns in Bangalore City

In terms of the nature of vehicle use and travel patterns inBangalore City, a series of estimates conducted by Rail IndiaTechnical and Economic Services in 2001 show that:

78 percent of households owned a motor vehicle, withvehicle ownership at 1.5 per household.Trips per person per day were 0.89, and are expected togo up to 1.25 by 2011.

The average trip length is 7.1 km and average travel timeis 30 minutes.

Average car occupancy is 2.21, scooter occupancy is 1.41,and auto occupancy 2.1.

Average speed in the city is 13.33 kilometers per hour andis likely to go down to 10 kilometers per hour by 2011.

In terms of modal split, 8.4 percent of all trips areundertaken by car, 38.1percent by 2 wheelers, 40.9 percentby bus, 1.1 percent by bicycle and 11.5 percent on foot.

Source: Report of the Expert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy, 2002.

Projected vehicle kilometres and percentagesby 2010

Avenue plantations

The most effective species to absorb traffic related pollutantsinclude Azadirachta indica (bevu or neem), Tamarindus indica(hunsemara or tamarind), Ficus benghalensis (aladamara orbanyan), Terminalia chebula (Hallalemara or arjun) andDalbergia sisso (White beete or shisham). In addition, in thestate, Acacia auriculiformis, Albiziz amara and Mangifera indicaare also being planted along the road sides. Prosopis juliflora(Bellary jali) has also been widely used in the existing roadsideplantations. This species is planted as second row in the avenueplantations between trees and the road. The Public WorksDepartment is also considering planting Justica Adhadota(Adasala or Adusoge), Jatropha tanjorensis (Gavadal) for thesecond tier.

Vehicle Type Vehicle kilometers Percentage

Cars/jeeps 123.12 25.6Taxis 4.06 0.8Two wheelers 231.63 48.3Autos-petrol 86.94 18.1LCVs 11.42 2.4HCVs 8.21 1.7Bus-diesel 14.83 3.1Total 480.2 100

113


speed on the roads is reduced. This was one of the keyproblems in Bangalore before the construction of ringroad.Traffic on the Mangalore-Bangalore National Highwayis expected to reduce following the commissioning of theMangalore-Hassan-Bangalore pipeline.

After the construction of the ring road, the long routevehicles are diverted and the pollution levels in the narrowstreets of Madivala, Viveknagar or Mekhri Circle shouldnow be lower. The possible decrease in the vehicularpollution after the construction of the ring road in Bangaloreis as follows:While forecasting for possible pollution in 2010, twosituations are considered:• “Business as Usual” scenario, without any changes

or improvement in the vehicles and fuel technology• “Road Map,” where technological changes in vehicles

and improvements in fuel quality are incorporated.

The Expert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy has proposeda road map for improvements in engine technology to EuroIII equivalent from the year 2005 and Euro IV equivalentfor the year 2010 for city private vehicles and citycommercial vehicles in the major cities. Bharat Stage IIand Euro III equivalent technologies have been proposedfor all the vehicles through out the country from the year2005 and 2010 respectively. This road map suggested bythe committee is expected to bring down the pollution loadssignificantly (up to 60 percent) in spite of a 50 percentgrowth in the traffic load.

The air pollution projections suggest that in the Business

Towards more mileage and lesser emmisions

Simple measures can be adopted by vehicle owners to reducefuel consumption and emmisons.

Think of the accelerator as a fuel tap; the more it is pressedthe more fuel is consumed by the engine.

It is more economical to press the pedal gently, even if ittakes a little longer to reach the speed you want.

Lot of useful energy is wasted in the form of heat whenbrakes are slamed.

Incorrect gear shifting can lead to as much as 20 percentincrease in fuel consumption Start your car in the first gearonly, except when you are in a muddy patch or goingdownhill then engage second gear. Get into the top gearas early as possible. In lower gears the engine revolvesfaster and so consumes more fuel than it normally wouldat the same travel speed in a higher gear.

For economical motoring, always try to stow suitcases andother items of luggage in the boot or inside the car. If youuse a roof-rack, carefully select the luggage going on itand make sure it is properly stowed a badly packed roof-rack can significantly increase petrol consumption. Anempty roof rack can increase petrol consumption by a least5 percent. Use roof rack only when required.

A poorly maintained vehicle consumes upto 15 percentmore fuel. Three common causes of high fuel consumptionare: (a) low tyre pressure (b)-retarded spark timing ormisfiring, and (c) over rich mixture in the carburetor. Incorrect wheel alignment and brake drag can also causehigh fuel consumption.

Bangalore goes metro….Come 2008, Bangalore City will witness a new era in urbantransportation with the launch of the Bangalore Mass RapidTransit system. With this, Bangalore will join the list of fewcities in India having such a system in place. The project isexpected to cater to about 8.20 lakh passengers per day in theinitial phase. The number of commuters is expected to rise to10.20 lakh per day by the year 2011. This initiative of the stategovernment is expected to reduce the number of privatevehicles plying on the City roads.

To be built at a cost of Rs 2998 crores, the Bangalore MetroRail Project is proposed to have rail length of 33 kilometersand is divided into two corridors East-West and North-South.The East-West corridor will be 18.1 kilometers in length andNorth-South corridor will be 14.9 kilometers. Out of the 33kilometers, 6.7 kilometers will be underground and 26.3kilometers will be elevated or at ground level. The East-Westcorridor will start as an elevated system from Mysore Roadand via Chord Road, Magadi Road it will go underground nearthe City Railway station and surface out at M.G. Road. Theelevated system will continue along M.G.Road, CMH Road andterminate at Byappanahalli Railway station.

The North-South corridor will start as an elevated system fromYashwantpur Railway station, travel along West of Chord Road,Kuvempu Road and go underground near Swastik. The trainwill emerge out near Chickpet go along K.R.Road and terminateat the end of R.V.Road. The two corridors will crossunderground and will have an exchange station near Majestic.

Bangalore Metro system is proposed to have light weight rollingstock made of stainless steel. All trains will be air-conditioned,consisting of three coaches initially and six coaches in thefuture. It is proposed to provide 750 volts DC, third rail tractionsystem. Initially, 166 trains will be run in each direction of eachcorridor during each day. The fares charged will be 1.5 timesthat of the Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation. Therewill be 32 stations, roughly one every kilometers. 18 stationsare planned on the East-West corridor out of which four areunderground. On the North-South corridor, 14 stations areplanned.

114


as Usual scenario there can be a reduction in oxides ofnitrogen by about 14 tones and particulate matter cancome down slightly but carbon monoxide andhydrocarbons are going to increase. Under the Road Mapscenario, there will be a significant reduction in allpollutants.While adoption of measures like synchronized trafficsignals, land use planning etc may improve the trafficsituation, in the long term comprehensive trafficmanagement measures have to be evolved andimplemented to deal with problems like congestion, longercommuting hours and low speed of vehicles.

Port traffic in the state is likely to increase in the comingyears. In 2002-03, the New Mangalore port handled arecord traffic of 21.43 million tones surpassing the earlierrecord of 17.85 million tones during 2000-01. The inwardtraffic during this period was 10.59 million tones during2002-03 surpassing the earlier record of handling 9.19million tones during 2000-01. There is substantial increasein handling of petrol, oil, lubricants, crude and products,containerised commodities, fertilizer, coal etc.

The outward traffic during the same period was 10.84million tons surpassing the earlier record of handling 9.18million tons during 1997-98. and the traffic is expected toincrease to 7.049 million tones by 2011-12. Mangalore isone of the two ports chosen by the Government of India tobuild strategic reserves of crude oil. This is expected tosignificantly increase the oil traffic handled by the port.

Vehicles driven by electricity may gain more acceptancein the coming years due to changes in technology.Currently, the automobile manufacturers are working onadvanced lead acid batteries, lithium ion and nickel metalhydride batteries, which will increase the range to over150 kilometers on a single charge and issues concerningintegration and thermal and electric management arecurrently being addressed.

The batteries are still expensive, but volume and time willbring this technology within the reach of consumer andsolar charging is also a possibility which will increase therange by 10-15 percent. Thus more research anddevelopment work is needed to develop cost effective and

eco friendly vehicles running from sources like battery andfuel cells.

ACTION PLAN

• Traffic police to adopt measures including trafficsignals synchronization and display of diversion maps.

• Declare more roads as one ways: One ways reduceconflict points which in turn reduces the junctiondelays.

• Along with testing the tail pipe emissions, the Transportdepartment should also be test noise emissions.

• Use of horns in traffic junctions to be banned.

• Augmenting public transport: Introduce morebiarticulated busses on peak routes.

• Remove subsidies on kerosene to prevent fueladulteration.

• Parking restraints should be implemented todiscourage personalised mode of transport. Theseinclude high parking fees, reduction in parking time,declare more no parking zones etc.

• Coordinate land use and transport planning in orderto encourage spatial settlement patterns that facilitateaccess to basic needs such as workplaces, schools,health care, places of worship, goods and servicesand leisure, thereby reducing the need to travel.

• Transport department to be involved in land useplaning.

• The Transport department should develop andmaintain a credible database including inventorizationof vehicles and their attrition, vehicle utilization, speed,emission factors, continuous monitoring of air qualityin critical areas, adulteration, and safety aspects.

• Buy back schemes are already being implementedby many automobile manufacturers. Introduceregulatory measures to ensure technologicalupgradation of the resold vehicle to cause lesseremissions.

• Automobile manufacturers should invest more inResearch and Development to develop cost effectiveeco friendly vehicles

• Flight take off timings to be revised to avoid night timetake off.

115

MINING AND QUARRYING


The sun, the moon, the stars would have disappearedlong ago... had they happened to be within the reach of

predatory human hands-Hevelock Ellis

116


Current Status

Issues and Impacts

Causes

Trends

Hotspots

Action Plan


117


CURRENT STATUS

Environmental impacts due to mining manifest as waterpollution, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, airpollution, increase in health related problems, occupationalnoise pollution, vibrations, land subsidences andlandslides. Karnataka being one of the mineral rich statesof the country, mining provides substantial non-tax revenueto the state’s exchequer. Since our state is one of the mostbiodiversity rich states, it is all the more important to usethis natural resources available with least impact on theenvironment.

Of the state’s total area of 1,92,000 square kilometers,more than 40,000 square kilometers of green stone beltsare known to contain vast mineral deposits of gold, silver,platinum, copper, diamond, iron, manganese, chromite,lime stone, dolomite, etc. At present about 20 varieties ofmajor minerals and five varieties of minor minerals arebeing exploited in the State. 568 mining leases of majorminerals covering an area of 21,247 hectares, 5650 quarryleases of minor minerals covering an area of 4526 hectareshave been sanctioned in the state till December 31, 2004.

Iron ore (62.61 percent), lime stone/shell (34.77 percent)including dolomite, constitute about 97.38 percent of thetotal mineral produced and the remaining include

District wise production of major and minor minerals

Source: Administrative reports (from 97-98 to 2000-01) of the Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) -Govt. of Karnataka,. Karnataka Mineral Policy 2000,Department of Mines and Geology (DMG), Govt. of Karnataka.# Average between 1996-97 and 2000-01.

Initiatives of the State GovernmentGovernment of Karnataka has taken several initiativestowards regulating mining activities for conserving theenvironment.

Karnataka Mineral Policy-2000 envisages action plans forminimising the impacts of mining on the environment andpreserving ecological balance in mining areas andproviding health facilities to mine workers and thecommunity around the mines.

Introduction of Karnataka Minor Mineral Concession Rules,1994 which stipulates strict conditions for regulating miningof minor minerals and quarrying and provide forrehabilitation of mined areas.

Initiation of environmental impact assessment study by theDepartment of Mines and Geology in limestone and granitequarry belts

Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre hasunder taken a study on mining and forest cover changesin Bellary district.

Government order dated 16th January 2004, provides forSite and Environmental Clearance for mining projects.Mandatory environmental clearance is required for miningprojects (major minerals) with leases more than 5 hectaresfrom the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Governmentof India. An application as prescribed in Schedule II ofEnvironment Impact Assessment notification needs to befiled and routed through Department of Forest , Ecologyand Environment after mandatory public hearing. However,public hearing is not required for mining projects (majorminerals) where the lease area is less than 25 hectares.Mandatory environmental clearance is required for miningprojects for major minerals with lease area less than 5hectares and for minor minerals with lease are above 0.5hectares from State Environmental Clearance Committee.

MineralAverage annual

production (million tons) #

Districts

Iron ore and fines (Hematite and Magnetite) 18.7 Bellary, Chikamagalur, Chitradurga, Bijapur, Dharwad, Tumkur and

Uttara Kannada. Lime stone, Lime shell and Dolomite 10.42 Gulburga, Chitradurga Belgaum, Bijapur, and Tumkur.Manganese 0.25 Bellary, Shimoga, Uttara Kannada, Chitradurga and TumkurMagnesite 0.082 MysoreGold 1.583 (tons) Raichur, Kolar

Building stone 2.42 19 districts, mainly in Bangalore(S&N), Bellary, Belgaum, D.Kannada, Mandya, Mysore, Shimoga, Tumkur and Chitradurga.

Ordinary sand 0.88 17 districts, mainly Belguam. Dharwad, Shimoga, U.Kannada Tumkur and D. Kannada.

Granite 109,000 (Cu.m) 17 districts, mainly in Bangalore, Tumkur, Bijapur, Bagalkot Mysore, Raichur

Shahabad Stone 5.51 (million sq.ft) Mainly in Bijapur and GulburgaBrick earth 1.88 Mainly in Bangalore, Chitradurga, Tumkur and KolarLaterite 0.46 (lakh tons) Mainly in Dakshina Kannada

118


Mineral map of Karnataka

119


m a n g a n e s e ,magnesite, bauxite,chromite, gold, etc.Around 95 percent ofminerals are producedin Bellary, Bijapur,C h i k a m a - g a l u r ,Chitradurga andGulbarga districts.

The important minorminerals produced aregranite, building stone,brick earth and sandwhich are produced inmost of the districtsacross the State.Shahabad stone andlaterite are availablemainly in Gulburga andDakshina Kannada districts. About 76 percent of stoneand granite, are available in Tumkur (38.6 percent),Bangalore-North (15.2 percent), Mandya (8.7 percent),Bangalore-South (6.8 percent) and Mysore andChamrajnagar (6.7 percent) districts.

In Bellary, open cast mining is being adopted. The ironore variety (hematite) found in Bellary has higherconcentration of iron (62 percent to 68 percent) whichresults in generation of comparatively lesser quantum ofwaste (25 percent of the ore mined). A study conductedby Karnataka State Remote Sensing Applications Centrein three taluks of Bellary district, viz. Bellary, Hospet andSandur (constitute 95 percent to 96 percent of the totalmine lease areas in the district), where large number ofiron ore and some manganese mines are located, revealsthat between the years 1988 and 2000, the mining areaincreased from 230.42 hectares to 820.46 hectares(increase of 590 hectares). This works out to be 0.21percent of total area (3854.17 sq.km) of three taluks. Asper the environmental impact assessment study carriedout by National Environmental Engineering ResearchInstitute in 2002, the forests are in highly degradedcondition and no adequate revegetation and rejuvenation

Source: Administrative reports (from 97-98 to 2000-01) of the Department of Mines and Geology -Govt. Of Karnataka, and IndianBureau of Mines, Bangalorea Percentage of mineral produced compared to total state production, compiled based on the data from Department of Mines andGeology .b Five year average between 1998 and 2002, compiled based on the data from Indian Bureau of Mines, Bangalore.Note: Lease area = actual area mined/excavated + area used for disposal of mine waste + area not opened up + area used forother infrastructure facilities (roads and buildings)

District wise production and mine lease area for major minerals(1996-97 to 2000-01)

Directions given bythe Ministry of Environment and Forests

Based on the Environment Impact Assessment study carriedout by National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,Nagpur, in 2002 for the Bellary-Hospet Sector, the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Government of India has directedthe State Government to initiate the following actions.

New mining leases may be considered by the StateGovernment only if the applied area is more than 5 ha andshould accompany a detailed Indian Bureau of Mines reportThe State Government should identify common dumpingareas for overburden for cluster of mines, develop andmaintain proper roads, and should carry out detailed groundwater resources study

of degraded mine areas and overburden dumps have beencarried out.

In Kudremukh area of Chikamagalur district, iron oremining is done using the open cast method. Magnetite,which is the ore variety in Kudremukh, is of low gradehaving iron concentration to the tune of 33 to 38 percentresulting in generation of more waste (62 to 67 percent ofthe total ore mined). Out of 4605 hectares of mine leasearea sanctioned till 1999, an area of 450 hectares hasbeen utilised for mining and 572 hectares of shola forestvalley for disposal of mine tailings.

Districts Minerals produced

% production in the above 5 year

period a

Total mine Lease Area

Hab

Mine area Under forest

Hab

% of mine lease area under

forest

Iron ore 39.94Manganese 0.81

Gulburga Lime stone 23.41 2689 0 0Chikamagalur Iron ore fines 17.95 4679 4509 96.3

Iron ore 7Lime stone 0.7Manganese 0.08Lime stone 4.5 -- -- --Iron ore 0.52 -- -- --

Other Districts Other minerals 5.09 -- -- --

65.5

38

Bellary 16973 11130

1989 757

Bijapur

Chitradurga

120


Lime stone constitutes 93 percent - 97 percent of the totalmineral produced in the Gulbarga district and covers anarea of around 3200 sq.km in Sedam, Chincholi,Shahapur, Jewargi and Shorapur taluks. The averagemine lease area sanctioned between the year 1998 and2002 is around 2689 hectares. (26.89 sq.km) and accountsfor only 0.16 percent of the total area of Gulburga district.The waste generated due to overburden soil is of the order15-18 percent of the limestone quarried, which iscomparatively lower than iron ore, as limestone is directlyused for cement production. The extent of land degradedduring the period between 1988 and 2001 is estimated at354.6 hectares (0.022 percent of total area of Gulburgadistrict.

In Chitradurga, 90 percent of mining is of iron ore and thebalance is lime stone (9 percent) and Manganese (1percent). In Bijapur 90 percent mining is lime stone andremaining is iron ore.

Production of minerals in the coastal districts of DakshinaKannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada is comparativelymuch less than other districts. However, the coastal regionbeing an environmentally sensitive zone, quarrying ofsand, clay, laterite and granite has lead to localisedenvironmental impacts in Mangalore, Udupi andKarwar districts. It is estimated that the total areaaffected is 290 hectares in Dakshina Kannada and31 hectares in Uttar Kannada district.

Building materials like sand, stone and granite arequarried from several districts and the impact ofthis activity on the environment is significant inquarry intensive districts of Tumkur, Bangalore,Mandya, Mysore and Chamrajnagar.

ISSUES & IMPACTS

The key environmental problems and impacts ofmining/quarrying are:• Land degradation• Degradation of forest and loss of biodiversity• Air and noise pollution• Surface water pollution• Ground water pollution

• Environmental degradation due to abandoned andclosed mines.

Land Degradation

Land degradation is one of the significant impact arisingout of mining and quarrying activity which is mainly in theform of alteration of land structure due to excavation,stacking of top soil and loss of land due to dumping ofmine waste and overburden soil. Stone and sandquarrying causes damage to property, depletion of groundwater, loss of fertile top soil, degradation of forest land,adverse effect on the aquatic biodiversity and public health.Haphazard quarrying of sand from the riverbeds leads todamage to infrastructure like bridges and roads.

The estimated extent of land degradation due to miningand storage of wastes like over burden soil and minetailings is not available. Under these circumstances, onlyindirect methods like remote sensing, aerial photographycoupled with ground truthing can be used to arrive atrealistic estimate of the extent of land degradation in anyparticular region.

Mining activites & environmental impacts

Activities Environmental Impacts

Mine water pumped out during drainage operationsSpent water from handling plants, dust extraction and dust suppression systemsEffluents from preparation and beneficiation plants

Leacheates/washoffs from waste/tailings dumps

Overburden and mine waste and tailings dump sites Land Degradation

High level of dust and particulate matter due to mining and transport of oresMineral beneficiation giving rise to emissions of flume gasesFragmentation of forest landDiminished green coverBlasting, drilling, underground mining equipment, ventilation fans, heavy earth moving machinery, drills, dumpers, crushing and cleaning equipments

Noise Pollution

Water Pollution

Air Pollution


121


Change in landuse pattern in Bellary District

122


Noise levels at different locations in granite quarry and adjacent humansettlements in Balkundi block, Bijapur-Raichur districts

Source: EIA - Technical report, Indian Resources Information & Management Technologies Pvt. Ltd.,Bangalore, 1997

Mining activity has lead to fragmentation of forest land,diminished green cover, posing a threat to conservationof species. The deforestation in the Kudremukh areacoupled with the high rainfall in the region has also led tosoil erosion.

Degradation of forest and decrease in biodiversity

Mining and quarrying, either open cast or underground,destroys landscape and forest ecosystem. The wastematerials that remain after the extraction of usable oresare dumped on the surrounding land, thus causing loss oftopsoil, nutrients and supportive microflora and vegetation.When the lease area is forest land, as in case ofKudremukh, Chikamagalur district, the impact on forestand biodiversity is higher compared to mixed dry decidu-ous forests and scrub forests situated in Bellary andChitradurga districts.

According to the study carried out in 2000 by National En-vironmental Engineering Research Institute and the Cen-tre for Ecological Sciences, compared to the relatively pris-tine habitats of Kudremukh, the abandoned mine areasshowed paucity or near absence of several plant and ani-mal species. There was no regeneration of Shola forestin the abandoned mine belt. In the abandoned miningarea only a few species of mammals were found. Also,only common species of birds of low conservation valuelike crow and common myna were found and “habitat spe-cialist species” had vanished. The virtual absence ofherpetofauna that indicates habitat quality, shows the dam-age caused to the environment. Decreasing number ofbutterfly species also indicated that environmental condi-tions had deteriorated.

Habitat fragmentation inBanneraghatta National Park hasoccurred due to quarrying in theregion. Till 2001, over 40 quar-ries were operating within the pro-hibited area of the National Parkthat obstructed free movement ofthe elephants and thus lead toman-animal conflict. Now quarry-ing has been totally stopped.

Air and Noise Pollution

Air pollution is a common environmental problem in allmines and quarries, especially open-cast operations.According to the Environmental Impact Assessment reportprepared by National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute for the Manganese mines in SandurTaluk, Bellary district, the average suspended particulatematter concentration at various locations of mining variedbetween 130µg/m3 and 1678µg/m3. The maximumsuspended particulate matter concentration observed was4474 µg/m3. These values are found to be within the normsprescribed by the Director General of Mines Safety, of,5000 µg/m3. However, the permissible level of suspendedparticulate matter for industrial area as per CentralPollution Control Board norm is 300 µg/m3. Hence, thoughthe concentration is within the norms prescribed, it is boundhave adverse health effect on the miners and on the peopleliving in the vicinity.

Degraded hillocks due to open cast mining, Kuduremukh

Day NightWithin the quarry (during blasting ) 115.3 – 125.60 75 70Near by Villages (during blasting ) 92.74 – 115.20 55 45Near by villages (during normal mining operations –day time)

68.3 - 76.90 55 45

At the driller (during drilling ) 87.21 – 105.00 75 70Mining site (during shovel operations ) 94.13 75 70

Limits as per KSPCB Test site Range of Noise level (dB)

123


Air pollution spreads beyond mine sites, thus affecting thebuffer zone to a large extent. In this context, the studyconducted by Karnataka State Remote SensingApplications Centre (January 2003) in three taluks ofBellary district, viz, Bellary, Sandur and Hospet shows minedust deposits on roadside agricultural lands. Another studyby the Institute for Catchment Studies & EnvironmentManagement in 2000 for three taluks of Kaladagi, Lokapurand Yadawad towns of Bagalkot district indicates impactsof dust deposits leading to water contamination of openwells and degradation of garden and agricultural lands.

Blasting, drilling, underground mining equipment andventilation fans are the sources of noise and vibrationunderground. Heavy earth moving machinery, drills,dumpers and material handling, crushing and cleaningequipments are prominent sources above ground. Inbeneficiation plants noise and vibration are the primaryoccupational health problems. Ground vibrations, causedby blasting, damage structures and also cause annoyanceto human beings. The studies carried out in granitequarries situated in Balkundi block (Bijapur-RaichurDistrict) in 1997and Kanakapura taluk in Bangalore districtin 1988, indicate that the noise level during blasting hourswas high within quarry sites and in adjacent areas. Thoughthe duration of high intensity noise during blasting mightbe a few seconds, the noise levels would be well abovethe permissible limits that would cause adverse effectson health.

Surface water pollution

Water pollution is a major concern in mining operations,where ore is being processed in slurry form to enrich thelow quality ore or extract metals like gold. Spill over/leak-age of effluents containing toxic chemicals (e.g. cyanide,used in gold processing) or discharge of leachate frommine waste, surface runoff from overburden dumps dur-ing rains, result in degradation of water quality. The deg-radation is mainly due to contamination of water with heavymetals/toxic chemicals or siltation. In the areas wheresulphides (pyrites) are present in the ore, water interactsand forms acid mine drainage which has low pH and con-tains high levels of sulphides, iron, and total dissolvedsolids. These deplete oxygen level in water, increase tox-

icity by renderingheavy metals,sulphides and fluo-rides soluble andcreate corrosionproblems

The KarnatakaState RemoteSensing Applica-tions Centre con-ducted a study in2003 in Bellary,Hospet, andSandur Taluks andfound silt deposi-tion in water bodiesnear the mining areas. The pollution problem has alsobeen reported from Kota village, Raichur district due tothe discharge of effluents from the gold mine, containingtoxic organics such as cyanide from the Hutti gold mines.Gold mining causes severe water pollution due to pres-ence of toxic chemicals like cyanide in mine tailings,though the production and mine area is comparativelylower than the other major minerals.

According to the Environmental Impact Assessment reportprepared by National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute in 2000, at Kudremukh, though thesediments and tailings carried in surface runoff during rainsare trapped in two pollution control dams, siltation andsedimentation is still found in Bhadra river up to 35 kmsdown stream. The concentration of insoluble iron is foundto be as high as 1.1mg/litre as against the BIS 10500-1991 standard of 1.0mg/litre. This affects aquaticbiodiversity and agricultural production as well.

Ground water pollution

The quality and quantity of ground water may get affectedthrough various factors like surface hydrology, soil textureand terrestrial vegetation. Though the quantity of watermay be benefited by groundwater recharge in open castmines, in places where mining is below the water table,the ground water is usually intercepted and pumped out

Accumulated tailings from Kudremukhmines on edge of Lakya reservoir,

Chickmaglur District

124


Statement showing non-reporting(abandoned / closed) mines

Source: Indian Bureau of Mines, Bangalore

or lost by evaporation thereby lowering the water table.This could result in loss of head or dewatering of wellswithin a radius of few kilometers of the mine. Similarlyeven after mining and reclamation processes are over,ground water quantity can still be affected adversely. Ifthe mine is located in a groundwater recharge area, therecharge characteristics may get affected by the backfillmaterial which may differ from the original characteristicsof top soil and overburden of leased area. The quality ofground water can get affected depending on the quality ofleachates generated from the overburden material whetheracidic in nature or rich in mineral content, therebywarranting adoption of appropriate control measures.

Abandoned/closed mines

Closed/abandoned mines may cause in degradation ofland due to removal of top soil, health hazards due tostagnated water in the pits, threat to human and animal

life, contamination of land and water bodies due to surfacerun off from mine waste dumps during monsoon periodand air pollution due to spread of dust particles from wastedumps. The small mines after becoming non-functionalcreate serious environmental and socio-economic impacts

Impact of mining in Bellary - Hospet region

A Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment of Mining Operation in Bellary-Hospet Region conducted by National EnvironmentalEngineering Research Institute in 2002 revealed that due to the good quality and vast deposits of iron ore mining activity inBellary-Hospet region appears to be a permanent feature. Also, as all the developmental activities in the region are closelyassociated with the mining activities, the potential adverse impacts on the environment due to both mining and developmentalactivities cannot be ignored.

The Bellary forests are under intense biotic pressure due to deforestation from mining acitivities, grazing and exploitation by localpeople. The medicinal plants in the region are destroyed. All the forest blocks in the region are fragmented due to mining,anthropogenic activities and the migratory paths, nesting and breeding sites of wild life and birds are disturbed. The growth oftrees has been adversely affected due to excess amount of dust pollution near dust generating sources like blasting, ore processingand transportation. Important mammal species like panther, sloth bear, indian fox, jackal, stripped hyena, jungle cat, mongoosehave been dwindling due to destruction of habitat and food. Birds including common peafowl, great indian bustard, spoonbill,white stork and reptiles like indian python and monitor lizard which are included in the Schedule I of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972have been spotted in the region and are under threat.

The mines in the Bellary-Hospet region are open cast type and do not generate any watewater as no wet process is involved. Also,the major industries namely, Vijayanagar Steel Ltd., Jindal Thermal Power Company Ltd., Jindal Praxair Oxygen and NationalMineral Development Corporation have wastewater treatement plants and reuse the treated water for greenbelt developement.However, during monsoon, the fine material from dump site get carried away along the hill slopes through surface run-off and enterin to the nearby waterbody. Poor water quality due to presence of iron and manganese in groundwater sources around miningareas have been found. Presence of relatively high concentration of hardness, fluoride and chloride in gound water in low miningarea have been reported.

Ground water withdrawal by both domestic and mining activity is excess in Bellary watershed and is in the state of overexploitationand any expansion in mining or industrial activites would have a severe impact on the region. Faecal contamination of spring waterand ground water because of insanitary conditions prevailing around the water sources has been found as there is no or inadequatesewage treatment facility.

High concentration of suspended particulate matter and respirable suspended particulate matter at Hospet has been monitoreddue to mining and transportation of ores on semipermanent road network and nonadoption of water sprinkling practice on haulroads.

Source: Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment for Mining Operation in Bellary-Hospet Region, Karnataka, Nationaly Environmental Engineering Research Institute,

Year

Bel

lary

Gul

burg

a

Chi

kam

agal

ur

Chi

trad

urga

Tota

l

1998 27 1 1 7 361999 22 2 0 11 352000 19 3 0 12 342001 13 3 0 6 222002 13 3 0 7 23

125


on the region due to lack of proper environment protectivemeasure.

The health impacts of mining and quarrying are verysevere. Studies have shown that stone quarrying andcrushing cause silicosis, exposure to iron ore dust maycause pneumoniosis and respiratory problems amongworkers of lime stone quarries.

Reduction in the ore grade and obsolete technology inhigh cost of gold extraction in Kolar Gold Fields hasconsequently led to the closure of these mines. Nearly,20-30 million tons of mine tailings dumped for many yearshas created environment and health problems to thepeople living in Kolar Gold Field town area.

CAUSES

The causal factors responsible for degradation ofenvironment due to mining/quarrying activity are:• Manual operations / conventional technology in small

mines• Lack of cleaner production technology• Inadequate mine restoration plan incorporating

rehabilitation and reclamation measures• Unscientific and illegal quarrying

Manual operations / conventional technology in smallmines

In Bellary district around 60 to 65 percent mines are smallmines. Gulbarga district too has many small mines. Inthese small mines, mechanisation and adoption of modernmining technology are not feasible due to the high costs.The mining practiced in these small mines involvescrushing, screening and transporting the ore byconventional technology and manual operations whichcauses air pollution. Improper mode of transportationwithout adequate protective coverage of the ore, leads tospreading of dust on road side and agricultural land. Thedamage caused to the roads on account of movement ofheavy traffic vehicles and high traffic density furtheraggravate the problem.

Lack of cleaner production technology

Cleaner production technologies intervene at source andhelp in reduction of pollution and in increasing efficiency.Surface mining, Chemical detoxification and biodegradation are adopted to have efficient waste

Cleaner production alternativesSurface mining technology

Surface mining technology is one such technology used formining of selective minerals for efficient exploitation of thedeposits. Conventional practices like drilling, blasting andpreliminary crushing cause pollution problems. Use of SurfaceMiners, avoids dril l ing, blasting and loading, thusconsiderably reducing the vibrations, noise and dust. In thismethod the material is cut into small lumps and transportedon conveyor belts. This technology can be employed in ironore mines of Bellary district and lime stone quarries ofGulburga district, where surface scratching is feasible. Thistechnology will reduce generation of overburden andconsequently reduce air and noise pollution.

Bio degradation

Biodegradation technology uses certain cultures of bacteriaand fungi for processing, as well as for extraction of gold andsilver from low grade ores or mine tailings. These methodscan therefore be employed in the closed gold mines in Kolardistrict for processing large quantity of mine tailings dumpedaround the mine sites. Processing of mine tailings will help inreduction of waste and also recovery of valuable metal.

Chemical detoxification methods

Certain mining processes involve use of toxic chemicals inbeneficiation, leaching and refining processes of minerals.Cyanide is used as leach reagent in gold and silver mining.Chemical detoxification helps in removing the toxic effects ofsuch chemicals. Such techniques can be adopted to treat thewaste at Hutti gold mine to mitigate the contamination of thesurroundings.

Health profile of mining labourers / employees

126


management practices suitable for iron ore mines, limestones quarries and gold mine. However, no informationabout adoption of cleaner production technologies inKarnataka is available.

Inadequate mine restoration plan incorporatingrehabilitation and reclamation measures

In the aftermath of mining land looses vegetation,landscape gets altered and the ecosystem is disrupted. Itis therefore necessary to reclaim and rehabilitate theaffected land scientifically with well-defined post-miningland use plans during the currency of mining and after theclosure. The measures should be compatible withsurrounding land use, support species, bio- diversityconsistent to that area. Moreover, the restoration planshould include guidelines for proper management of wastedump, topsoil management techniques, and goodpractices for stabilisation of dumps (active & non-active).

Regulatory mechanism

Clearance is required under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 from the Forest Department for mining activity in the forest areaand no mining/quarrying is permitted within a distance of 10 kilometres from the National parks and sanctuaries.In the case of major minerals, Indian Bureau of Mines is responsible for the enforcement of provisions with respect to environmentprotection as per Mineral Concession & development Rules, 1988, viz. removal and utilisation of top soil, storage of over-burden/waste rock, reclamation and rehabilitation of land, precaution against ground vibration, control of ground subsidence, abatementmeasures against air, water and noise pollution, restoration of flora etc.Larger mines of major minerals come under the purview of Indian Bureau of Mines and detailed Environment Management Planare insisted for clearances, depending on extent of land, deployment of machines, nature and sensitivity of the location. TheIndian Bureau of Mines prefers to have a brief Environment management plan report for small mines.The existing rule in Karnatka Minor Minerals Concession Rules 1994 states that no quarrying operation shall be permitted within a distance of fifty meters from any public infrastructure like canals, bridges etc., also no quarrying operations with blasting ispermitted with in 200 meters of any public infrastructure. However, enforcement of this rule is poor resulting in indiscriminatesand quarrying.Mining activity as well as quarrying is categorized as red by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board and requires consent.The project authorities should intimate the location of the project site to the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government ofIndia before initiating any investigation and surveys. The Ministry of Environment & Forests intimates the decision regardingsuitability or otherwise of the project site.The proponent is required to obtain the environmental clearance as per the Environmental Impact Assessment Notification,1994, issued by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, in case the mineral is a major mineral and themining area exceeds 5 hectares. If the mining area is less than 5 hectares and if investment exceeds Rs 5 crores, the proponentis required to obtain environmental clearance from State Ecology and Environment Department. The mining projects attractspublic hearing procedure, only if the mining area exceeds 25 hectares.The mining project requires Forest Clearance, if the activity comes under the forest area under the Forest Conservation Act,1980. If the mining area is coming under revenue land, permission and land conversion from the Revenue Department should beobtained. The proponent is required to do mining activity in accordance with the Mining Plan approved by the Indian Bureau ofMines.

Unscientific and illegal quarrying

Illegal and unauthorised quarrying of building stones andsand takes place in some districts. Such activities causesevere land and forest degradation as they go unnoticedand no rehabilitation plan is implemented. However, it isstated that the percentage of such illegal quarrying is lessthan 1 percent.

TRENDS

Extent of land degradation is directly linked to the quantumof mineral produced in that particular location or district.To arrive at the extent of land degraded by mining, thenorms evolved by the Indian Bureau of Mines are adopted.These norms give a weighted average value of 4 hectaresof overburden per million ton of ore (iron ore or limestone)escavated. The extent of total land affected in Bellary,Gulburga, Chitradurga and Bijapur during the above periodwould be in the order of 1162 hectares. The land affecteddue to mining before 1996-97 has not been estimated dueto lack of data.

127


Year wise production of major minerals in variousdistricts

Year wise production of minor minerals in variousdistricts

Lacunae in data availability and monitoring

There is a noticeable gap in the availability of time seriesdata and area wise data on extent of land /forest degradedin various mine intensive and eco sensitive area, forassessing the impact and for implementation of mitigatorymeasures.The data on ‘non working/reporting mines’ though availablein the government records, the information pertinent toidentification and classification of the non working minesfrom closed or abandoned mine is not available to initiatesteps towards environment protection.Though large mines and quarries periodically undertakemonitoring and control measures in their respective mines,there is no mechanism available for time based and areawise monitoring of levels, especially with respect to airand water. Continuous and area wise monitoring assumesimportant due to existence of large number of small minesand the nature of the problem, which extends well beyondthe core and buffer zones of the mining and quarryingarea.

attributed to rise in demand and sanctioning of new leasearea for mining. Increased mining activities are likely toraise the suspended particulate matter and respirablesuspended particulate matter levels unless bettertechnological and management interventions are adopted.The corresponding increase in road network fortransportation of ore to their respective destination willresult in increase in area under roads and more emissions.Increase in the numbers and height of waste dumps areexpected and add to the air pollution caused by winderosion of the dumps. The projected increase in miningoperations in Bellary region may lead to furtherdeterioration of water quality of Tungabhadra River andvarious streams, reservoir and ponds of that region.

HOT SPOTS

In western ghats area, iron ore mining activity has resultedin degradation of land and forest area and impacted thewater quality in the Bhadra River on account of siltationand contamination of water by the ore. However, atpresent, no new leases are sanctioned for mining/quarrying and mineral exploratory work in western ghatsarea. However, Kudremukh area in Chikamagalur districtis likely to become a hotspot in the future, if environmentallyeffective conservation measures like stabilisation of slopesin the mine area and appropriate protective measures forAs per the report, the land affected in Kudremukh area

alone due to the project for iron ore mining, dam fordisposal of waste, roads, electrical transmission lines,pipelines etc., is around 2000 hectares, from the year 1980till 1999. The quality of water in the river deteriorated fromclass-A, to class-C (suitable for drinking with conventionaltreatment) down stream of Kudremukh Iron Ore CompanyLtd., by 1996-97. It continued to remain at this level till1998-99 and further reduced to class-D (suitable for wildlife and fisheries) by 1999-2000. There is no furtherdeterioration observed down stream of Kudremukh IronOre Company Ltd., in 2000-01. The water pollution ofBhadra River, down stream of Kudremukh Iron OreCompany Ltd. in Kudre-mukh area may improve in thecoming years due to various environmental controlmeasures envisaged.

Air pollution in Bellary is likely to increase due to increasein production of hematite ore. This increase can be

128


Mining hotspots

129


silt storage dam etc., are not put in place.The mine tailings heaped in huge dumps in the adjoiningareas of closed gold mine site in Kolar district and lack ofconcerted efforts for reclamation and rehabilitation hasresulted in environmental problems in terms of adversehealth effects, loss of productive land due surface runofffrom waste dumps.

Large numbers of big quarries are situated at Malkhaed,Wadi, Sedam and Shahabad, besides a number of smallerquarries spread across district. Intensive quarrying andpresence of cement factories has lead to environmentalproblems like land degradation and air pollutionrespectively, in these locations.

ACTION PLAN

• Small mines and quarries less than 5 acres causeenormous damage to environment. These smallquarries do not come under the purview of the Minesand Minerals Development Regulation Act. Such smallmines and quarries should be brought under thepurview of the relevant Act/Rules. The Department ofMines and Geology, the Department of Environmentand Ecology and the Karnataka State Pollution ControlBoard should amend the rules to bring the smallquarries under the purview of consent rules of theKarnataka State Pollution Control Board.

Priortisation matrix


Guidelines for Reclamation and Rehabilitationmeasures

The major adverse impacts of mining are land deformationand deforestation. By proper back filling, dozing, top soilspreading and soil amelioration, the land can be prepared forbiological reclamation. As far as possible, back filling and landreclamation work should be carried on concurrently withmining. The vacant land in the mine leasehold should beutilized for tree plantation. The green belt created around themine workings would be aesthetically pleasant and act asdust and noise filters.

The top-soil, wherever extracted should be used immediatelyfor plantation work, and where it can’t be used immediately,should be stacked separately, to be used later for rehabilitatingmined out areas and dumps. The overburden dumps shouldnot be created on steep hill slopes but on plain or moderatelysloping ground and should be created in layers of moderatethickness of say 8 to 10 m, and each upper layer should beformed leaving a terrace at the outer edge of the lower layer.The individual layers may have slopes at angle of repose ofthe dump material but the overall angle of slope by this methodof formation in layers would come down to around 28 degrees,making it easier for erosion control and revegetation of thedumps. Construction of check dams in gullies and rivuletswill help in checking erosion and down wash of silt. Ifoverburden dumps slopes cannot be avoided, application ofgeo-textiles would help the revegetation process.

If the mining project involves involuntary displacement ofpersons, a suitable scheme for compensating the families fortheir land and homestead should be made and a properresettlement and rehabilitation scheme prepared after dueconsultation with the persons being displaced. Rehabilitationscheme for other project-affected persons should also beprepared.

Impa

ct o

n pu

blic

hea

lth

Loss

of

biod

iver

sity

Impa

ct o

n vu

lner

able

gr

oups

Prod

uctiv

ity

loss

Impa

ct o

n cr

itica

l ec

osys

tem

s

Irrev

ersi

bilit

y /

reve

rsib

ility

Urg

ency

of t

he

prob

lem

TOTA

L

1 Land Degradation 1 3 1 3 5 5 3 21

2 Degradation of forest and decrease in Biodiversity _ 3 1 3 5 5 3 20

3 Surface water pollution 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 9

4 Air pollution due to SPM and RSPM 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 17

5 Environmental Degradation due to abandoned/closed mines 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 13


ProblemNo.

130


• Provisions of the Karnataka Minor MineralConcessions Rules impose a total ban on quarryingof sand and blasting within 200 m from publicstructures like bridges, railway line, tanks and canals,etc. Considering the extent of impacts of quarrying andblasting the rules need to be amended restrictingquarrying up to 500 m from public structures likebridges, railway line, tanks and canals.

• Inventorization of all the quarries (registered andunregistered) existing/ closed/ abandoned, of all sizesneed to be done.

• Monitoring of various environmental parametersshould be carried out not only for individual as well ascluster of mines.

• Karnataka State Pollution Control Board should evolvea cluster wise monitoring system to measureparameters like suspended particulate matter andrespirable suspended particulate matter levels in thecore area and buffer zones of mining and quarryingintensive districts like in Bellary, Gulbarga, Tumkur andBangalore-north districts. In the same way ground andsurface water-quality monitoring should be carried outfor specific pollutants depending on the entire processof ore and mineral extraction.

• Time series data on the extent of land and forestdegradation in mine-intensive and eco-sensitive areasis essential to assess the impact on environment. Datashould be collected and monitored on selectedparameters to assess land and forest degradation. Forlarger mines and quarries these parameters shouldbe recorded annually and for clusters of quarries, oncein three years.

• Mine Reclamation and Rehabilitation for mines andquarries of all sizes including closed and abandonedmines:

• For Government lands leased for mining,rehabilitation should start simultaneously withmining activity.

• Renewal of lease should not be consideredunless the rehabilitation has taken place.

• For renewal, Environment Clearance fromDepartment of Ecology and Environment should

be made mandatory to ensure the simultaneousrehabilitation and reclamation.

• The lease period and consent period prescribedby Department of Mines & Geology andKarnataka State Pollution Control Boardrespectively should be co-terminus.

• Environment Fund should be set apart torehabilitate or reclaim the mining area.Environment Fund as a percent of the mininglease amount needs to be created for allenvironmental mitigation measures pertainingto mining.

• To prevent selective mining and causing environmentalloss the royalty should be linked to the area of thelease. Larger areas should attract higher royalties.

• The concept of dead rent is a way to revive old leaserights of mines, not in operation. This should be totallyscrapped and every lapsed lease should be treatedas a new venture, for approval of the lease orconcession based on fresh Environment ImpactAssessment.

• Out of the royalty collected by the Department of Miningand Geology, 50 percent should be retained by thedepartment for reclaiming and ecological restorationof the closed mines.

131


Quarry Area in Gulbarga districtThe images depict area around Malkhed village ofGulbarga district acquired by Indian Remote SensingSatellite, False Colour Composite during 1991 and2003. The area is physiographically plain region withfew streams running and the red colour in the imagerepresents vegetation mainly crop land as the parcelsof land can be seen. The different red colour indicatesthe various stages of crop growth. The ribbons likebands with white tone are areas of limestone quarry.It is seen that in the 1991 image is having less quarryarea whereas compared to 2003 image. Near thequarry, the dark blue (black) colour spots are quarrypits filled with water. Analysis of temporal data canlead to estimating the land degradation due toquarrying.

Quarrv area around Bannerahatta. Bangalore districtThe Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, LISS III, False ColourComposite images around Bannerghatta area have beenacquired during 1989 and 2002. The red colour in theimages indicate vegetation and the different types of redrepresent different types of forest (deciduous, plantationetc.). The Bluish white colour indicates the area ofquarrying. The Bluish black colour in the image are Barren/ Stony rock area. The dark blue I black colour are waterbodies or tank. With the analysis of multidate data,estimation of the increase in area of quarrying and theresultant land degradation can be done.

132


Mining Area in BellaryArea around Sandur Mining Area of Bellary District asviewed by Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, LISS III, FalseColour Composite during the years 1988 and 2000. Theimage shows that the area is an undulating terrain with linearridges. The red colour in the image indicates vegetation.The light red colour in the 2000 image indicates that thevegetation is sparsely distributed as compared to the darkred colour in the 1988 imagery. The light green colour(within the circle) shows the area of mining. The miningactivities mainly are carried out on the top of the ridgesand can be seen in both the images. Using multi temporaldata the area of degradation due to mining can beassessed.

Restoration strategies: now and future

Beacuse of large-scale destruction of natural areas due to mining operations, a restoration strategy is needed as a part of theoverall mining management plan. In restoration, emphasis is given first to build soil organic matter, nutrients and vegetation coverto accelerate natural recovery process. Reclamation is the process by which derelict or highly degraded lands are returned toproductivity, and by which some measure of biotic function and productivity is restored. Tree plantations can be used as a tool formine spoil restoration as they have ability to restore soil fertility and ameliorate microclimatic conditions.Long-term mine spoilreclamation requires the establishment of stable nutrient cycles from plant growth and microbial processes. Restoration of minesites often entails amelioration of physical and chemical characteristics of substrate and ensuring the return of vegetation cover. Ifspecific problems hindering eco-system redevelopment can be identified, a cure can be designed using or mimicking naturalprocesses. This process of identification and intervention is the essence of ecological restoration. The most common response toland degradation has been abandonment or reliance on natural succession to restore lost soil fertility, species richness andbiomass productivity. However, the process of natural succession on surface-mined soils is slow due to the removal of topsoil,resulting in elimination of soil seed bank and root stocks and due to soil profile disturbances. As many as 50 or 100 years canelapse before a satisfactory vegetation cover develops on mine waste. Redevelopment of advanced communities may take amillennium or more. An important goal of ecological rehabilitation is to accelerate natural successional processes so as to incre-ase biological productivity, reduce rates of soil erosion,

Bioremidiation: the challenges

In summary, a desired species for planting on mine spoils should possess the ability to (i) grow on poor and dry soils, (ii) developthe vegetation cover in a short time and to accumulate biomass rapidly, (iii) bind soil for arresting soil erosion and checking nutrientloss, and (iv) to improve the soil organic matter status and soil micro-bial biomass, thereby enhancing the supply of plant availablenutrients. In addition, if possible, the species should be also of economic importance.

A N Singh, A S Raghubanshi and J S Singh, review article Plantations as a tool for mine spoil restoration

133

WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

We humans have an amazing potential to converteverything useful into waste

-Anonymous

134


WASTE MANAGEMENT

Current Status

Causes

Impacts

Prioritisation

Action Plan

135

WASTE MANAGEMENT

CURRENT STATUS

Rapid urbanisation and industrial diversification has ledto generation of considerable quantities of municipal,plastic, hazardous and biomedical waste. Improperdisposal of waste often results in spread of diseases andcontamination of water bodies and soils. The impacts ofthese wastes on the economy cannot be ignored andmanaging them has become a major problem. Under theprovisions of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, theGovernment of India has brought into force the HazardousWaste Management Rules, 1989, the Biomedical Waste(Handling and Management) Rules, 1998, the RecycledPlastics (Manufacture & Usage Rules), 1999, theMunicipal Waste (Handling & Management) Rules, 2000,and the Batteries (Handling & Management) Rules, 2001,for proper management of these wastes. In Karnataka,amongst the 3 types of waste generated in 2003,the largest amount generated is municipal solidwaste at 21,43,280 metric tons followed byhazardous waste at 86,137 metric tons andbiomedical waste at 27,095 metric tons.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

As regards municipal waste, on an average 40 to50 percent of the total municipal waste is generatedin the six municipal corporations of Karnataka andmore than 70 percent of municipal waste isgenerated by the residential and market areas. Thedomestic waste generated by households comprisesmainly of organic, plastic and paper waste and small

quantities of other wastes. Plastic and glass aresegregated at the household level or by rag pickers andsold. The remaining waste is disposed in community bins,which, also contains household hazardous wastes suchas batteries, bulbs, discarded ointments and medicines.In addition, about 1 to 2 percent of biomedical waste alsogets mixed with municipal solid waste in the communitybins.

Though, door-to-door collection has been introduced in afew wards of Bangalore and Mysore, the bulk of themunicipal solid waste is still collected in community binsand the waste that reaches disposal sites is usually mixed,containing plastic, glass, metals, etc. Many timessegregated waste gets mixed up while transporting. Ofthe total waste generated, each day about 500-600 tonsof municipal waste generated from residential, city market

Municipal Solid waste generationby source in Bangalore - 2001

Municipal Solid Waste generation per day in 6 CityCorporations of Karnataka for 2002

Source wise physical composition of municipalwaste in Bangalore in the year 2001

* Per Capita Waste generated = Waste generated /PopulationSource: Respective city corporations

City Corporations

Population (2002)

Waste generated (tons / day)

Waste Collected (tons /day)

Per capita waste*

generated (grams/day)

Bangalore 5,882,162 2,500 1,400 425 Mangalore 551,701 250 200 453

Hubli / Dharwad 801,442 250 200 311

Mysore 794,677 230 183 289 Belgaum 516,155 120 100 232 Gulbarga 452,944 120 100 264 Total 8,999,081 3,470 2,183 386

Res

iden

tial

Com

mer

cial

Hot

els

&

Res

taur

ants

Mar

kets

Slum

s

Stre

et

Swee

ping

All

Sour

ces

Putrescible 71.5 15.6 76 90 29.9 90 72Paper 8.4 54.6 17 3 2.5 2 11.6Plastics 6.9 16.6 2 7 1.7 3 6.2Glass 2.3 0.7 0.2 - 8.4 - 1.4Metals 0.3 0.4 0.3 - 0.2 - 0.2Dust & Ash 8.1 8.2 4 - 56.7 5 6.7Clothes, Rags 1.3 4 0.4 - 0.5 - 1Hazardous 1.2 - - - - - 0.9

Composition % by weight

Waste Type

136


and other commercial areas of Bangalore city is collectedand transported to the sites maintained by KarnatakaCompost Development Corporation, for compostingthrough mechanical and vermi-composting techniques.

The Karnataka Municipalities Act, 1964, and KarnatakaMunicipal Corporation Act, 1976, have emphasized theneed to collect and dispose ‘rubbish and filth’ in a ‘defined’manner, so as to keep public places clean. However, thereis no reference to scientific collection and disposal of thewaste. Waste collection and disposal was viewed only asa duty concerning maintenance of health and sanitation.With the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling)Rules, 2000, in place, lacunae regarding collection,segregation and disposal practices have been addressed.An amendment to the Karnataka Municipal CorporationAct, 1976, made during 2000 enables corporations to levya solid waste management cess. Consequently, it isexpected that the municipal corporations should be ableto handle municipal solid waste more efficiently.

The Municipal Solid Waste (Handling & Management)Rules, 2000 provide for collection, segregation, storage,transportation, processing and safe disposal of municipalsolid waste excluding hazardous waste generated fromindustries and untreated biomedical waste generated fromhealth care establishments. It is applicable to everymunicipality involved in management of municipal solidwaste right from collection to final disposal. These ruleslay emphasis on environmentally sound management ofmunicipal solid waste.

In Bangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga, Hubli-Dharwad,Mangalore and Mysore cities solid waste is being dumpedon open sites outside the cities since many years and tillnow no city or town in the state has an engineered landfillwith total waste recycling system to dispose the non-recyclable municipal wastes. Thus, most of the collectedwaste is disposed on private lands or municipal corporationland situated in the outskirts of the city. For the disposalof municipal solid wastes, as of November 2003, out of226 urban local bodies in Karnataka, 220 have identifiedlandfill sites and applied for authorization, 6 local bodiesare yet to apply for authorization. 192 local bodies havereceived the authorization from the Karnataka State

Pollution Control Board for establishment of landfillfacilities while 8 sites were rejected.

The workforce employed for management of solid wasteand the budget allocation made for this purpose vary fromone city municipal corporation to other. The ratio betweenthe health workers and the population varies between cities.In Bangalore, for every 301 persons there is one healthworker whereas in Gulbarga, for a population of 631persons one worker is available. In Mysore, Mangalore,Belgaum and Hubli-Dharwad, one worker is available fora population of 373,383,430 and 496 persons respectively.The work force is deployed without any scientific analysisof the quantum of work involved. There are no guidelinesstipulating the worker to population ratio. Various factorslike amount of waste generated, collection mode,availability of collection bins and trucks, common treatmentand disposal facilities, decentralized waste processingplants and landfills should determine the adequate numberof workers required in any city corporation.

Slaughter house waste

Karnataka produced 81,057 metric tons of meat in 2001 withBangalore contributing to 18 percent of the production (14,227metric tons). The meat processing operation consists ofslitting and bleeding, deskinning, evisceration, cleaning andcarcass washing which are all water consuming. The wastegenerated consists of dung, blood, hair, condemned parts,skin pieces, fat, paunch manure and wastewater. Thoughthe wastes from slaughter houses come under the purview ofMunicipal Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000; itis important to note that the waste is similar to bio-medicalwastes in terms of its infectious and bio-hazard nature.

The wastes and wastewater is highly infectious and safetreatment is necessary. In Bangalore stipulated environmentalrequirements are not adhered to by the slaughter houses.The stipulated effluent treatment plant is either not installedor does not operate efficiently. The effluents contain blood,dropping, fat, intestinal contents, and pieces of inediblematerials which put a high load on the effluent treatment plantand are therefore many times let into the underground drains.The Government is considering the modernization of theslaughterhouse at Tannery Road or the possibility of relocatingit. The Karnataka Meat and Poultry Marketing Corporation isalso proposing to establish 6 rural slaughterhouses within aradius of about 50 kilometres around Bangalore city to reducethe transport of animals into the city. The Karnataka Meatand Poultry Marketing Corporation is also proposing tomodernize the slaughterhouses at Belgaum, Gulbarga, Hubli-Dharwad, Mangalore and Mysore or to relocate them to thecity outskirts.

137

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Important acts for solid waste management and suggested amendments

The Karnataka Municipalities Act, 1964

The Act is applicable to all municipalities in the State and various obligatory functions of the municipal council are listed underSection 87 of the Act. The provisions relating to soild waste provide for “cleaning of public streets, places, sewers and all spacesnot being private property, removing noxious vegetation, etc.” The same provision further provides for providing respectacles forcollecting 'rubbish'. Section 224 of the Act prohibits disposal of 'rubbish and filth' in public places, streets, drains, water courses,etc. Section 226 of the Act provides for imposing fine for violating these legal provisions. However, it is very relevant to mentionthat the amount of fine is as low as Rs 5 and highest is Rs 25.

Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act, 1976

The obligatory functions of the municipal corporations are covered under the provisions of this Act. The Corporation Commisioneris responsible for proper arrangement of storage and final disposal of 'rubbish and filth' as per Section 225 of the Act. Further,Sections 256 and 257 empower the Corporation Commisioner to direct either the owner or occupier of the private premises toremove rubbish or filth. This Act also provides for imposing very nominal penalty for violating the provisions mentioned above.

Solid waste management cess: Section 103A of the Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act, 1976 has been amended in 2000by introducing a new provision that enables municipal corporations to levy solid waste management cess not exceeding 1000rupees per month.

Legislative action for waste management: The schedule 12 of the Constitution of India enjoins the local bodies to maintainthe environment of the area under their jurisdiction and includes public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid wastemanagement.

Amendments suggested

Section 87 of the Karnataka Municipalities Act and Section 58 of the Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act address theobligatory functions concerning waste management with respect to only sanitary and health issues. These provisions do notfully provide for most critical environmental issues like sewage maintenance, prevention of air pollution, environmental planning,prevention of pollution, management of waste and they are not linked to powers, action plans and accountability. Municipalcorporations need to be further strengthened by amending suitable provisions which enable municipal solid waste managementin a more environment friendly manner. Amendments should be in confirmity with the stipulations envisaged in the MunicipalSolid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules.

The above mentioned acts provide for penalties for violating certain legal provisions pertaining to health and sanitation.However, the penalties envisaged are very meager and ineffective. Amendments to these provisions to enhance penaltiesare needed to deal with violation of waste management rules.

Similar amendment needs to be made to the Panchayat Raj Act,1999, to make it obligatory on part of the village panchayatsto manage and dispose waste generated in villages.

Source: Review of Local Bodies Acts and Rules of Karnataka on environmental issues, EMPRI, 2003

Current status municipal solid waste disposal in 6 city corporations

Source: Respective city corporations, Karnataka State Pollution Control Board, 2003

City Corporation No of dumpsites

Area of dumpsites

Distance from city

Period of usage

Existing composting

plant

Existing landfill site

Identified landfill site

Bangalore 2 10 acres 12 kms 27 yrs Yes No YesBelgaum 1 8 acres 2 kms 40 yrs No No YesGulbarga 1 15 acres 4 kms 4 yrs No No YesHubli Dharwad 2 38 acres 3 kms 30 yrs No No YesMangalore 1 70 acres 15 kms 50 yrs Yes Yes YesMysore 1 4 acres 5 kms 1 year Yes No Yes

138


mismatch between the quantum of waste generated inthe city and the vehicles available for transport. Also, thetype of vehicle used for transporting municipal solid wasteis often not properly designed. The vehicles with closedmechanical loading system should be preferred to preventgarbage spilling during transportation. However, most ofthe time it is the open trucks which are used to collect thewaste. Further, the vehicles do not have segregatedcompartments for collecting different type of wastes. Manya time though waste is segregated at source and collectedin different bins, at the time of transportation when thetrucks are loaded the waste is dumped together, therebydefeating the whole purpose of segregation.Transportation of waste over long distances is anotherproblem which is often encountered as there are no relaycentres. Use of slow moving waste collection system,manual loading, inefficient use of collection trucks andimproper placing of dustbins results in loss of man hoursand inefficient waste collection.

Indiscriminate burning of wasteIn Karnataka, no engineered landfill with a total wasterecycling system exists to dispose municipal wastes. Mostof the collected waste is disposed on private lands ormunicipal land located in the outskirts of the city. It isburnt either as roadside heaps or at dump sites to reducewaste volume and /or to recover recyclable materials.Indiscriminate open burning of waste significantlycontributes to urban air pollution as the mixed wastecontains tyres, aluminium foils, metallic scrap anddomestic hazardous waste that emit highly toxic fumes.

Problems of municipal solid waste

The key problems of municipal solid waste include• mixing of waste• collection and storage of waste• transportation of waste• indiscriminate burning of waste• illegal disposal of waste

Mixing of wasteWith only a small percentage of households going in forsegregation, the municipal solid waste generated isgenerally mixed, thereby resulting in disposal sitesreceiving highly heterogeneous composition of waste. Inindustrial areas too, the problem of mixed wastes existsas the domestic waste from industries is disposed alongwith industrial solid hazardous waste such as sludge,metallic scraps, etc., to the community bins located in theindustrial area or given away to private contractors. Themixed waste finds its way for disposal into the municipalor private lands as the case may be. This is more prevalentin private industrial areas where there are many small andtiny industries and no space is available to store or disposethe waste.

Collection and storage of wasteWaste collection and disposal lies at the core of municipalsolid waste management. Waste management happensto be the single largest category of expenditure in manymunicipal budgets. Failure or inadequacy of collection,often result in problems of overflowing bins which is acommon scenario and major threat to public health. Givenits high visibility and importance, collection should receivehigh degree of scrutiny and analysis. But, in reality, theopposite is quite often true. Workers are often notmotivated, untrained, undercompensated, and unnoticed.Further, obstacles to efficiency are obsolete ornonfunctional equipment and inadequate transportfacilities which have not kept pace with urban growth. Thepoorer sections of the society often do not get properwaste collection services or are completely unserved.

Transportation of wasteTransportation is another key component in determiningthe economies of waste management. Often there is a

Anaerobic Digestion / BiomethanationTreatment of Wastes

Organic components of the wastes is segregated and fed tobiogas digester where, in the presence of methanogenicbacteria and under anaerobic conditions, it undergoes bio-degradation producing methane rich biogas and effluent.Biogas mainly consists of methane (about 60-75%), carbondioxide (about 25-40%) besides small quantities of ammoniaand hydrogen sulphide and has a calorific value of about 5000kcal /m3. Depending upon the waste composition, the biogasproduction ranges from 50-150m3/ton of wastes. The biogascan be utilised either for cooking / heating applications or forgenerating motive power or electricity through dual fuel, gasengines, low pressure gas turbines or steam turbines. Thesludge from anaerobic digestion, after stabilisation, can beused as a soil conditioner or as manure.

139

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The waste handlers and rag pickers present at the site torecover material are the most affected.

Illegal disposal of wasteIllegal disposal of wastes is a serious problem havingseveral long-term ecological impacts. Unscientific disposalof wastes at dump sites for prolonged duration results inland degradation and ground water pollution throughleachate percolation. A study in Bangalore reveals thatdaily an estimated 600 tons of municipal solid waste isdumped illegally in residential areas and outskirts of thecity. In Belgaum, waste is disposed in low-lying areas oncity outskirts and the dump site is located just 2 kilometersfrom city. During monsoon the stagnant water could causesoil contamination and spread of communicable diseases.

Very often budgetary allocation for waste management isnot adequate and even when funds are available they arenot properly used to address the issues of accountability,efficiency and proper planning. With most of the fundsallocated spent on payment of salary and uniforms tosanitary staff, very little funds are made available fordevelopmental work like engineered landfills andtransportation.

One of the adverse factors in managing municipal solidwaste is the mindset of the general public with respect tosegregation of waste and also asserting their rights for aclean and safe neighborhood. Added to this is the lack ofknowledge on waste minimisation and the benefits ofrecycling . To ensure waste minimization and recycling,systematic guidelines need to be in place, which is atpresent lacking in city corporations and urban local bodies.Though, some recycling takes place through the ragpickers, the chain of the recycling process is not completeand often results in illegal burning or dumping.

Trends and projections for municipal solid waste

Considering the present annual growth rate of 5 percentin waste generation in the State, the projected municipalsolid waste generation by 2011 will be about 7424.8 metricton/day. As all urban local bodies are directed to set upwaste processing and disposal facilities, it is assumed thatexisting practice of illegal waste disposal will be reduced.

Directions of the Government for transport ofmunicipal solid waste

The Department of Environment and Ecology has recentlyissued an order in January 2004, directing the Commissionersof the city corporations and the Commissioners / Chief officersof the city municipal councils/Town municipal councils to takeall necessary steps to effectively comply with the directionsspecified in the order for transportation of municipal solidwastes. Non compliance of the directions shall attract Section15 and 17 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Thedirections include

1. The municipal solid wastes shall be transportedhygienically through specially designed transport systemso as to prevent foul odour, littering, unsightly conditionsand accessibility to vectors. There shall not be any leakingof liquid wastes or ingress of rainwater.

2. The vehicle shall carry adequate polythene sheets tocollect the scattered solid waste in the event of an accident.

3. The transportation vehicles shall be so designed thatmultiple handling of wastes, prior to final disposal, isavoided.

4. The transportation vehicle shall possess valid “FitnessCertificate and Pollution Under Control Certificate” andcertified transport vehicle under the Motor Vehicle Act.

5. The storage facilities set up by municipal authorities fortemporary containment of municipal solid wastes shall becleared before they start overflowing.

6. Workers handling municipal solid waste for loading andunloading shall wear hand gloves and gum bootscompulsorily. The workers shall be made aware of personalhygiene.

7. The vehicle shall have a first-aid kit to treat the workers incase of accidents or injuries while handling wastes.

8. Smoking and carrying inflamable material inside thevehicle shall be strictly prohibited.

9. If an accident occurs during transportation of municipalsolid waste, the municipal authority shall forthwith reportthe accident in the prescribed form to the Secretary, UrbanDevelopment Department in case of metropolitan cities,and to the Deputy Commissioner in all other cases.

10. Hazardous wastes, toxic wastes, industrial wastes,untreated bio-medical wastes shall not be transportedalong with municipal solid wastes.

11. Bio degradable waste as well as construction or demolitionwastes or debris shall be transported separately so as tomake use of such wastes.

12. In case of vehicles which are owned by the city corporation/city municipal councils/town municipal councils, suchvehicles shall be converted/replaced in compliance withthe above mentioned criteria within a period of 3 months.

13. The commissioners of the said city corporations and thecommissioners/chief officers of the city municipal councils/Town municipal councils are required to furnish monthlyaction taken report to the Secretary, Environment andEcology Department .

140


Government initiatives on ban of plastic articles

Directions have been given to the Tourism Department,Horticulture Department, Jungle Lodges & Resorts, and theForest Department under the provisions of EnvironmentProtection Act, 1986 to take all necessary steps to ban usageof plastic articles such as carry bags (irrespective of thicknessand size), plates, cups/tumbler, spoons, forks, straws by anyperson inside the eco-tourism areas and zoos. TheGovernment further directed that biodegradable alternativesmade of paper, wood, pressed leaf, jute and cotton are to beencouraged in place of plastic articles as this would be eco-friendly and also generate local employment.

At present only about 9 percent of the recyclable material(plastic and paper) is recovered due to non-segregationof waste. By practicing segregation, the extent ofrecyclable material can be increased to 15 percent. It isalso estimated that by 2010 the quantity of recyclablewastes in municipal solid waste is expected to increaseby 10 percent, the construction and demolition wasteswould increase by 35 percent and the wastes that can bedisposed off in landfills would increase by 20 percent.

PLASTIC WASTE

Plastic has been a wonder chemical put to several usesand has become indispensable in day-to-day use.However, unscientific disposal of plastic wastes can leadto many environmental problems. Used plastic often getsmixed with municipal solid waste or gets into the drains.Plastic when mixed with municipal solid waste reducesthe composting efficiency by decreasing water permeabilityas well as air circulation. Plastics pose unique problem inmunicipal solid waste management due to theconsiderable amount of time required for degradation. Italso causes soil pollution and storm water drains are oftenclogged due to plastic waste.

The Recycled Plastics (Manufacture and Usage) Rules,1999, relate to prohibition of usage of carry bags orcontainers made of both virgin and recycled plastics. Theamendment of the rules in 2003 have further restrictedthe use of carry bags and containers made of recycledplastics for storing, carrying, dispensing or packaging offood stuffs. The rules specify that no person shallmanufacture, stock, distribute or sell carry bags made ofvirgin or recycled plastic bags which are less than 8 X 12inches (20 X 30 cms.) in size and which do not confirm tothe minimum thickness of 20 microns.

In Karnataka, there are about 2996 plastic industriesproducing about 600 metric tons of produce per day andgenerating plastic wastes of 28 metric tons/day. Bangaloredistrict alone has about 1,199 plastic industries whichgenerate about 11 metric tons/day of plastic wastes. Theplastic waste generated in household sector is estimatedto be around 470 metric tons/day. Plastic waste inBangalore forms nearly 176 metric tons of the total 2,500

metric tons/day of waste generated. In Bangalore around300 plastic reprocessing units are functioning with a dailyturnover of more than Rs. 28 lakhs while on an average35 tons of non recyclable plastic is being disposedindiscriminately everyday in and around Bangalore.

Considerable amount of non-recyclable plastic materialsis disposed off in open lands and drains that can drasticallyaffect soil permeability, water infiltration rate and rechargepotential and routinely clog drains. To address the problemof used plastic in municipal solid waste it is advisable tosegregate it at source and recycle it to produce some usefulitems. Plastic recyclable wastes have a market valueranging from one rupee to fifty rupees per kilogramdepending upon the type and source of plastic. However,it must be noted that the recycling process is also apolluting one and hence the best way to solve the problemof plastic is to avoid the use of plastic.

Market value of plastic recyclable waste

Recyclable material Market value (Rs/Kg)

Plastic wires (PVC Based) 10-50Plastic bags and packaging material made out of virgin material

8-10

Buckets, drums, cans, disposable cups, bottles, rigid pipes, agricultural pipes, plastic crates, cassettes, pens, box straps, bobbins, shampoo bottles, woven sacs, etc.

2-16

Milk pouches 8-10Electronic items like computer components, calculators, television housing

1-6

Car bumpers 1-6Industrial wastes like weaving wastes, cutting wastes, damaged items

5-8

Mixed colour polythene bags 2-3

141

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Impact of plastic recycling on the environmentIndia is rated as one of the highest recyclingcountries in the world. However, in the recyclingprocess of plastic, the larger proportion isinvariably converted to ‘down-cycled’ inferiorproduct. In the recycling process, extensivesorting, cleaning and removal of additives isnecessary and all of which affect the environmentand public health.

Grinding of plastic scrap is a noisy operation withnoise levels reaching upto 95 decibels. Smallscale units are often designed neither forenvironmentally sound technologies nor for thebetter processing cum pollution control system.Absence of adequate ventilation systems, lackof space, unhygienic conditions and oldequipment often used routinely expose theworkers to toxic colours and other pollutantsduring processing.

The major pollutants of grinding process aresuspended and respirable particulate matter.Besides, workers are also exposed to vapours and dustscontaining chemical intermediates, polymers and additivesduring mixing, pelletising and maintenance operations.Plastic grinding generates polymer dust, resulting ininhalation and combustion hazard. The flakes or chips ofplastic waste are soaked in caustic soda and detergentfor 1 to 3 days and then rinsed with hand exposing theworkers to alkaline solution for 6 to 8 hours.

Use of plastic waste in pavement modificationAttempts have been made to use disposed polycups forpavement modification. The addition of this poly-cupmaterial imparts more stiffness to the conventional bitumenwhich has application in areas where breaks are frequentlyapplied like intersections, round about, crossing, mergingof roads etc. This also imparts more resistance topermanent deformation leading to longer economic life.

HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste consists of both solid and liquid residuesof different industrial processes, effluent treatment plants

Chemical nature of Plastics and its impactson Human health

and expired products. Although many industries havebeen in existence for the past 15-20 years, records ofhazardous wastes are available only for past few years.The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board in 2002- 2003has identified 1107 working industries generatinghazardous waste. Of these, 937 industries have appliedfor authorisation for storage of hazardous wastes and 928industries have been granted authorisation consideringthe infrastructure available. Chemicals, textiles andautomobile industries are the three largest contributors ofhazardous waste. Of the total 86111 metric tons ofhazardous wastes generated in 2002- 2003, 28366 metrictons is reprocessable, 4568 metric tons is incinerable and53177 metric tons is disposable in landfills. Of the totalhazardous waste generated in the State, 33 percent isrecyclable and the remaining 5 percent is incinerable whilethe rest 62 percent needs to be disposed into a landfill.The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board hasauthorized 56 reprocessors to reprocess waste oil , printedcircuit board waste, lead, zinc, aluminium, spent solventsand spent catalyst / activated carbon. For the safe disposalof hazardous waste Government of Karnataka has takenthe initiative in identifying two potential sites for

Source: Study on plastic industries in Karnataka-2001, KCPC

Types of Plastics Chemicals Present Impacts

Poly Vinyl Chloride

Organo chlorides like Dioxins, Phthalates

Dioxin is a human carcinogen (causes Angisarcoma). Causes birth defects, foetal death, spontaneous abortions, disrupts hormone system, suppresses immune system, damages to the liver, kidneys and reproductive systems

Poly UrethanesIsocynates, Polycyclic Aromatic, Hydrocarbons (PAMS), Dioxins

Causes Asthma

Polystyrene Styrene, 1-3 Butadiene Human carcinogenic substances

Acrylo Butadiene Styrene

Butadiene, Styrene Acylonitrile

Acylonitrile is a highly toxic substance readily absorbed by inhalation and directly through skin, Causes severe eye irritation, headache and nausea.

Poly Carbonates

Methylene, Chloride Chloroform, Chlorobenzene

Disrupts the hormone system

Polyethylene Teraphthalate

UV stabilizers, Pigments

Irritation of eyes and respiratory tract.

142


Number of authorised reporcessors along withitem and quantity reprocessed

establishment of treatment, storage, and disposal facilityin Siddlaghatta taluk in Kolar district andThimmanayakanahalli near Dobbaspet industrial area inBangalore Rural district.

Problems of hazardous waste

The main issues of hazardous waste are• illegal disposal of hazardous waste,• mixing of municipal solid waste with hazardous waste,• improper management and handling of waste,• absence of disposal sites for hazardous waste• generation of hazardous waste by the unorganised

sector.

Illegal disposal of hazardous wasteDue to the absence of engineered landfill sites, thedisposal of the major portion of hazardous waste is thebiggest problem. Most registered units are practicingonsite storage whereas the unregistered units aredisposing the wastes illegally on highways, lakes,agricultural lands etc., through private contractors.

Distribution of Hazardous waste generation inKarnataka during 2002-03

An added issue of illegal disposal of liquid hazardouswaste is on the municipal sewage treatment plants, whichare designed to treat only the domestic sewage and arebased on biological treatment methods. Toxic liquidhazardous waste getting illegally discharged into the underground drains/sewers inhibit and destroy the bacterialculture responsible for treating the effluent and thus reducethe treatment efficiency.

Household hazardous waste

While hazardous waste generated by industries is known andregulated, the hazardous waste contributed from thehousehold goes unchecked. Common household products likeold medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizerand pesticide containers, batteries and shoe polish containconstituents which are hazardous.

Over the last few years, the consumer market has grownrapidly leading to products being packed in cans, aluminumfoils, plastics, and other such non biodegradable items thatcause incalculable harm to the environment. The problem iscompounded by the fact that there is very little awarenessamong the masses regarding proper handling and disposalof household hazardous wastes.

Household hazardous wastes are sometimes disposed ofimproperly by individuals pouring wastes down the drain, onthe ground or into storm water drains. The dangers of suchdisposal methods may not be immediately noticed or visible,but certain types of household hazardous wastes have thepotential to contaminate waterbodies and some also seepthrough soil and contaminate groundwater. They may behazardous to children and pets if left around the house. If letinto the sewer lines, they may end up in the sewage treatmentplant where they affect the treatment process. In householdseptic tanks, they can kill bacteria which carry out thebiological treatment process.

Items reporcessed No of Units authorised

Printed Circuit Boards 11 3,583 MT/yrLead Acid Batteries 11 512 MT/yrSpent activated carbon 2 6 MT/yrZinc waste 2 3,720 MT/yrDiscarded containers 1 21,600 NosSpent solvents 6 1,032 KL/yrAluminium waste 3 609 MT/yrWaste oil 20 51,924 KL/yr

Total amount reprocessed

143

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Constituents of hazardous waste from various sources, their composition and impacts

In cases, when these liquid hazardous wastes aredischarged into storm water drains they get directlydischarged without treatment into natural valleys impactingthe receiving water bodies. Unscientific storage ofhazardous waste could contaminate the ground water inthe long run.

Mixing of municipal solid wastes with hazardouswastesNon segregation of wastes generated in households andindustries leads to mixing of municipal solid waste andhazardous waste. This often results in disposal sitesrecieving mixed hazardous waste.

Improper management and handling of wastesLack of technical knowledge and bad managementpractices lead to unscientific handling of hazardous waste.Onsite storage practices of industrial hazardous wastepose a serious problem to the environment and healthand safety of workers.

Absence of disposal sites for hazardous wastesDue to absence of disposal sites, the excessive or unco-ntrolled onsite storage of hazardous waste for a prolongedduration makes any industry to face considerable wastemanagement risks and challenges. In major cities likeBangalore and Mysore about 14,000 metric tons ofhazardous waste is stored onsite at individual industrialpremises.

Salient features of Hazardous Wastes(Management and Handling) Amendment Rules

1989, 2000, 2003

In accordance with the powers conferred by EnvironmentProtection Act, 1986, the Ministry of Environment and Forestsnotified the Rules in 1989. This rule was to cover hazardouswastes excluding those covered under the Air Act, 1981 andWater Act, 1974 and excludes radioactive wastes, and wastesfrom ships operating beyond 5 kms from the shore

The salient features of these rules are :

Provide for proper collection, storage, treatment anddisposal of hazardous waste either by the occupier or bythe operator of a facility.Empowers the state regulatory body to grant authorizationto an operator or occupier for any of the above activitiesand to either suspend or cancel an authorization if theauthorized person has failed to comply with any of theconditions of the authorization.Ensure proper packaging, labeling and transportation ofhazardous waste by the operator in accordance with theprovisions of the Rules issued by the Central Governmentunder the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.Emphasis is given on environmentally sound managementof hazardous waste to ensure the protection of humanhealth and environment against the adverse effects thatcould be result from such wastes.Protection of the waste handlers from accidents. Duty ofthe occupier of hazardous waste and the operator of afacility to train the waste handlers.Mandatory to obtain permission for import or export ofhazardous waste in compliance with Basel convention.

Sources of hazardous waste Constituents Composition of waste Impacts

Engineering units Waste oil and oil emulsions

Paraffin, cycloparaffin, aromatics and organic compounds

Formation of thick layer on the water body affects the food productivity of aquatic animals, oil spilling causes lethal toxicity on fish and aquatic flora

Chemical industry Tarry waste/heavy metals

Toxic compounds, phenols, organic acids

Organic acids, alkalies make the water corrosive.

Paper and Pulp Sludge/slurry waste Organic compounds, acetone, inorganic dyes, phenols

Toxic discharges may inhibit the natural purification of the water bodies

Pesticide industry Pesticide waste

Monocrotophos, dieldrin, Inorganic pesticides having copper, cadmium, ferrous, manganese, zinc compounds

Chronic water pollutants, Inorganic chemicals disrupt the aquatic organisms

Dye industries Waste from dyes Phenolic compounds, tartaric acids Causes deleterious effects on living organisms

144


Generation of hazardous waste by the unorganisedsectorThe large number of unregistered, small and tiny units inthe state generate hazardous waste in small quantity whichgoes unaccounted. Most of these industries are situated

Material recycled and discarded in e-waste

in residential localities and dispose thehazardous wasteinto municipal bins. These wastes not only pose immediatehealth and safety problems to the residents but also poseproblems in disposal.

ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL WASTE

The negative environmental effects of growingconsumption of electronic hardware are visible in the end-of-life stage of the electronic equipment. With the increasein usage of electrical and electronic goods likerefrigerators, televisions, computers, fax machines, photocopiers, telephones, etc., the problem of disposal of suchwaste is a major one. At present, there exists noinformation regarding the generation of electronic wastein state.

E-waste, as it is generally called, represents a deadlycocktail of toxic substances such as lead and cadmium incircuit boards; lead oxide and cadmium in monitor cathoderay tubes; mercury in switches and flat screen monitors;cadmium in computer batteries; polychlorinated biphenylsin older capacitors and transformers; and brominatedflame retardants on printed circuit boards, plastic casings,cables and polyvinyl chloride cable insulation that releasehighly toxic dioxins and furans when burned to retrievecopper from the wires. It is difficult to recycle thesematerials in an environmentally sound manner andrequires sophisticated technology and processes.

The Basel Convention

The Basel Convention, to which India is a signatory, sets upobligations for countries to reduce transboundary movementof wastes with the main objectives of:

- minimization of hazardous waste generation in terms ofquantity and hazardousness.

- disposal as close to the source of generation as possible.- reduction in the movement of hazardous wastes.

It provides for a comprehensive regime for liability and adequateand prompt compensation for damage resulting from thetransboundary movement of hazardous wastes and otherwastes and their disposal including illegal traffic. Theconvention covers damage due to any incident occurring duringa transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and otherwastes and their disposal, including illegal traffic, from the pointwhere the wastes are transported. The import of hazardouswaste into India is prohibited by a 1997 Supreme Courtdirective.

The Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001

These rules apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler, resmelter, auctioneerand consumers. The term ‘Battery’ used in the rules meanslead acid battery, which is a source of electrical energy andcontains lead metal and ‘used batteries’ means used,damaged and old lead acid batteries and parts thereof. TheKarnataka State Pollution Control Board has identified 1079battery handling units in the state in the year 2002-2003.

Action taken by Board in the year 2002-2003 underBatteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001

Market value of certain recyclable wastesRecyclable material Market value

(Rs/Kg)Aluminium dross 25-40Zinc 50Lead dross 23-25Waste oil 14-18/LSpent solvents 11-15/LActivated carbon 8-10/Kg

Type of item Materials recycled

Materials discarded

Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

Copper, plastic bases

Phenols, Epoxy, Glass

Connectors Copper, MS fittings, Springs

Lead, PVC/ABS body

Capacitors Copper, Aluminium

PVC, Mylar, petroleum jelly

Transformers Copper core lamination

PVC bobbin, insulators

Resistors NIL Discarded wholeTransistors NIL Discarded wholeIntegrated Circuits NIL Discarded whole

Gas tubes, gas displays

NIL Gas, Glass, Phosphor Coatings

Number of units identified 1079Number of notice/show cause notices issued 1079Number of closure orders issued 3Number of closure seizure issued 2Number of proposed directions issued 2

145

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Problems of electronic and electrical waste

The problems of electronic and electrical waste include• mixing of e-wastes with municipal solid waste• indiscriminate burning of e-waste

Mixing of e-wastes with municipal solid wasteAt present there is no system of separately addressingthe waste treatment and disposal problem. A lot of wastegenerated from consumer goods from householdsgenerally get mixed with municipal waste posingenvironmental hazards. Though some recycling is carriedout at the local rag picker level a lot of rejects still enterthe municipal solid waste.Indiscriminate burning of e-wasteMost of the printed circuit boards are burnt to destroy theplastic bases to retreive precious metals. In fact, the plasticcasings of personal computers made of either polyvinylchloride or acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene land up at kilns

Innovative reuse of wastes demonstrated under Indo Norwegian Environment Programme

The Indo-Norwegian Environment Programme launched in the year 1997 in Karnataka has been working towards utilization ofwaste products to produce wealth.

Products from Iron ore tailingsSubstantial iron ore waste is accumulated in Karnataka every year from the mining industry.By using the iron ore waste as a substitute for clay in preparing building materials like bricksand tiles, a breakthrough has been made in addressing two environmental issues: topsoildepletion and iron ore waste disposal. This was achieved under Indo-Norwegian EnvironmentProgramme by the establishment of a Technology Development and Demonstration Cell, atSurathkal to produce bricks and tiles from iron ore tailings.

Fly ash utilization for building materialCentre for Ash Utilisation Technology and Environment Conservation has been set up for useof coal ash as a raw material for manufacture of building products on a semi commercialscale. Raichur Thermal Power Station uses about 18,000 metric tons of coal per day generatingabout 70,000 metric tons/year of fly ash. Entrepreneurs from the four northern districts of Karnataka,namely Raichur, Bellary, Gulbarga and Bidar were trained in the use of fly ash to create buildingmaterial. Value addition to fly ash has been achieved through the development of constructionmaterial. The products include clay bricks, stone power cement bricks, hollow concrete blocks,soil cement blocks, acid resistant bricks/tiles, glazed floor and wall tiles, pre-stressed concretepoles. Apart from this, fly ash is also an important constituent of portland cement.

Bioreactors to treat coffee effluentsThe coffee growing areas of Karnataka are mainly located in the western ghats and processing ofcoffee has posed a threat to fresh water streams of the western ghats. An initiative taken up byASTRA of Indian Institute of Science is to adopt bioreactors for treating coffee effluents and usethe sludge from the reactor as manure. The gas generated in the bio reactor plant is used forcooking and lighting purpose. Under this project four pilot plants are built and working in threecoffee growing districts of Karnataka.

Stored Bio gas from coffeeeffluents

Products made fromiron ore talings

Bricks made from fly ash

Collection of e-wastes

as a source of energy due to high percentage of silicate.These are often carried out in backyards which affectsthe health of the worker and causes air pollution. Theeffects are potent mostly to the soil and water bodies, as

146


Estimation of Bio-medical waste generation in Karnataka

most of the constituents are hazardous in nature. Theimpacts of electronic waste arise due to the very highleaching potential of materials like printed circuit boardcontaining copper, phenols, epoxy or connectors,capacitors, transformer, resistors, transistors containingcopper, aluminium, iron, lead, polyvinyl chloride, etc. Thesewastes if discarded improperly leach into the soil and inturn contaminate the ground water.

The recycling and reuse of post-consumer electronics iseither technically problematic or is economically notfeasible or simply lacks an appropriate physicalinfrastructure which will require huge investments to build.The disposal and recycling of e-waste in the country hasbecome a serious problem as the methods of disposalare very rudimentary and pose grave environmental andhealth hazards. In addition , India also has to manage thewaste being dumped by other countries.

BIOMEDICAL WASTE

Biomedical waste is the waste generated during diagnosis,treatment, immunisation and research activities involvinghuman beings and animals. Biomedical waste comprisesof a maximum of 20 percent infectious, 3 percenthazardous and 77 percent noninfectious waste. Wastesoriginating from blood banks and laboratories, veterinaryinstitutions and clinics, artificial insemination centres alsocome under the purview of the Biomedical waste Rules.The segregation of biomedical waste is being practiced inmost of the major hospitals by ensuring adequate andproper placement of colour coded waste containers withplastic liners. A small proportionof health care establishments(254 hospitals under KarnatakaHealth Systems DevelopmentProject) have introduced sharpwaste management practices likepuncture proof containers, sharptreatment chemicals and needlepits for sharps disposal, whilemost of the health careestablishments in the State lackfacilit ies for sharp wastemanagement. The Karnataka

State Pollution Control Board has identified 5954 healthcare establishments. During 2002-03 the board received2440 authorisation applications for health careestablishments and provisional authorisation has beengranted to 2357 health care establishments after inspectionby field officers.

In Karnataka, 131 licensed blood banks (government andprivate) are operating, which generate about 200 kgs perday of biomedical waste. Till June 2003, 69 blood banks(government and private) were authorized for biomedicalwaste handling. The expired blood samples in the banksand laboratories are pretreated with 1 to 2 percenthypochloride solution for the required retention time andthen drained off in the sewerage channels.

Veterinary clinical wastes include waste from veterinaryhospitals, dispensaries, primary veterinary centres,artificial insemination centre, mobile veterinary clinics andhave to be treated as per the biomedical wastes rules.Veterinary wastes include waste from clinical laboratories,animal wastes, sharp wastes, chemotherapeutic wastes,pharmaceutical wastes. Very few institutions like NationalCentre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore; Department ofClinical Veterinary Medicine, Bangalore and VeterinaryHospital, Belgaum treat the biomedical wastes usingincinerators. At present, in Karnataka about 3774veterinary health care establishments including mobileveterinary clinics and artificial insemination centers areavailable to attend to the state’s livestock population. TheKarnataka State Pollution Control Board has identified3203 veterinary health care establishments (excluding

Type of Health Care Establishments

Health care establishments

Bed Strength

Unit waste generation

Total waste Generation

(kg/day)Private and Govt. health care establishments 5,954 80,000 1.0 (Kg/bed) 80,000.00

Blood banks 131 -- 1 .5 (Kg/day) 196.50Diagnostic labs, eye banks etc 300 (Approx.) -- 1 .0 (Kg/day) 300.00

Small clinics (general practitioners) 40,000 (Approx) -- 0.2 (Kg/day) 8000.00

Veterinary clinics 3203 -- 0.25 (Kg/day) 800.7589297.2532593.50

Health care service Centres

Total biomedical waste generation (Kg/day)Annual biomedical waste generation (MT/annum)

147

WASTE MANAGEMENT

artificial insemination centres and mobile veterinary clinics)of which, as on March 2003, 126 have applied forauthorization under the Bio-medical Waste (Handling andManagement) Rules. Most of the veterinary clinics aredisposing the wastes into municipal bins and partiallythrough onsite landfills.

There are two common bio-medical waste treatment anddisposal facilities in Bangalore, while there is one each inBelgaum and Mysore which are functional in the state ason date. Two facilities one each in Hubli-Dharwad andGulbarga are under construction.

Problems of bio medical waste

The main problems relating to biomedical wastes include• mixing of biomedical waste with municipal solid waste

• improper management and handling of wastes• improper management of sharp wastes• dumping of waste from private health care

establishments.

Mixing of biomedical waste with municipal solid wasteLack of infrastructure in most of the clinics results in mixingof infectious, noninfectious and hazardous wastes whichare then disposed into the community bins. Even thoughhazardous and infectious waste constitute only 1 to 2percent of the total waste, when mixed the entire wastebecomes hazardous/infectious which drastically increasesthe chances of affecting the health of waste workers andrag pickers. This also affects the normal managementpractices of municipal solid waste like composting andwaste recovery/recycling.

Categories of Bio-medical waste stream, their impacts and recycling mode

Biomedical waste category Impacts Recycling CategoryInfectious WasteAnatomical wastes (tissues, organs and body parts)

Infects waste handlers and dependents through direct contacts, vectors

Non-recyclable

Human blood, body fluids, bandages and cotton wastes and other medical washes

Infect through direct contacts or by vectors and spreads diseases like typhoid, tuberculosis, hepatitis, AIDS etc.,

Non-recyclable

Microbial cultures and stocks (lab cultures, stocks or specimens of micro-organisms live or vaccines)

Causes health disorders like headache, cough, skin burn, eye burn, etc., when in contact. If not autoclaved causes serious infections

Non-recyclable

Waste SharpsNeedles & Syringes Spreading of infectious diseases like Tetanus,

Hepatitis, AIDS and SepticemiaIllegally recycled

Scalpels, blades & broken glass materials

Causes cuts on skin and body portion Recyclable

IV fluid, blood & urine - bags Releases Dioxin and Furan, Suspended Particulate Matter gases on incineration, oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon

Illegally recycled

Catheters & plastic tubing, PVC surgical gloves

Dissolution of DHEP chemical from PVC material may serve as human carcinogens and may disturb normal hormonal functions

Illegally recycled

Non-infectious Waste Cytotoxic chemical wastes (anticancer drugs, radioactive materials, phenyl, strong acids and alkalies)

Causes cytotoxicity and injury to cells in the form of cancer, ulcers, anemia, skin diseases, poisoning, Foetal abnormalities

Acids & alkalis may be reusable after pre-treatment

Chemical wastes (Used in the production of biologicals & disinfections process)

Causes health disorders like headache, cough etc. Some disinfections chemicals like pesticides and insecticides disturb the normal function of hormones and act as carcinogens

Reusable after pre-treatment

Solid wastesFood & canteen wastes, plastics, paper boxes and other wastes

No serious impacts Recyclable after composting / pre treatment

Incineration ash Partially incinerated ash may spread diseases Non-recyclable

148


Improper management and handling of wastesIn urban centres and municipal towns of less than 5 lakhpopulation, the disposal of biomedical wastes is donethrough superficial burial or non-engineered landfills withinthe hospital premises. In the cities of Bangalore andMysore, though the common treatment facilities andbiomedical waste network collection systems have beenestablished by private entrepreneurs many of the healthcare establishments resort to illegal disposal throughcommunity bins to avoid costs. Non-segregation/isolation,improper bagging, transportation and washing of bloodsoiled linen/clothes can be the means of spreading microorganisms throughout the hospital and possibilities ofcontaminating the washer/extractor units or dobhighatts.

Improper management of sharp wastesAmongst all categories of biomedical waste, the sharps(which include syringe, needle, canula, broken glass,ampoules, etc.) have the highest disease transmissionpotential through the direct prick/stab type injuries.

Dumping of waste from private health careestablishments.Unorganised sectors like illegal slaughter houses, smallcommercial establishment, roadside vendors, tinyindustries, small clinics and private practitioners are majorcontributors to illegal disposal of waste.

Trends in bio medical waste

Health care establishments (both private and government)in the State have registered a 15 to 20 per cent growth inthe last decade. Same trend is likely to continue for anotherdecade. In view of the above, in Karnataka, the amountof biomedical waste generated for the next decade isestimated to be around 80 to 85 metric tons/day.

CAUSES

The main causes include• changing life-styles,• inadequate planning,• inadequate finance and infrastructure in waste

management• insufficient training of various stakeholders.

Changing life-stylesThe drastic shift in consumption pattern like increasinguse of disposables, increasing purchase of consumerdurables and nondurables, and fast food culture haveresulted in higher generation of waste. However, adequatefacilities and plans to meet the requirements for properwaste management have not come up. Much of theexisting infrastructure facilities for the waste collection,treatment and disposal have not kept pace with thepopulation growth and economic development. Since theBiomedical and Municipal Solid Waste Rules have comeinto force very recently (1998 and 2000, respectively) lackof adequate, appropriate and frequent monitoring due tomanpower and infrastructure constraints is one of thereasons for a poor waste management system.

Inadequate planningInadequate long-term planning for comprehensive wastemanagement (waste minimization/reduction possibilities)has resulted in improper waste handling practices. Mostof the red and orange category industries and health careestablishments do not have a well-defined wastemanagement system which has affected the environmentalquality. Many small scale industries and small clinics donot treat their waste mainly due to lack of commontreatment facilities. Also, most of the industrial premisesare too small for storing waste or for establishing anindividual treatment plant. Various other factors like non-availability of sufficient collection bins and trucks, commontreatment and disposal facilities, decentralized wasteprocessing plants and landfills are the causes for improperwaste management in the state.

Inadequate finance and infrastructure in wastemanagementThe cost of treatment and disposal of hazardous wasteand biomedical waste is high which cannot be affordedby small scale industries and the smaller health careestablishments. In the case of urban local bodies whichhave resource constraints, the costs of collection,transportation and disposal of wastes is unaffordableresulting in neglect of waste management. Inappropriatedesign of treatment and disposal system, inadequatelytrained operators also are some of the causes ofaggravation of waste problem.

149

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The cost of treatment and disposal of unsegregated wasteare more expensive compared to segregated waste.According to the Karnataka Compost DevelopmentCorporation composting of unsegregated waste needs 30percent extra cost than the segregated waste. Given thefact that all urban local bodies have to start treatment anddisposal facilities for municipal solid waste the problemof mixed waste can result in higher investments for theurban local bodies. Only 54 authorised waste reprocessingunits exists at present in the state and considering thevalue of recyclable wastes there is a huge economic loss.

Insufficient training of various stakeholdersLack of awareness among the generators, untrainedworkers in industries, health care establishments, munipalcorporations and urban local bodies have been the mainhurdle in the waste management system.

IMPACTS

The mixing of various types of waste results in aconsortium of both biodegradables and nonbiodegradables. This results in more transport relatedcosts and disposal sites receiving highly heterogeneouscomposition of waste thereby needing more disposal area.It also impairs the biological treatment of wastes asnonbiodegradables hinder the process due to their toxicnature. Such a mixed waste if composted cannot be useddue to the toxic residues in it.

Impacts of overflowing bins due to failure or inadequacyof collection systems results in major odour nuisance andcould potentially spread diseases. Improper managementin terms of collection, storage and transport due toobsolete or nonfunctional equipment and inadequatetransport facilities impact the service quality. Further, theworkers are often not motivated, untrained, under-compensated, and unnoticed which also impacts theservice quality and in turn affects the environment. Mostof the times it is the poorer sections of the society whichhave to bear the brunt.

When vehicle used for transporting waste are not properlydesigned, (such as no mechanical loading and compactingor no compartments for transporting segregated waste) it

results in more transportation and segregation time andcosts which eventually again results in low service quality.

Burning of municipal solid waste at roadsides and dumpsites is a normal practice in most of the urban areas ofKarnataka. Burning of wastes either as roadside heaps orat dumpsites significantly impacts the air quality as mostoften these wastes are mixed waste containing tyres,aluminium foils, metallic scrap and domestic hazardouswaste. Such waste emit highly toxic fumes containingorgano-chlorides, suspended and respirable particulatematter, dioxin, sulphur, etc., and affects the health of theindividuals in near vicinity and causes respiratory disordersand angiosarcoma for the adjacent residents and wastehandlers. Also, the purpose of recovering recyclablematerials is often not served as the material retrived isnot of good quality.

Mixed wastes when disposed in landfill often leads tochemical reactions between the various constituentsresulting in leachates. These leachates which are mostlyacidic in nature react with other ingredients of waste, waterand soil leading to mobilization of heavy metals andorganics. The long terms implications includecontamination of ground water and land which involve veryhigh remediation costs.

Hazardous wastes have constituents which make themhighly corrosive, flammable, reactive, irritable, or toxic innature and any illegal and unscientific disposal can resultin severe accidents. Improper disposal of wastes alsohave health impacts which could range from simpleallergies, reduced immunity, spread of communicablediseases to genetic changes depending on the type andquantity of waste and the surrounding environmentreceiving it.

The unscientific recycling process commonly used forplastic waste results in large portion of ‘down-cycled’inferior product. In the recycling process as extensivesorting, cleaning and removal of additives is carried outchemicals such as dioxins, acylonitrile, styrenes, poly vinylchloride get released into the air which are carcinogenicand cause severe eye irritation, headache, nausea,hormone system changes, etc. Non-recyclable plastic

150


materials are often disposed off in open lands and drainswhich impacts the soil permeability, water infiltration rateand recharge potential.

E-waste, when disposed unscientifically in landfills oftenresults in release of a cocktail of toxic substances such aslead, cadmium, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls,brominated flame retardants, polyvinyl chloride. These inturn contaminate the water and soil due to their highleachability potential. When the wastes are burnt to retrievemetals, especially copper from the wires, they releasedioxins and furans. Dioxin and furans are carcinogenicand also cause birth defects, foetal death, spontaneousabortions, disruption of hormone system, suppression ofimmune system, damage to liver, kidneys and reproductivesystem. In the case of biomedical waste, improperoperation and uncontrolled incineration (of materialscontaining chlorine) can generate dioxins and furanemissions, which persist for a longer duration in theenvironment and is a potent human carcinogen.

The economic impacts include increased costs fortreatment and disposal in terms of the technology usedand area needed for landfilling. Added to this, is the equallyimportant loss of resources from the waste which can berecycled and reused.

The existing land fill practices for infectious biomedicalwaste can result in contamination of ground water andsurrounding surface water when subjected to improperpretreatment. Further, the effectiveness of autoclaving todisinfect the wastes, and the extent of pathogendestruction depends on the addition of water, volume andthe density of waste material which when not adhered toand could cause spread of various infectious diseases.Mixed waste can be extremely hazardous for the healthof waste handlers and rag pickers without any protectivegears/devices exposing to health risks such as AIDS andHepatitis B. Equally affected by unsegregated wastes areanimals which are likely to ingest materials like plastics,needles, small metallic pieces that can cause serioushealth problems. Uncontrolled discharges of blood andother liquid wastes from hospitals carry infectiouspathogens that pollute the sewage and spreadcommunicable diseases particularly in communities livingin the vicinity of sewage channels. Improper handling ofsoiled linen and contaminated linen are expected totransmit the infectious diseases to the waste handlers andwashers.

PRIORITISATION

The problems relating to municipal, hazardous andbiomedical waste across the state have been evaluated



Impa

ct o

n Pu

blic

Hea

lth

Loss

of

Bio

dive

rsity

Impa

ct o

n Vu

lner

able

gr

oups

Prod

uctiv

ity

loss

Impa

ct o

n cr

itica

l Ec

osys

tem

Irriv

ersi

bilit

y/

reve

rsib

ility

Urg

ency

of

the

prob

lem

Tota

l

Illegal disposal of MSW, hazardous waste, BMW 5 3 3 5 3 5 5 29

Mixing of BMW with MSW 3 1 5 5 3 3 5 25Improper management and handling of wastes 5 3 3 3 3 5 5 27

Absence of disposal sites for hazardous wastes 5 5 3 3 5 5 3 29

Unorganised sector generating hazardous wastes 5 3 5 3 3 5 5 29

Dumping of waste from private HCEs 5 1 5 3 3 3 5 25

Improper management of sharp wastes 5 1 5 3 1 5 5 25

Total 33 17 29 25 21 31 33 189

Problems


151

WASTE MANAGEMENT

and analysed. Depending upon the severity of the problemand its socio-economic and eclogical impacts, theproblems have been classified as low, moderate and highwith a value of 1, 3 and 5 respectively.

ACTION PLAN

• There is a need to integrate resource recoverycomponent into the current practice of wastemanagement. Wastes should be considered asresource and the waste management policy should befocused on conversion of waste into resource ratherthan mere safe disposal. Emphasis should be laid onimplementing clean production and waste reducingtechnologies.

• In order to promote recycling, there is a need to createa market for repurchase of waste products at a pricebased on market conditions. This can be achieved byadopting the Buy back system. Under this certain wasteproducing products can be made to carry a ‘label ofguarantee of a prefixed refund’ on the left over of theproduct. It is important to note that this practise alreadyexists as an informal sector all over India.

• Segregation of waste at source into biodegradable,recyclable and hazardous is a primary imperative. Toavoid the problem of overflowing bin, it is necessaryto have bins that can accommodate 20 percent morethan the waste generated.

• Transportation vehicles should have segregatedspaces in them so that the segregated waste are notcombined while transporting. Also, vehicles shouldhave compacting mechanism especially forbiodegradable waste.

• To avoid huge transportation costs it is desirable tohave decentralized locations for waste management.Door to door collection of household waste, now inpractice in Bangalore and Mysore should be extendedto all cities and towns in the state.

• Concerted efforts, using the latest technology shouldbe made to convert the maximum quantity of wasteinto compost and recycled resources.

• Small clinics/general practitioners generating small

quantity of biomedical waste should be brought underthe regulatory authority or Registration Authority sothat they are registered as a separate category. Thiswill enable better enforcement and monitoring ofbiomedical waste management rules.

• A group of general practitioners in a locality could beencouraged to have common waste collectionarrangement so that the collected waste could be sentto the nearest waste treatment system.

• Private organizations/cooperatives/self-help groups toparticipate should be encouraged to participate inwaste management .

• Government should consider incentives to industriesusing clean production technology.

• Comprehensive training programs and massivecampaigns for raising awareness among the civic-body administrators, health-staff, municipal staffshould be taken up.

• E-waste mostly consisting of computers, monitors,scanners, other electronic equipment, gadgets needto have separate regulations for its disposal.

• Product charge: Waste disposal charges should becollected as an add-on proportion of property taxes,differentiating private residential properties payinglower rates than industrial properties.

• Buy back schemes to be considered for consumergoods like food and beverage packets and containers.Paper, bottles, tyres, batteries, televisions, washingmachines, water heaters, electrical gadgets, furniture,paper etc., can come under this category.

• Several waste products such as leather, plastics,paper, bottles, tins etc., can be brought under one rooffor recycling. Recycled products should display a labelannouncing the same (e.g., recycled paper).

152


Solidwaste dumping in coastal area

Untreated sewage entering into the sea

153

LAND DEGRADATION

LAND DEGRADATION

Man is a complex being; he makes deserts bloom- and lakes die-Gil Stern

154


Current Status

Issues

Impacts

Causes

Hotspots

Trends

Action Plan

LAND DEGRADATION

155

LAND DEGRADATION

CURRENT STATUS

Land is the most important basic natural resource. It is adynamic and complex combination of geology, topography,hydrology, soil and flora and fauna and influences everysphere of human activity. Different sectors includingagriculture, industries, infrastructure, and power projectsput forth competing demand for land. Subsistence farmingpractices, accelerated soil and water erosion, erraticrainfall, increasing population, and high density oflivestock population have all contributed to unsustainableland use that has lead to degradation of this valuableresource, in Karnataka.

Land is classified into two categories, arable and nonarable. Non arable land comprises of area under forests,permanent pasture land, current fallow, cultivable wasteland and land put to non agricultural use. Arable landincludes area sown with crops (net sown area), area sownmore than once and gross sown area. The extent of nonarable land is 60.50 lakh hectares.

Out of the total non-arable land in the state, 9.67 percentare rock lands. High proportion of rock lands occur in dryand coastal zones (about 15 percent each). Non-arablelands are strongly gravelly in about 79 percent in the stateand a very high proportion (99.91 percent) is found in dryand transition zones (93.12 percent). About 27 percent ofthese lands have high slopes, high proportion of slopyland occurs in hill zone (50.85 percent) and coastal zone(35.32 percent). Soil with less than 25 cm depth occurs indry (39.6 percent) and transition zones (47.60 percent).Erosion is a problem associated with nonarable land and54.51 percent of the non-arable lands are severely eroded.Severe erosion of non-arable lands is a major problemparticularly in dry zones (73.55 percent) and transitionzones (97.05 percent).

Six major soil types are found in Karnataka in addition to75 associations of sub groups. The major soil types includered soils covering 37.2 percent of the total geographicalarea followed by black cotton soil with 27.77 percent. Othermajor types are alluvial soils with 15.74 percent followedby lateritic soil 11.6 percent. About 83 percent of the landarea is suitable for agriculture the remaining 17 percent is

well suited for forestry, pasture, silvi-pastoral system,mining, quarrying and wildlife and recreation purposes.Of the land suitable for cultivation, about 19 percent fall ingood cultivable category (Class II) with minor limitationsof soil texture, drainage, salinity and sodicity and erosion;about 41 percent are moderately good cultivable lands(Class III) with problems of erosion, slope, gravel content,surface crust formation and drainage, and about 23percent are fairly good cultivable lands (Class IV) withproblems of soil texture, shallow rooting depth,gravelliness, erosion, drainage and climate.

Karnataka has 80 percent of the land under rain fedcultivation and only around 20 percent covered underirrigation next only to Rajasthan. As much as 70 percentof the total geographical area of the state falls under aridclimatic zone where the rainfall is scanty and the meantemperature high. The rain-fed crop production is the mostcommon practices in this region. As the state’s major areafalls in the arid and semi-arid zone, moisture is the majorlimiting factor in crop production. Out of 120.85 lakhhectares of cultivated area, 68 lakh hectares (57 percentof total geographical area) needs soil and moistureconservation treatment. Cropping intensity in the state ishighest in the coastal area.

Soils have been degraded by human activities likeintensive irrigated agriculture, over grazing, deforestation,enhanced industrial growth and contamination which haslead to water and wind erosion, soil compaction,


The National Watershed Development Programme is beingimplemented in 26 districts. This programme involvesreclamation of alkaline and saline lands and afforestationprogramme.

Under the integrated nutrient and pest managementprogrames , the Agriculture department is providing greenmanure seeds and bio agents to the farmers.

In order to ensure sustainable use of water, the Horticulturedepartment is implementing drip irrigation programme on avast scale.

The Integrated Wasteland Development Programme is inoperation since 1989-90. It envisages checking landdegradation, putting wastelands to sustainable use andincreasing the biomass availability, especially fuel, woodand fodder.

156


salinisation, loss of nutrients and toxicity problems. Suchdegradation processes in turn limit the productive capacityof lands making it more difficult and expensive for thefarmers to increase production of food, fibre and fodder. Itis reported that about 7.7 million hectares representing40.3 percent of the total geographical area of the state isaffected by various soil degradation problems in the threelandforms of South Deccan Plateau, Western and EasternGhats and Coastal plains. Water erosion is the majorproblem causing loss of topsoil and terrain deformation.

Degradation of land due to poor soil and waterconservation measures, and lack of watershed approachhas impacted the land in many ways. It is estimated thatnearly 250 tons of soil per hectare is washed awayannually. Realising the importance of arresting landdegradation, the state government launched watersheddevelopment programmes since the mid 80’s.

The overall targets for watershed management include:• Conserving the basic resources of soil, rain water and

vegetation,• Achieving higher biomass production both in arable

and non-arable areas,• Imparting stability to crop yields through proper run

off water management, improve in situ moisture anddeveloping suitable alternative land use systems.

So far 29.10 lakh hectares been brought under watershedprojects still more than 50 percent is uncovered and thetarget area to be covered under various watershedprogrames is 12.50 lakh hectares.

ISSUES

• Soil and water erosion due to unsustainable practicesleading to loss of fertility of farmlands.

• Excessive irrigation and faulty water regimes causingland degradation.

• Loss of vegetation and increasing pressure on the landcapacity

• Use of chemicals in agriculture which leads to soil andwater contamination

• Mining and quarrying leading to land degradation

• Developmental activities fragmenting the landscapeand habitats

One of the major environmental problems is fertilizerchemicals, which contaminate the soil and water. Thegreen revolution triggered factors are influencing thefertilizer use all over the world. India accounts for 16kilograms/hectare fertilizer consumption as compared to54 kilograms/hectare of the world average. In Karnatakathe average use of fertilizer is about 10-11 kilograms/hectare which is appreciably less than the nationalaverage.

The use of chemicals and fertilizers in the crop productionis one of the major environmental concerns in theagriculture sector causing severe soil and watercontamination. The chemical fertilizers use is increasingas the crop production practices such as use of highyielding varieties and intensive crop husbandry practicesare very remunerative to the farmers. Similarly, thepesticides use to control pests and diseases are a seriousproblem in the crop production practices causing soil andwater contamination.

The use of fertilizers and chemicals is on the rise in thelast five years. The per capita use of fertilizer in the stateis high in the command areas of Krishna, Bhadra, andCauvery compared to dry farming practiced in the Aridzone of the state. The average fertilizer and pesticide usedin the state in the last four years has shown a rising trendwhereas, the quantum of pesticides consumed during thesame period has declined.

In the last five years the types of fertilizers used is givenin the table. The ratio of the different Nitrogen,Phosphorous, Potassium nutrient fertilizers used are inthe ratio of 3.1:1.55:1 respectively. There has been anincreasing trend in the use of fertilizers in the last five years.

Use of chemicals in agriculture in Karnataka

97-98 98-99 99-2000 2000-2001

Chemical fertilizers 1.11 1.15 1.23 1.29

Pesticides 2,962.00 2,600.00 2,480.00 2,600.00

Chemicals Quantity in million tons

157

LAND DEGRADATION

The average consumption of fertilizer is alsoincreasing over the years ranging from 100kilograms/hectare to 115 kilograms/hectare inKarnataka as compared 170 kilograms/hectare and150 kilograms/hectare in Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu respectively. Similarly the all India averageof fertilizer consumption is 87-90 kilograms/hectare/year. Predominantly rice-growing states usemaximum amount of fertilisers.

Belgaum, Bellary, Raichur, Mandya and Davanagereconsume maximum amount of fertilizers as in thesedistricts the rice and sugar cane are the major cropscultivated. It is gratifying to note that the fertilizerconsumption over the years has stabilized in Karnataka.

In India, insecticides constitute the highest group (80percent), followed by fungicides (10 percent), herbicides(7 percent) and others (3 percent). The averageconsumption of pesticide is very low in India (300 grams/hectare) as compared to Japan (12000 grams/ hectare.)

The pesticides, which are not easily biodegradable enterthe aquatic fauna, herbivores and human body throughfood or water and is likely to bio-accumulate.

In Karnataka the use of pesticide is to protect crops likecotton, red gram and other vegetables is prevalent. Overthe years the use of pesticides in Karnataka has declineddue to several reasons. The most important cause is theban imposed on the use of of Di chloro di phenyl tri chloroethane (DDT) & Benzene hexa chloride (BHC) andincreased adoption of Integrated Pest Management.

At present the total pesticide consumption is around 1692tons indicating the declining trend. The two major crops

on which the pesticide used are Cotton and Tur. Howeverthe pesticides used in the states of Tamil Nadu , AndhraPradesh in rice cultivation is very high as compared toKarnataka.

In Karnataka ,more than 50 percent of the total pesticideused is in cotton followed by Tur and Rice however, theenvironmental load of pesticide is much less than AndhraPradesh.

Studies in the state have revealed that the Hexa chlorohexane (HCH) contamination in the ponds of coffeeplantation in Chickmagalur was ranging between 0.02-0.2parts per mill ion. Where as in other states thecontamination is around 0.2-0.5 parts per million indicatingthe comparatively lower level of residual effect in thestate of Karnataka. Some of the studies conducted inMysore reveal the enormity of pesticide residue in thevegetables. In one of the study conducted on residualinsecticide in fruits and vegetables it is reported that Aldrintraces were found ranging between traces to 2 ascompared to 35 and 25 in Andhra Pradesh and Delhirespectively for Di chloro di phenyl tri chloro ethane (DDT).

Unsustainable agricultural practises have contributed toland degradation. Irrigation induced salinity andwaterlogging is a common problem in the irrigationcommand areas. Drainage in these areas is taken forgranted and receives scant attention.

Salinity has become very acute in the command areas ofTungabhadra, Cauvery, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, UpperKrishna etc. Alkalinity is a serious problem in the recentlydeveloped areas of Upper Krishna Project. It is reportedthat nearly 1.27 lakh hectares of land is affected by water

Sample tests showing extent of insecticidecontamination in vegetables

Type of fertilisers consumedin lakh tons

Sharada, 1988

Crops Nil HCH DDT HCH+DDT Sample size

Tomato 0 72 14 14 100Brinjal 44 15 25 16 100Chillies 0 57 28 15 100Peas 40 39 11 0 100Cowpea 14 70 12 4 100

96-97 97-98 98-99 99-2000Nitrogenous 5.17 6.05 6.38 6.63

Phosphorous 1.92 3.15 3.36 3.55

Potassium 1.17 1.89 1.74 2.16

YearType

158


logging, salinity and alkalinity accounting for 10 percentof the total land under irrigation in the state.

There has been significant changes in the gross area sownin the state in the last five years due to increased irrigationpotential. The gross sown area has increased from 117.59lakh hectares to 120.02 lakh hectares in the last ten years.Similarly, the area sown more than once in an year hasincreased by about 18 percent indicating the pressure onthe land. Among the crops the cereals and pulses areahas remained same with marginal change. The area underthe horticulture and plantation crops has increased overthe last five years by about 20 percent. This additionalarea under plantation and horticulture has come eitherfrom wastelands brought under the cultivation or from thecommon lands that show the declining trend.

The net sown area under various crops has remained thesame with marginal variation. However what is intriguingis the stagnation in the over all productivity of the statedespite considerable increase in the area under irrigationand fertilizer use. The reason for the stagnation inproductivity could be the decline in fertility due to landdegradation. It has to be noted that the consecutive dryspells in 2003, have led to reduction in the area underKharif crops.

Mining and quarrying is another major activity which iscausing land degradation. Sand quarrying has been veryrampant in and around urban centers to meet theconstruction demand of roads and buildings. The riversand stream beds are mined causing water depletion.

The common lands like gomals, tanks, road sides andrailway lines are encroached and the solid wastes aredumped. The tanks and lakes are affected by siltation andinfested with weeds like water hyacinths and others. Thetank siltation is very common in many of the tanks causingtank breaches. In Bangalore city more than 125 tanks arein a highly degraded state due to solid waste dumpingand encroachments.

Laterisation is a process of land degradation in the highrainfall areas leading to hardening of the soil due towashing away of iron and aluminum cations. In the coastal

districts the problem is severe due to deforestation andover grazing. The Laterisation is a serious problem in thetropics as it results in the loss of surface soil and lowground water recharge.

The water bodies such as river basins, tanks and rivervalleys continue to degrade due to increased humanactivities and lack of regulatory mechanisms. The commonlands continue to degrade due to unsustainable land usepractices by the community. The loss of gomal lands,pastures, tank beds, river basins and minor forests is verysevere.

IMPACTS

Accelerated soil and water runoff coupled with low waterinfiltration have resulted in reduction in the ground watertable. The rate of soil and water erosion has causedsiltation in the tanks and reservoirs. The dead waterstorage capacity of many of the reservoirs has beenreduced due to accumulated silts in the reservoirs.

The siltation of water bodies and the encroachment ofcommon property resources have led to the loss of aquaticand terrestrial bio-diversity. The regenerative capacity ofwater bodies is lost due to prolonged periods of drynessand encroachment of the catchment area.

Us of chemicals in agriculture has added to the problem.Fertlisers and pesticides applied on land are carried bywater into water bodies where, algal bloom results fromthe accumulation of Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Algal bloomkills other aquatic life by blocking sunlight and limitingoxygen availability. Pesticides may accumulate in thebodies of aquatic organisms as a result of bio

Eco friendly fertilizers

The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has resulted intremendous harm to the environment. An answer to this isthe biofertilizer, an eco friendly alternative now being used inmany countries. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich thenutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizersinclude bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae).

Biofertilizers will help solve problems like increased salinityof the soil and chemical run-offs.

159

LAND DEGRADATION

magnification. The hexa chloro hexane contamination wasas high as 0.02 to 0.2 parts per million in the ponds ofcoffee plantation in Chikkamagalur .

Contamination of soil due to chemicals and fertilizers is aserious problem leading to the land degradation. In highrainfall areas, leaching of Calcium and Magnesium canlead to formation of soils with low pH (acidic soils).Availability of nutrients like Phosphorus and Boron getsreduced in such soils. The use of pesticides kill beneficialmicrobes in the soil and cause loss of fertility. Theextensive use of fertilizers also affects quality of groundwater. Agricultural chemicals also alter the pH of soil whichin turn inhibits essential microbial activity.

Soil erosion leads to the loss of fertile soil and nutrientsleaving the soil barren and sterile. This leads to low waterinfiltration and low water recharge. This problem is veryacute in some of the grey and dark taluks in the state.

The socio-economic impact of the land degradation is quiteenormous as the natural resources are depleted veryrapidly. The water scarcity, salinity and water contaminationalso affect the health and productive capacity of people toa large extent. Low crop production, non availability offodder and the loss of soil fertility has resulted in low cropproduction. In an effort to improve the yield the farmersresort to use of excess chemical fertilisers.

CAUSES

The factors responsible for degradation of land includeunsustainable land use practices, overgrazing, poor controland regulation of common property resources, and non-adoption of soil and water conservation measures.

Due to excessive irrigation in the command areas andgrowing of water intensive crops such as paddy andsugarcane, groundwater levels are rising and as a resultwater logging has taken place. Since the groundwaterlevels are at or very near the surface, fresh water isevaporated leaving the salts back in the soil and as a resultsalinity of the soil and water is increasing gradually.

Landscape fragmentation has adversely affected the

Integrated nutrient management

Realising the hazards of using chemical fertilisers, farmers arenow adopting integrated nutrient management for maintainingsoil productivity on a sustainable basis.

Experiments have demonstrated the importance of organics,farm yard manure, compost and biofertilizers in supplementingthe nutrient requirements of crops and providing stability toyields in rainfed areas Upto fifty percent of the fertilizer usecould be replaced with the use of farm yard manure/compostin a variety of soils. Use of organic manures not only reducesthe use of chemical fertilizers substantially but also providesprimary and secondary nutrients. The use of compost and farmyard manure also improve the soils’ physical condition andcrop yields on a long term basis. In addition, it also improvesthe moisture holding capacity of soils. Studies have shown thatupto 20 kilograms Nitrogen per hectare can be supplementedby following green leaf cover cum manuring technique.

In lower rainfall areas (350-700 millimeters) there are littleopportunities for producing green manure without competingwith the main crop. Therefore, strategies for non competitiveproduction of green leaf manures and their incorporation inthe soil need to be evolved. Nitrogen fixing trees and bushescan be raised on either side of the field boundary bunds andthe loppings incorporated in the soil. Yet another approachcould be to raise a post-rainy season cover crop like horsegram/cowpea utilising the off season rainfall and ploughing it backinto the soil before flowering. A third approach tried is to raiseleguminous trees or shrubs on marginal lands and incorporatingthe loppings in the nearby crop fields. A minimum of two cuttingscan be obtained in one season for incorporation in the cropfield. This could be an excellent model of self-sustaining farmingsystem in rainfed areas.

The other approach to enhance the use of organics could bethe compost. This way animal manure in short supply for usein rainfed regions can be converted into compost, increasingthe bulk several fold yet the benefits remain the same or ashade better than farm yard manure. Moreover, decomposedmanure would make the nutrients more readily available to theexisting crop. Considering the local market price of farm yardmanure, the cost of composting organic wastes (along withfarm yard manure) may be on par with that of pure farm yardmanure as the quantity of farm yard manure gets reducedsubstantially. It has also been reported that termite infestationis much less when compost is used, compared to farm yardmanure.

Source: Subba Rao & Rao, 1980, Singh, 1999 and Venakeshwarulu,1999

ecological processes. Further, the hydrological cycles havebeen disturbed affecting water bodies and river basins,affecting the population and survival of plant and animalspecies. Soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, changes in theriver/stream courses are some of the immediatemanifestations of landscape fragmentation. Loss of

160


vegetation has resulted in increase of temperature, windspeeds and other phenomena.

Unsustainable landscape management practices andabsence of regulatory mechanism of common propertyresources have aggravated the problem. The policygoverning the natural resources such as mangrovevegetation, non-forest habitats, river basins, water bodiesetc. are not adequately addressed with the exception offorestry sector. The policies on forest management thoughin place, the other natural resources like water, land andsoil, coastal zone are not covered by any policy framework.

The process of mining causes adverse impact on land.Open-cast mining scars the landscape, disruptsecosystems and destroys microbial communities. Thedegraded environment created in the aftermath of open-cast mining often does support biomass development. Inother words, extensively mined land usually does notpossess sufficient surface soil to anchor plants, and theplant growth that does take place is inhibited by thepresence of toxic metals.

Over the long term, open-cast mining reduces forestproductivity, damages aquatic and atmosphericecosystems and sometimes leads to substantial alterationsin microclimates. (United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, 2003).

The loss of vegetation in the river basins, catchments,encroachment of common property resources,sedimentation of water bodies due to mining and soilerosion have degraded the landscape. The common landsincluding Gomals (Village pasture lands), wastelandswhich are unfit for agriculture, tank foreshore areas, riverbanks, beaches, streams and canal banks are in a highlydegraded state due to unregulated use of resources bythe community. The causes of degradation can beattributed to encroachment, excessive use of resourcesand lack of regulatory policy mechanism and agencies toprotect these natural resources.

Absence of any agency to regulate the natural resourcesis severely affecting the sustainability of these resources.The Joint Forest Planning & Management policy adopted

in 1996 addresses peoples participation in the protectionand management of natural forests. However the policyneeds further modification and improvement to make itsustainable and viable. The land use policy governing cropcultivation is very weak and does not address and regulateunsustainable farming practices like monoculture,excessive use of water, non-adoption of multiple croppingpattern and land fallow practice.

The integrity and stability of the landscape is very criticalin maintaining the structure and function of ecosystem.The landscape comprises various landscape elementssuch as forest ecosystem, water bodies, river basins, lakesand other such elements. Forest ecosystems play a criticalrole in regulating hydrological cycle. In Karnataka majorrivers like Cauvery, Sharavathi, Kali, and Bhadra have theirorigin in the forests forming catchments. Any disturbanceto these ecosystems will disturb the hydrological cycle.The deforestation has resulted in the floods, siltation ofwater bodies (rivers and streams) and lowering of watertable. The inflow of water in the rivers has reduced overthe years due to change in the rainfall pattern anddisturbances in the hydrological cycle. The absence ofintegrated landscape management has resulted indegradation of landscape elements.

Unscientific agronomic practices owing to traditionalfarming practises and low investment have alsocontributed substantially to land degradation. Theseinclude• Over tillage: Over tillage and cultivation along the

slopes besides cultivating steep land are some of thecauses for soil erosion and loss of fertility. Lowinfiltration and poor retention of moisture alsocontribute to land degradation.

• Soil compactness: Over grazing and absence ofvegetation result in compactness of soil leading to theinfiltration.

• Fallow lands and wastelands: Absence of vegetationand leaving the land fallow is also contributing for thecompactness leading to low infiltration.

• Lack of crop rotation: Subsistence farming practicesand poor adoption of crop rotations also contributesfor nutrient depletion and land degradation.

• Excessive use of chemicals leads to loss of fertility.

161

LAND DEGRADATION

HOTSPOTS

The land and forest degradation has caused severe soilerosion in the maidan areas of Karnataka. The observedaverage rate of sedimentation is ranging between 2.19 to23.59 hectare-meter/100 square kilometers, where as thethreshold level is between 0.29 to 4.29 hectares. Most ofthe tanks have been silted up to more than 30 percent oftheir capacities reducing their command area by 35percent.

The rate of silt deposition in irrigated tanks is estimated at8.51 hectare-metre/100 square kilometers/year against theassumed siltation of 3.02 hectare-metres/100 squarekilometers/year. As per the estimates of the StateGovernment about half of arable land in the State needsprotection. Out of 125.85 lakh hectares, 68 lakh hectares(57 percent) needs soil conservation. The salinization hasbecome acute problem in the command areas of the State.It is reported that nearly 10 percent of the total irrigatedarea in the State is subjected to water logging, salinityand alkalinity.

Soil and water erosion has caused soil fertility loss, thusreducing its productive capacity. The soil structure, textureand moisture holding capacity are also affected due tosoil erosion. Excessive chemical usage for agriculture isa problem in the cotton growing areas of the state. Theaverage fertiliser used for growing paddy and sugarcaneusually ranges between 80-150 kliograms/hectare. Thearid regions of the state where rainfall is low are vulnerableto soil erosion.

TRENDS

The trend of land degradation is continuing withaccelerated pace due to many socio-economic factors.The land use policy is not strong enough to regulate itsuse and has lead to degradation. Unregulated croppingpractices, cultivation in the hills, shifting cultivation, slashand burn cultivation, excessive irrigation are some of thecauses of land degradation. Indiscriminate use ofpesticides and fertilizers, mono cropping, unregulatedlivestock population especially the unproductive cattlepopulations etc have contributed for the land degradation.

As the state’s major landscape falls in the arid and semi-arid zone, the moisture is the major limiting factor in thecrop production. Subsistence farming practices,accelerated soil and water erosion, erratic rainfall, overpopulation, and high density livestock population havecontributed to the unsustainable land use practices leadingto land degradation. As per a survey by the NationalBureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planing, out of 120.85lakh hectares of cultivated area, 68 lakh hectares (57percent of the total geographic area) needs soil andmoisture conservation treatment.

Land degradation due to poor soil and water conservationmeasures and lack of watershed approaches has impactedthe land in many ways. It is estimated that nearly 250 tonsof soil per hectare is washed away annually. So far 32lakh hectares has been brought under watershed projects;still more than 50 percent is uncovered. The rate ofinfiltration and siltation is very high in the arid zonesindicating the severity of the problem.

The use of chemicals and fertilizers and imbalancednutrient management in agriculture is one of the majorenvironmental concerns. There is an increase in chemicalfertilizers usage with increasing crop production and useof high yielding varieties. Similarly the use of pesticides tocontrol pests and diseases is a serious problem as itcauses soil and water contamination.

The per capita use of fertilizer in the state of Karnataka ishighest in the command areas of Krishna, Bhadra, andCauvery as compared to dry farming practiced in the arid

Presentation of hotspotsIssues Districts

Excessive pesticide use

Gulbarga, Bijapur, Raichur.

Water erosion Coastal and Western Ghat districts.

Soil erosion All northeastern plain Districts.

Excessive chemical use

Shimoga, Mandya, Bellary, Raichur.

162


Source: Perspective land use plan for Karnataka 2025

Soil erosion map of Karnataka

163

LAND DEGRADATION

Measures for sustainable land use

Land degradation can be prevented by ensuring sustainable use of land. In non arable lands, soil conservation should be giventhe utmost priority. Options for soil conservation include live fencing, vegetative filter strips in diversion drains, gully controlstructures, loose boulder checks sunken ponds etc. In arable land, conservation measures adopted include contour vegetativehedges, gully control measures and adoption of contour cultivation systems. Proper drainage should be provided through natu-ral or artificial means to ensure that excess water is drained from the area. Excess water from the field should be allowed to goout of the field into natural streams. Natural drainage can be provided by means of biodrainage involving removal of excessgroundwater through the process of transpiration by vegetation. This is achieved by enhancing transpiration capacity of thelandscape by introducing high-water use vegetation types in large enough areas to balance recharge/discharge processes tomaintain groundwater balances below the rootzone of the agriculture crops

In addition, the concept of mulching wherein organic matter is applied on the surface of soil should be adopted. Mulchingprevents excess evaporation and ensures enhanced availability of water. Soil fertility is also enhanced due to increased quantityof organic matter availability. Mulching can be done on both cultivated and fallow lands. For heavy black soils, vertical mulchingis recommended to facilitate greater intake of rainwater. An increase of 25-30 percent was recorded in the yield in rabi sorghumat Sholapur and Bijapur when vertical mulching was done at 5 meters interval.

Vegetative materials can be used as barriers for control of runoff and soil loss. These structures being porous, permit the runoffwhile retaining the soil and thus, overcome the problem of breaching. Vettiver, lemon grass, glyricidia and Cenchrus are some ofthe materials that have been evaluated with varying degree of success. While most barriers arrest soil loss and check thevelocity of the overland flow, the yield improvements have been variable. Contour planting of vegetative barriers proved furtherbeneficial in soil and water conservation. In marginal lands, alternate land use systems like agro-horticulture, agro-forestry canbe followed.Usefull trees like Acacia nilotica, neem, tamarind and jackfruit can be planted. Among the horticultural crop, mango,sapota etc can be planted. In degraded hill slopes, contour trenches and contour ditches can be dug in addition, high value fruittrees can be introduced with deep pits for individual trees.

In agricultural lands, ley farming involving rotation of a legume or a non-legume forage with cereals can be practised. Thissystem improves soil quality besides providing fodder. can be implemented in addition, green manure method in which, a quickgrowing crop is grown and ploughed under the soil to increase the supply of nitrogen and organic matter can be adopted. Greenmanure supplemented with biofertilisers can increase crop production by as much as 40-55 percent. To reduce dependence onfetilisers and pesticides, integrated nutrient and pest management practises can be adopted. Annual crops cultivated on landcapability Class IV and above are prone to lower yields/risks, and lack of response to inputs. Soils in these capability classes canbe best utilised for alternative land uses where self generating grasses, legumes and perennial woody tress constitute the majorcomponents. Agroforestry approach includes agrisilviculture, agrihorticulture, hortipasture and silvipasture. Management of landsof lower capability through such interventions is the best way of integrating livestock production in rainfed areas and contributingto the sustainability of the production system. Alternate land use not only provide fodder, fuel wood and timber and fruits but alsoenhance the quality of resource base through greater biomass production and providing a land cover for most part of the yearwhich constitutes the basic step for control of soil erosion by wind and runoff. Off-season rainfall which otherwise goes unutilisedin single kharif cropping areas can thus be best utilised with such production systems. Trees also make the microclimate morefavorable to crop growth

zone of the state.

There have been significant changes in the gross areasown in the state in the last five years due to increasedirrigation potentialities. The gross sown area has increasedfrom 117.59 lakh hectares to 120.02 lakh hectares in thelast ten years. Similarly, the area sown more than once ina year has increased by about 18 percent in the last tenyears. Among the crops the cereals and pulses area hasremained the same with marginal change.

The area under the horticulture and plantation crops hasimproved over the last five years by about 20 percent.

This additional area under plantation and horticulture hascome either from wastelands brought under the cultivationor from the common lands.

Reclaiming degraded land

Measures to be adopted to reclaim degraded land varydepending on the type and extent of degradation. Ineroded areas, appropriate soil conservation measurescan be implemented in addition to afforestation, buildingwater harvesting structures and establishing horticulturalfruit trees and grass lands. Areas covered by shallowravines can be utilised for silvipasture which will also

164


encourage livestock enterprise. Aerial seeding of grassesof improved strains like Marwar Anjan and 358 ofCenchrus ciliaris, Marwar Dhawan, 175 and 296 ofCenchrus setigerus etc. may also be tried to reclaim theshallow ravines. Erecting mechanical checks andstablisation of ravine slopes wherever possible should betaken up to prevent further degradation

In saline soils, the excess salts need to be flushed out.This can be achieved by irrigating the land and providingsuitable vertical and horizontal subsurface drainage towash away the excess salt. Once the salt concentrationcomes down, green manure crops can be raised followed

by salt tolerant species like paddy and sugarcane. Suitabletree species such as Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, andTamarix articulata are recommended for plantation in saltaffected soils. Long-term field studies indicated thatgrowing leguminous tree species such as Prosopis Acacia,Casuarina, etc., can help ameliorate alkali soils at muchfaster rate than non leguminous trees because of formers’ability to build-up soil nitrogen/organic matter status.Growing legume trees in highly sodic soils can contributein their amelioration for crop production, in future.

Alternate furrow irrigation can be provided as a temporarymeasure allowing salt to accumulate in the unirrigatedfurrows which can be scraped out and disposed. Soils withhigh salt content in rainfed areas need particular attention.In such areas, rain water conservation can be donetogether with application of organic manure and soilamendment. In the initial years, salt tolerant species likesafflower can be grown. The other amendments usefulfor reclaiming salt affected soils include pyrite and organicmanures.

Sodic soils are those having high proportion ofexchangeable sodium. In such cases, the sodium has tobe replaced by Calcium. This can be done by adding

Technologies for management/utilisation ofindustrial effluents

Researches suggest that there is some scope for recyclingthe toxic industrial effluents and use the water for biomassproduction, although initial cost and other factors may appearlimiting. Tree species have been identified which can besuccessfully grown with different kinds of industrial effluents,from dairy,textile, tannery, and thermal plants. However,considering the fact that there may be some risk of heavymetals and other toxic/undesirable elements contaminatingthe plants and then moving into the food chain,utmost care isnecessary in the use of such waters.

Nine tree species have so far been identified that can be grownwith textile effluent water. These are E. camaldulensis, Acacianilotia, A. tortilis, Azadirachta indica, Hardwickia binata,Colophospermum mopane, Prosoposis cineraria, P. juliflora,and Tecomella undulata. The major prerequisites are: additionof gypsum and farm-yard manure at the rate of 5 kilogramper pit, and adoption of a double ring method for irrigation,where the irrigation is done in the outer ring, i.e. away fromthe sapling. Further, indepth studies are underway to developcost effective technologies for utilization of industrial effluents.

Source: Aggarwal, 1994

Technologies for rehabilitation of mine spoils

One of the major constraints in the rehabilitation of mine spoilsparticularly in arid regions is the very poor status of plantnutrients in the overburden/mine dump. Higher pH, andexchangeable sodium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.Salinity and / or alkalinity build-up are the other constraints inmany mine spoils.

In areas under mine-spoils which are permanently out ofcultivation, the erosion rate of the mine-spoils is known to beabout 1000 times more than that of the normal soils. Mine-fillings and quarry wastes are a hazard as the surface runoffbrings the mine and quarry wastes into the territory of fertile/cultivable soils thereby rendering them unfit for cultivation.Therefore, there is an urgent need to address the areas coveredby mine-spoils and quarry wastes by taking up tree plantingon a massive scale. This will help prevent surface runoff in theaffected areas.

Long-term measures also include structures which are erectedto regulate overland flow and reduce peak flow. Thesestructures aim at improvement of relief, physiography anddrainage features of watershed areas on macro scale, say2000-5000 hectares.

The assets created under long-term measures are ofpermanent nature and need investment. Hence, these shouldbe initially taken up with the Government funding but withpeoples participation on a watershed scale, whereverapplicable.

Vegetative materials have been tried as barriers for control ofrunoff and soil loss. These structures being porous, permit therunoff while retaining the soil and thus, overcome the problemof breaching. Vettiver, lemon grass, glyricidia and Cenchrusare some of the materials that have been evaluated with varyingdegree of success. While most barriers arrest soil loss andcheck the velocity of the overland flow, the yield improvementshave been variable. Contour planting of vegetative barriersproved further beneficial in soil and water conservation.

Source: Saxena and Chaterjee, 1995

165

LAND DEGRADATION

gypsum to the soil. Growing green manure and leguminouscrops is also beneficial in such soils.

For acidic soils, having pH less than 6.3, lime can beapplied. In high rainfall areas, application should be doneperiodically as, the applied calcium is lost due to flushing.

Soil crusting is another common problem in both red andblack soils. Crusting is the formation of a thin hard layeron the surface of soil. It inhibits seed germination andpercolation of water. Measures to curb crusting includebreaking the crust after formation with the aid of a crustbreaker or deep ploughing, improving organic content ofsoil and adding gypsum in sodic black soils.

Soil productivity can be enhanced by adopting theintegrated biotechnological approach. It involves the useof diverse organic materials (for example, such industrialwastes as pressmud, a by-product of sugar mills, andtreated sludge, a by-product of paper mills) to build soilproductivity. These organic materials, which nourish thedepleted soil, can be supplemented by the planting ofsaplings that contain specialized cultures ofendomycorrhizal fungi and such nitrogen-fixing bacteriaas Rhizobium and Azotobacter.

ACTION PLAN

• Extensive use of chemicals in agriculture hasdegraded the soil quality to a great extent. In order toover come the problem, organic farming practices anduse of bio technology needs to be promoted throughresearch and extension activities.

• Salinization due to extensive water logging should beaddressed through adoption of cropping plan, biodrainage practices.

• Nearly 35 percent of the farmland is subjected to soiland water erosion in the state. There is an urgent needfor adopting watershed practices to cover all the andmasses that are vulnerable for soil and water erosion.

• Diversification of rain fed farming practices combiningwith tree cultivation needs to be promoted to reduceevaporation loss in the arid zones and to increase thefarm income.

• To prevent further land degradation proper land use

and crop planning practices are to be developed testedand practiced.

• In the command areas, crop compensation for goodfarming practice including leaving land under fallowshould be introduced. Additionally, use of organicmanure should be rewarded with a higher farm harvestprocurement prices. Distillers supplying spent fuels,as organic fuels should be rewarded.

• Knowledge regarding measures required forreclaiming degraded land and ensuring sustainableuse of land should be made available to farmersthrough village societies.

• There is a need to increase awareness regardingsustainable agricultural practices like integratednutrient and pest management practises, in situgeneration and use of manure.

• Soil quality monitoring to check the physio-chemicaland biological properties of soil should be conductedon a regular basis in order to capture significantenhancements or deterioration over time.

166


Agroclimatic zones of the State

167

BIO DIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY

Our responsibility is to species, not to specimens; tocommunities, not to individuals

-Sara Stein

168


BIODIVERSITY

Current Status

Problems

Causal factors

Impacts

Hotspots

Action Plan

169

BIO DIVERSITY

CURRENT STATUS

The state of Karnataka is a part of the highly biodiversityrich regions of India. The state is endowed with greatdiversity of climate, topography and soils. It spans theseacoast with rich aquatic biodiversity and mangroveswamps at the mouths of estuaries. It harbours verdanttropical evergreen forests, paddy fields and coconut andarecanut orchards on the narrow coast flanked by thehills of Western Ghats. It bears deciduous woods, scrubjungles, fields of sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, ragi andjowar in the Deccan plateau. The different environmentalregimes support their own characteristic set of vegetationand animals. Karnataka supports 10% of total tigerpopulation and 25% of elephant population of the country.

The state has around 4500 species of flowering plants,600 species of birds, 160 species of mammals, 160species of reptiles (turtles, snakes, lizards and crocodiles),70 species of frogs, and 800 species of fish. These figuresgive a good account of the floral and faunal diversity ofthe state.

The wealth of diversity of domesticated plants and animalsin farms also holds much promise. The hill chain ofWestern Ghats is known to have greater diversity of wildrelatives of cultivated plants than any other region ofcomparable size in the world. The aquatic biodiversity inKarnataka is very rich and harbors many endemic species.

PROBLEMS

Biodiversity is under constant pressure in all the majorecosystems of Karnataka, i.e. in coastal and marine tracts,streams, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, protected areas aswell as forests outside protected areas, agro-ecosystems,and in urban ecosystems. This has been caused by fourmajor factors, namely,

• Un-sustainable harvests of living resources,• Habitat destruction and fragmentation,• Impacts of pollutants, and• Competition with colonizing, often exotic, invasive

species.

Unsustainable harvests of natural resources have beena key factor for degradation of biodiversity. Vegetation inthe forest areas have been under constant threat becauseof the unsustainable exploitation in the form of illicit felling,firewood and fodder collection etc. Unsustainable use ofmedicinal plants and non timber forest produces to someextent have affected the regeneration capacity of a fewspecies such as Rouwolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha) andGloriosa superba.

Kilari bull Amruthmahal bull

Deomi bull Hallikar bull

Indegenous cattle breed

Kali river winding through Dandeli wildlife sanctuary

170


Initiatives of the State Government

The state has initiated a number of biodiversity conservation measures in the past. Karnataka has declared around 16% of thetotal forest area under protected area network. Similarly, some of the aquatic hot spots of biodiversity have also been declaredas sanctuaries. Due to the intensive conservation measures there has been appreciable increase in the wildlife population inthe state of Karnataka over the years. To cite a few examples, the tiger population has increased gradually over the years, dueto Project Tiger conservation strategy. From a population of 100 in 1973 to 402 in 2002, the significant rise in tiger population,which is a flag ship species, reflects the overall improvement in the habitat. Similarly the elephant and other herbivore populationsalso have over the years shown an increasing trend. The State of Forest Report 2001, published by Forest Survey of India (FSI)has shown that the forest cover in the state has increased to 19.29 percent in 2001 from 16.92 percent in 1999. This is largelydue to reduction in fire and grazing damage to the forest owing to intensive conservation and protection measures. The increasein the canopy density signifies increase in biodiversity value of the forest. Further the forest department has documented thebiodiversity wealth of forests in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga circles by establishing biodiversity monitoring plots in WesternGhat forests in collaboration with the French institute of Pondicherry by assessing the tree biodiversity, endemism, threat statusand conservation value in different types of vegetation.

The state also has implemented the World Bank assisted eco-development project in Nagarhole National Park by addressinglively hood issues of the forest dwelling communities living in and around the National Park to reduce the anthropogenic pressureon the National park. The rehabilitation programs have been implemented in and around National Parks to make forest dependentcommunities self sufficient by introducing alternative sources of income. For effective protection, anti poaching squads and antismuggling camps have been established. Due to ban on green felling imposed by the State Government as conservationmeasure, the state has been able to protect vast tracks of forests from degradation. Further the regeneration efforts made byforest department over the years have also contributed immensely in increasing the forest cover and biodiversity. The forestdepartment has changed its strategy from monoculture to mixed plantation. The Non timber forest produce harvests have beenregulated keeping in view conservation of the threatened species to prevent the declining population. Machilus macarantha(Gulmavu) and Halmaddi are such examples. The state has constituted more than 3700 JFPM (Joint Forest Planning andManagement) Committees for involving people in management and protection of forest. LAMP societies have been exemptedfrom paying royalty in order to help tribals dwelling close to forest areas.

The state is rich in medicinal plant resources. It is roughly estimated that around 4000 species of medicinal value with more than15000 formulations are found in Karnataka. The state has constituted the Karnataka Medicinal Plant Authority to promotemedicinal plant conservation and development in the state.

The largest component of harvest from forest is by wayof removal of biomass in the form of fuel for domesticuse by the adjoining villagers and fodder grazed andbrowsed by the cattle population of the villages.Increasing human and cattle population has puttremendous pressure on the forests, impacting theirregenerative capacity. Legal harvests from the forestshave been minimal owing to a number of conservativepolicy measures such as banning of clear felling of forestand felling of green trees, stopping of concessions towood-based industries, etc. Illegal harvest of timber,limited to teak, rosewood, sandalwood and a few otherhardwood species, is a matter of concern. Cases ofpoaching of elephants and other wild animals, though ondecline, need to be controlled. However, owing to rigidconservation measures, there has been increase innumber of wild animals. The mortality figures of wildanimals, including those of deaths due to poaching,

indicate that there is not much cause of alarm in so far astheir biodiversity status is concerned.

Fish landings from in-shore waters have remained largelystagnant or actually declined over the last decade evenas the number of mechanized fishing crafts has beengoing up. The composition of the catch has beenchanging, with choice species such as sharks, kingfish,pomphret, mackerel and prawns decreasing in size andabundance and being replaced by less preferred speciessuch as Squilla. Aquatic fauna of riverbanks and streamshave been affected due to the various anthropogenicpressures.

Habitat destruction and fragmentation has plagued someof the ecosystems in the state. Naval exercises havereportedly seriously affected off-shore islands like Netraniand Anjadiv that are rich in coral beds, algae etc and form

171

BIO DIVERSITY

People’s Biodiversity Register

A Biodiversity Information System (BIS) shall support the various bodies constituted under Biological Diversity Act. This systemwill be a mega-database linking a number of existing databases as well as those that will be newly developed. The componentof the Biodiversity Information System (BIS) appropriate to the local level has been termed as “People’s Biodiversity Register(PBR)”.

Karnataka is one of the first states to have Biodiversity registers in some areas by involving local community, teacher, students,etc for documenting the biodiversity wealth.

The Peoples Biodiversity Register will have following functions:

1) Help people access information of significance in management of their crops and livestock, availability of seeds of varioustraditional crop cultivars, and special properties of these cultivars.

2) Help people share their special knowledge of uses and management of biodiversity resources, access information ontechnologies of relevance for better management of biodiversity resources, provide information on prevalent prices andquantities of that species to help estimate the level of commercial demand for the species.

3) Help continuation of traditional practices of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity by facilitating their recognitionand incorporation in the Biodiversity Management Plans of local Biodiversity Management committees.

4) Help empower women and other weaker sections of communities intimately linked to biodiversity by involving them in theprocess of documentation and development of the Biodiversity Management Plans of local Biodiversity Managementcommittees.

5) Help preserve the biodiversity related knowledge of people for the posterity through its codification and recording.6) Help people publicize the nature of their special knowledge without disclosing full details, thereby opening avenues for

arriving at contractual agreement with commercial enterprises interested in access to such knowledge.7) Help local communities claim rewards in national conservation programmes.

In the preparation of Biodiversity register, concerned government departments along with technical experts in life sciences,resource management and information management, school and college teachers, students, workers with non-governmentalorganizations and community members, especially those active in community-based organizations will be involved.

Biological Diversity Act, 2003

The Biological Diversity Act, which came into force in February 2003, aims to promote conservation, sustainable use and equitablesharing of benefits of India’s biodiversity resources. It provides for establishment of a National Biodiversity Authority at nationallevel, State Biodiversity Boards at state level and Biodiversity Management Committees at the level of Panchayats andMunicipalities.

The National Biodiversity Authority shall play a regulatory role with regard to access to biological resources by foreign citizensand grant of intellectual property rights. It shall play an advisory role in matters relating to the conservation, sustainable use andequitable distribution of biological resources.

As per the provisions of the Act, the state has set up the State Biodiversity Board, with the Hon’ble Minister for Information,Ecology & Environment as chairperson, five ex-officio members and five non-official members. The State Biodiversity Boards isto advice the state government on matters relating to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components etc. It shallalso regulate access of Indian citizens to any biological resources.

The Act provides for constiution of Biodiversity Management Committees that are to be constituted in each local body for thepurpose of promoting conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity and chronicling of knowledgerelating to biological diversity.The Act also envisages setting up of a local biodiversity fund, at every area notified by StateGovernment, where any institution of self-government is functioning. This fund will include any grants and loans made by theNational Biodiversity Authority, grants or loans made by State Biodiversity Boards, all sums received by the local committee fromother sources etc.

172


breeding grounds for fishes as well as birds like the white-bellied sea eagle.

One of the few reported extinctions of plant species fromKarnataka is that of the grass, Hubbardia heptaneuron,which was earlier found near the Jog falls prior to theconstruction of the Linganamakki reservoir on theSharavathy river. These changes have also affected themovement of fish along rivers and streams, for instance,the upstream migration of fish to spawn during themonsoon leading to loss of fish diversity. A series of sacredstretches of rivers and streams used to serve as majorrefuge of aquatic biodiversity, including fish like mahaseer,now only few serve this function.

Some of the state’s forest ecosystems have undergonedegradation to some extent owing to uncontrolled grazingby cattle, repeated fires, unsustainable removal of fuelwood and timber, etc. Some of the well stretched forestareas of Karnataka have been subjected to habitatfragmentation, by large scale river valley projects,construction of railway lines , roads and encroachments.In some of the degraded forests monoculture plantationsof teak, Acacia species, Casurina species, etc. have beencarried out for economic considerations. Thesimultaneous extension of agriculture has led to a loss ofgrassland and scrub savanna habitats and erosion ofspecies such as partridges and quails dependent on them.The processes of commercialization of agriculture haveresulted in shrinking of sacred groves. Traditionallyprotected species such as banyan, peepal, other Ficusspecies, and peafowl etc., that were characteristic featureof the traditional agricultural landscape, are now affected.Open areas in urban ecosystems are also shrinking. Soare the old irrigation tanks that constitute urban wetlands.Many have been drained, others are polluted andeutrophicated, resulting in a loss of their biota, includingindigenous fish communities and migratory waterfowl.

Instensive agricultural practices have also meant highlevels of use of pesticides, bioaccumulation of thepesticides and consequent erosion of biodiversity. Thus,cotton growing tracts of Gulbarga and Raichur districts,and river command areas of Kabini, Kaveri andGhataprabha have witnessed reduction in populations of

birds. A comparison of thelichen flora of Lalbaghgarden in Bangalorerevealed that 18 of the 22species noted in 1980 wereno longer present in 1997,with most of the fruitcose(lichens with small fruit lets)and foliose (leafy) speciesgone, replaced by asmaller number of pollutiontolerant crust-like forms.

TRENDS

In the last few years thebiodiversity scenario inKarnataka has beencharacterized by conserv-ation and developmentoriented initiatives taken byboth government and non-government agencies. These initiatives in the areas ofbiodiversity documentation, policy, guideline andecodevelopment works have led to substantialimprovement at both species and habitat level. The ForestConservation Act and Wildlife Protection Act havecontributed immensely in reducing the pressure on naturalforests. There is no longer any commercial exploitationof the evergreen forests occurring in Karnataka. The totalforest area of the state has in fact increased in recentyears. Numbers of important flagship species like theelephant and the tiger have also shown an upward trendin the last few years. The State Government initiatives inrehabilitating tribals in Bandipur and Nagarahole NationalParks, have reduced the dependence on these forestsand also resulted in reduced man-animal conflict. Also

African Catfish

The African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) is an extremely hardy,fast growing and highly carnivorous fish that has beensurreptitiously introduced into India through Bangladesh. It isbanned by Government of India, which has instructed all StateGovernments to totally prohibit its culture in ponds and tanks.In Karnataka, necessary steps which have been initiated toprevent its culture need to be strengthened.

Lion Tailed Macaque

Bonnet Macaque atBandipur

173

BIO DIVERSITY

as a result of the ban on extraction of the commerciallyvaluable species, the forest vegetation has recoveredappreciably over the years.

With regard to aquatic biodiversity, implementation ofCoastal Regulatory Zone regulations will result in betterprotection of beaches and mangrove forests, and of inter-tidal biodiversity in the coming years. Initiatives such asthe constitution of a Wetlands Authority and anAquaculture Board may also reverse some of the trendsof depletion of fresh-water biodiversity. Mechanisms arebeing put in place to promote on-farm conservation ofcrop and livestock genetic resources. In addition to thisthe provisions of the Biological Diversity Act are expectedto create positive incentives for maintenance ofbiodiversity. At the same time the shift towards moresustainable agricultural practices may gain ground in thecoming years and help reduce the pace of the on-goingprocesses of erosion of agro-biodiversity. However insome of the non-forest sectors like agriculture,horticulture, fisheries the conservation measures needto be strengthened to prevent biodiversity erosion.

With not much to gain from the protected areas, therehave been increasing pressures of grazing and collectionof fuel-wood and other forest produce on the forest areasoutside the protected area network. The continuing growthof rural populations and livestock has put tremendouspressure on these forest tracts for cultivation, for grazingof livestock, and for collection of minor forest produce.While Karnataka has on the whole been quite successfulin managing, and even adding to the protected areas,more focus should be laid on the biodiversity rich habitatsadjoining the protected areas. This will help in reducingthe pressure on the protected areas.

The pressure on offshore deep water zone has beengradually increasing and is likely to continue with greaterintrusion of foreign fishing fleets and technologicalprogress in off-shore drilling and mining activities. Incoming years, the shallow coastal waters are likely to beseverely stressed with increasing industrial activity incoastal regions. Pressure is likely to mount further withincreasing demands on water as a resource for irrigation,domestic and industrial uses, as well as a sink for

pollutants. The pressures of pollutants, especially onaquatic biodiversity if continued will affect the aquaticbiodiversity in coastal areas. Some of the tanks, whichare major wetland habitats for indigenous biodiversity, arebeing lost.

The forest ecosystems have been subjected to some formof fragmentation or the other due to anthropogenic anddevelopmental activities restricting the free movement ofanimals and flow of pollens impacting the bio-diversity.However it is gratifying to mention that the fragmentationtrend has slowed down considerably due to manyconservation initiatives and implementation of ForestsConservation Act, 1980.

CAUSAL FACTORS

There are many-fold causes, which have put immensepressure on Karnataka’s biodiversity. Aquatic biodiversityhas relatively suffered in the absence of an adequateframework for its conservation, and also due to the focusof conservation efforts having been on the forestecosystems and on the larger birds and mammals. The

Destructive fishing methods1. During low water levels in rivers, the fish congregate in

pools and are killed by dynamiting or poisoning.

2. Small-meshed nets operated almost everywhere destroyjuveniles and immature fish. During monsoon the fishesbreed and these gravid fishes are caught in the upperreaches when fresh water enters the reservoir.

3. River fishes congregate at the foot of the dams when thereservoir overflows. Excessive harvests of these fishesdeplete the stocks.

Indian Roller

174


forest bio-diversity is well protected due to very stringentpolicy framework and the conservation initiatives.However the non-forests bio-diversity on the commonlands and water bodies suffer from lack of proper policyand regulations.

Maintenance of the integrity of the protected areas andthe habitat continuity outside protected areas are someof the issues, which require immediate attention. Thisconcern is reflected in the currently on going miningactivities in an enclave within the Kudremukh NationalPark. However now, there is a Supreme Court directionto close down the mining activities by 2005.

Absence of sustainable biomass based livelihoods forrural population have led to intensification of agriculture.The loss of traditional respect for nature has led toliquidation of some of the most notable elements of thenatural biodiversity in the agro-ecosystems, such aspeepal and other trees of genus Ficus, an importantkeystone resource supportive of a wide spectrum of otherbiodiversity elements. The urban demands haveinfluenced the agro-ecosystems, one of the most strikingexamples being the felling of peepal and other large treesto fuel the brick kilns. Proper long-term planning of urbangrowth, waste disposal and transport infrastructure willgo a long way in avoiding disruption of watersheds,deterioration of urban wetlands, as well as destruction ofterrestrial biodiversity.

The considerable pressure of mechanized fishing on thecoastal and marine biodiversity is in part due to over-capitalization of industry. Mechanized fishing also leadsto substantial levels of by-catch, i.e. aquatic organismscaught in the net, killed and discarded. These includedolphins and marine turtles. Recent decades have alsowitnessed a growing trend of employment of destructivefishing methods such as dynamiting leading to large-scalefish kills, including those of juvenile stages, andconsequent elimination of several fish species.

The growing demand for industrial and urbandevelopment and major naval facilities in the coastaldistricts of Karnataka are putting pressure on the naturalcoastal habitats. The ever increasing demand for industrial

development, growth of urban centers and the on-goingintensification of agriculture call for larger and largersupplies of water. This inevitably leads to destruction ofnatural aquatic habitats and erosion of aquatic biodiversity.Disruption of migration routes of spawning fish and eelsmigrating to the sea has also contributed to the declineof several fish species. There have been cases ofencroachment of water bodies for construction in growingurban centers and for cultivation in rural areas. Tanks havetherefore tended to become shallow and dry up with areduction in the inflow of water.

Pollution has a significant impact on biodiversity.Deviations in implementation of pollution controlmeasures along with some inadequacies in monitoringare some of the problems, which this sector is facing.

Blackheaded OrioleRacquet tailed Drongo

Pheasant tailed jacana

Black bulbul

175

BIO DIVERSITY

Siltation and organic pollution have promoted rampantgrowth of exotic weeds like water hyacinth in freshwaterecosystems. Forest, scrubland and grassland habitatshave also been subjected to invasion by exotic weedslike Eupatorium and Parthenium.

IMPACTS

The area covered by the exclusive economic zone offthe coast of Karnataka is extensive and clearly deservesattention. We have little data on the biodiversity resourcesof this vast tract, although it is acknowledged that there

has been degradation of beaches and mangrove forestsalong the coast, and over-fishing, pollution problems andserious disturbance of the sea bottom habitats throughtrawling in the sea. The erosion of coastal and marinebiodiversity of Karnataka would lead to potentiallysignificant losses of biodiversity from a global perspectivesince the Indo-Australian marine biogeographic region isthe richest in the world. Marine organisms are nowconsidered as the most promising source of bioactivecompounds by the pharmaceutical industry. Since so littleis known of our marine organisms, it is likely that thereare on-going extinctions of biodiversity resources of mucheconomic potential, of which we are quite unaware.

Medicinal Plants

The Government of Karnataka has formed a society under the name ‘The Karnataka State Medicinal Plants Authority’, to look intothe medicinal plants related issues including conservation, cultivation, and development of medicinal and aromatic plants. In addi-tion to this the Karnataka Forest Department, in coordination with FRLHT, has taken initiative in the field of in-situ conservation,resulting in setting up of a network of Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCA) across different forest types.The medicinal uses of some of the plants are given below.

Gloriosa superbaGowri gaddeParts used: Tuberous rootUses: The root of Langali isused in the form of powder totreat Arthritis (vatarakta),piles, boils, for extraction offoreign body, for easydelivery, baldness, scrofula and ear diseases.

Soymida febrifugaIndian redwood, Swami mara,Parts used: BarkUses: It’s a rich source of tannin.Used in treating malaria, dysentery &rheumatic pains

Semecarpus anacardiumMarking nut, Gudde geruParts used: fruitUses: Used for treatingleukemia, rheumatism &asthma

Rauvolfia serpentinaSarpagandaPart used: RootUses: The root of Sarpagandhais used in the form of powder totreat mental diseases,poisoning, vomitting anddiarrhoea.

Embelia ribesVidangaParts used: Fruits and rootUses: The fruits and root ofVidanga is used in the form ofpowder and paste to treatworms, heart-diseases, skindiseases, headache,jaundice, poisoning and as rejuvenative.

Oroxylum indicumSyonakaPart used: Root-barkUses: The juice of syonakaobtained by closed heating isuseful in diarrhoea. Oil cookedof syonaka is useful fordiseases of ear.

176


The depletion of in-shore fish stocks, coupled withmarketing of much of the catch in distant places wouldmean a substantial reduction in the availability of easilyaffordable protein sources for weaker segments ofKarnataka’s coastal population. This decimation ofindigenous freshwater fish population has been estimatedby local people to be as high as 25% of the original levelsin Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts. This hasmanifold health impacts, although, it has been to an extentoffset by the successful culturing of a few species of carps.However, these cultured carps are generally auctionedand not available to the poorer segments of the populationas the indigenous fish.

There has also been depletion of biodiversity in riverineand estuarine ecosystems of Karnataka. Some of thefish species that have thus become threatened include:Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu, L. bata, L. porcellus, Puntiuspulchellus, P. carnaticus, P. dorsalis. P. narayani., P. puckelli,Gonoproktopterus curmuca, G .dubius, G.kolus,G.micropogon micropogon, G. thomassi, Mystus krishnensis,Neotropius khavalchor, Channa marulius,and C.striatus.Other notable instances of relative erosion of aquaticbiodiversity involve the flagship species like crocodilesand otters. Karnataka has some natural swampy habitats,but practically no natural lakes. Its extensive network ofirrigation tanks, estimated at around 45000 was builtbetween 13th and 19th centuries and had become majorrefuge for aquatic life and resident and migratorywaterfowl. They had extensive vegetation in thecatchment areas. Much of this biodiversity is underconstant pressure. Some of them earlier constitutedtemple tanks, with a strict protection for fish, turtles andother biota. Many of these sacred water-bodies however

no longer enjoy the same protection. The larger reservoirsconstructed over the last century are biologicallyimpoverished. All such water-bodies have tended to bestocked by a small number of cultured fish species suchas Catla and Tilapia.

The impacts of the protected areas system have been,up till the present time, quite positive, promotingconservation of some of the flagship species such as tiger,panther, elephant and sambar, along with the moistdeciduous forest biota.

Since the Western Ghats biogeographic province is oneof the world’s biodiversity hot-spots, erosion of biodiversityin these humid forests would lead to adverse impact onbiodiversity from a global perspective. Also the importantgenetic resources such as wild relatives of cultivatedplants would be at stake. Erosion of the forest resourceswill result in an inadequate availability of biomassresources such as fuel-wood, bamboo, fencing andthatching material for rural population, notably for the ruralartisans. The dry forest tracts of Karnataka have for longsupported large numbers of pastoral communities, manyof them nomadic shepherds. An erosion of the biodiversityresources of these tracts will mean serious shortages offodder for their livestock.

Fragmentation of forest habitats has led to increase inman-animal conflicts, especially in case of elephantsattempting to move along their traditional migratory routes.The loss of grazing lands and other uncultivated landsthat used to be a vital ingredient of Karnataka’s agro-ecosystems has resulted in scarcities of biomassresources for the rural population resulting in increasedpressure on forests.

Plants yielding dyes

Hardwickia binataKamara, AcheParts used: LeavesUses: Leaves yield a richgolden colour hithertounexploerd. Hard and sustain-able tree cultivable throughoutKarnataka, grows in all climaticconditions.

Mallotus philippensisKamalatree, Kumkumada maraParts used: FruitsUses: The glandular part of the fruitsyield a dye called kamala powderwhich gives a rich golden red color.It is also used a good coloring agentin food processing.

177

BIO DIVERSITY

One positive impact of the introduction of the exotic treespecies like Acacia auriculiformis, Eucalyptus andCasuarina equisetifolia in some of the degraded foresttracts of the state has been the increased availability offuel wood. Extensive plantations of the latter two speciesin private lands in a number of districts have alsoconsiderably eased the fuel wood scarcity in the nearbytowns and villages. Even the plantations that have beenmanaged for pulpwood supply have yielded considerablequantities of fuel wood resulting in reduced pressure onthe nearby natural forests.

The 1960s saw ushering in of the “Green revolution”dependent on intensification of inputs of canal irrigationand agro-chemicals. The 1980s saw extensive diggingof bore-wells to tap ground water resources. Theintensification of agriculture has resulted in losses of on-farm cultivated plant and domesticated animal geneticdiversity. Replacement of large variety of local land racesby a small number of high yielding varieties of a smallerset of crops and of cattle & poultry has resulted in reductionof agro and livestock biodiversity. Of course, a significantfraction of these genetic resources has been preservedin national and international seed collections. This,however, does not permit continuation of the evolutionaryprocesses. Also there are distinct possibilities of loss ofbiodiversity from as yet little understood effects of thenewly introduced Genetically modified

organisms(GMO).The last few years are, however,witnessing a move towards encouragement of moresustainable agricultural practices, including employmentof integrated pest management techniques.Urban settlements along with the transport network ofhighways connecting them constitute the most rapidlyexpanding ecosystem of the Karnataka state. Given thehigh value of urban land, there is little scope formaintenance of natural biological communities within thisecosystem. So the urban ecosystems are losing much oftheir biodiversity, including the communal roosts of birdslike mynas and parakeets and fruit bats, which take shelterin urban areas, although they obtain most of their food inthe surrounding rural hinterlands. In their structure, theurban ecosystems most resemble rocky cliffs and caves,and hence are now characterized by species like bluerock pigeons and house swifts that prefer these habitats.Over all, the urban populations are subject to anincreasing alienation from the natural world, which mayhave long-term health impacts, and may lead to anincrease in stress related disorders.

Given the substantial pollution load on the sea, it ispossible that the sea foods being consumed carry heavymetals, antibiotics and pathogens with significant healthimplications. Eutrophication of the water-bodies coupledwith growth of weeds like the water hyacinth has led toan increase in the population of vectors of diseases like

Plants with aromatic and medicinal properties

Ocium basilicumSweet basil, Kama KasturiParts used: Arial part of the plantUses: Used as a flavoring agent inconfectionery, baked goods, sauces,pickles, fancy vinegars, spiced meats &beverages

Cymbopogon martiniParts used: LeavesUses: Source of palmarosa oil. Used inmanufacture of soaps, cosmetics andinsect repellents.

Mesua ferreaNagasampigeParts used: Flower, seedsUses: Flowers used for cough.Stamens impart a pleasant aroma,useful in bleeding disorders

Curcuma aromaticaWild Turmeric, Kasturi ArishinaParts used: RhizomesUses: It’s a good wound healer,substitute for turmeric in food and hasantidiabetic properties.

178


the mosquitoes with negative health consequences.Extensive application of pesticides has led to a decimationof soil microbiota, reducing the fertility of farm soils.Pesticide residues in farm-produced food too are probablya notable health hazard.

HOTSPOTS

One may visualize two kinds of hotspots, hotspots of hopei.e. the hotspots still rich in biodiversity and excellent sitesfor focusing ongoing and future conservation efforts, andhotspots of despair i.e. those which have been subject tosome degradation, and therefore require more focus onrestoration efforts. The details of these two kinds ofhotspots as identified for the state are provided inAnnexure A and B respectively.

There is a need to organize new inter-disciplinary, multi-scaleand multi-agency initiatives, towards inventoryingbiodiversity and associated knowledge, through periodicmonitoring. Such a programme should focus, not just onbiodiversity rich or protected areas, but on the entirelandscape and waterscape. It would need to involve anumber of scientific and technical agencies such as forest-fishery- agriculture departments; Botanical and ZoologicalSurveys, Universities, Agricultural Universities andpertinent research institutions. This scientific effort willhave to be complemented by Community BasedInventories involving schools and colleges, localknowledgeable individuals, community leaders, VillageForest Committees, and Panchayat institutions. TheseCommunity Based Inventories may focus on organismsand issues familiar to people such as on medicinal plants,fish and shellfish, sacred groves, ponds and other sacredsites, sacred trees such as Ficus and sacred animals likemonkeys. They must also focus on crop genetic diversity,especially of fruit trees such as Jackfruit, Mango, Garcinia,Tamarind, and sustainable use practices such asprotection to fishes migrating upstream for spawning.Special efforts will have to be put in developing thecapacity of tribals, fisher folk, farmers, pastorals, vaidyasand other folk ecologists, who have significant knowledgeon local biodiversity resources, to contribute to communitybased biodiversity inventorying and monitoring as alsoconservation and sustainable use efforts. New bridges

will have to be built for the technical experts, involved inscientific inventories, to link the scientific and communitybased inventories. All this information will have to beorganized as a computerized, distributed informationsystem with regulated access to safeguard intellectualproperty rights concerns. The People’s BiodiversityRegisters visualized as a part of the follow-up to theBiological Diversity Act could serve as useful instrumentsin this context.

Since good management of biodiversity is dependent onproper management of habitats, there is need to pay moreattention to important issues of quality and connectivityof habitats. There is also a need to identify and monitorappropriate indicators of quality of different habitat types,e.g. birds and butterflies as indicators of quality of foresthabitats, or aquatic micro- and macro-invertebrates andfishes as indicators of quality and level of pollution inaquatic habitats. Proper databases need to be createdon degradation and fragmentation of habitats, with a focuson key habitats such as forests and wetlands. The saiddatabase should put to good use the Indian RemoteSensing Satellite imageries, linking it to the GeographicalInformation System. This information base should, in turn,be linked to the scientific and community basedinventories of biodiversity.

The current procedures of pollution control needreconsideration. There is a need to implement the“Polluter pays” principle, scaling penalties to the level ofpollution damage as well as creating positive incentivesfor good performance. Monitoring of physical andchemical parameters needs to be supplemented by useof biodiversity indicators that are more easily discernible.Costs of biodiversity conservation should be charged tothose responsible for its destruction. New policies,legislation and institutions needed to do this need to beput in place.

Wildlife Protected Areas such as wild life sanctuaries andnational parks constitute the mainstay of biodiversityconservation efforts. It is necessary to broaden theapproach to conservation of biodiversity to aquatic as wellas semi-arid ecosystems, and to lands and waters otherthan those under the control of Forest Department. The

179

BIO DIVERSITY

concept of “heritage sites” of the Biological Diversity Act,Biosphere Reserves and Ecologically Sensitive Areasneeds to be developed in this context.

Current policies governing protected areas, which focusmore on eco-development and participatory approach,need to be continued and strengthened. As far as possible,the protected areas management too should be broughtunder a participatory regime.

One of the primary causes of degradation of our forestecosystem has been the tremendous pressure put on itbecause of fuel wood removal for domestic use andgrazing by village cattle. In view of growing human andcattle population, the pressure on our forests will increasefurther. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the fuelwood and fodder requirements of the rural population areprogressively met from sources other than the forests. Apossible option for doing this is to encourage farm forestryand agro forestry in private lands. Judicious farm forestry

Sacred groves of Karnataka

Sacred Groves are segments of the landscape, containing trees and other forms of biodiversity and geographical features thatare delimited and protected by human societies because it is believed that to keep them in a relatively undisturbed state is anexpression of important relationship to the divine or to nature. They represent the first major effort by the local communities inconserving the biodiversity. Since these patches have remained undisturbed since long, they appear as isolated fragments of adense forest.

.In Karnataka sacred groves are found all along the western ghats though known by differentnames like Devarakaadu (God’s forest), pavitra katte , Suggi devara bana, Pavithravana(sacred forests), nagavana, etc. But wherever they occur, sacred groves are of greatecological and cultural interest. There are stated to be more than 1500 major sacred grovesin the state of Karnataka. In Coorg alone Devarakadus are said to have been distributed inan area of about 15,500 acres. Out of 296 revenue villages in the district, Devarakadus aredistributed in 273 revenue villages.

The devarakadu in Kodagu district have some of the commercially very valuable timberspecies like Dysoxylum malabaricum (White cedar), Diospyros ebenum (Karimara,Blackwood), Dalbergia latifolia (Rosewood), among others. Though many forests fallingunder these Devarkadus don’t form part of either reserve forests or protected forest yetthey have enjoyed the highest kind of protection from people residing around these forestsfor religious reasons for a long time.

Ecologically, sacred groves tend to be fragments of the original ecosystem in a given region,although in some cases local people plant trees in groves and there were and are grovesconsisting entirely of planted trees. Because they are protected, the groves that are derivedfrom natural forests often shelter plant and animal species that may have disappearedelsewhere in the region. Thus they serve as refugia and possible centres of dispersal andrestoration.

Culturally, sacred groves are of considerable interest because they exemplify phases ofsocial interaction with the local ecosystem. The practices permitted or forbidden in themoften reveal much about the attitudes of various societies to nature.

In Karnataka sacred groves are relatively small, from a fraction of a hectare to a few squarekilometers in size and are therefore island-like in a landscape mosaic. They are vulnerableto invasions of exotic weed-like species and to natural or human caused disasters such asfire, diseases, predation by poachers, encroachment and deliberate destruction.

The sacred groves, which remained as prized possessions, are slowly degrading. Changein the values and lifestyles of people and economic attraction attached to the Sacred groveshave greatly contributed to the decline in the status of the sacred groves. Large scale land encroachments are observed in manysacred groves.

Karnataka biodiversity board is making efforts to conserve these time tested examples of people’s efforts of bio-diversityconservation and revive the tradition of sacred groves.

Dieties inside the sacred grove

View of the sacred grove,Kodagu

180


and agro forestry practices will improve the economiccondition of the farmers not only because of increasedincome through utilization or sale of forest produce butalso because improvement in the fertility and moisturestatus of the agricultural lands. Similarly, adoption ofimproved animal husbandry practices will result in thefarmers maintaining lesser number of productive cattlerather than a large number of unproductive cattle.

It is important to create a policy and regulatory frameworkfor the protection of coastal, marine and also freshwaterbiodiversity. This should incorporate provisions to bringunder control many destructive fishing methods such asuse of dynamite, nets of small mesh etc. and ensureenforcement of closed seasons. Central Government’shelp may be sought to ensure coordinated action by allthe coastal states and the involvement of Coast Guards.There is a need to further develop new participatoryinstitutions, such as Joint Fisheries ManagementCommittees.

Karnataka’s 40,000 odd tanks are a significant habitat foraquatic biodiversity, but have been viewed largely as asource of irrigation and sites for culture of fish like carp.They need to be assessed as potential biodiversityconservation sites and some proportion, say 5%earmarked for biodiversity conservation purposes. Suchconservation efforts should focus not only on the waterbody, but on the catchment as well.

New institutions and instruments should be created tobuild on traditional practices such as conservation ofsacred ponds, streams,sacred groves etc. Thedevarakadus of Kodagu provide a great opportunity toinitiate participatory approach to biodiversity conservation.

The Bio Diversity Act provides the regulatory frameworkfor the protection of biodiversity on private, communityand other non-forest lands and waters. There is a needto protect water bird breeding colonies, often on privateland as at Kokre-Bellur, groves such as Gunduthopes,and sacred plants and animals.Village forests andgrasslands like the Halkar village forest in Kumta taluk ofUttara Kannada district, and community and privatelymanaged woodlands such as soppinabetta, kumki and

hadi lands need to be sustainably managed.

Special Security Areas, under control of armed forces,provide excellent opportunities for biodiversityconservation that have been only occasionally exploitedas in case of the National Defense Academy near Pune.The Government may work with armed forces to conserveareas like Anjadiv Island under Sea-Bird Project of IndianNavy, prohibited zone around Kaiga Nuclear Plant andDefence Establishment areas in Bangalore city.

There should be a proper policy on ecotourismdevelopment, based on carrying capacity.

Environmental considerations, in general, and biodiversityissues, in particular, must be main-streamed into theworking of various Governmental agencies, as well asprivate sector. Thus the animal husbandry programmesfocus on enhancing milk and meat production with littlethought for the impact of cattle and goats on regenerationof natural vegetation. Minor irrigation focuses on desiltingof tanks without much consideration of how the desiltingoperations may affect aquatic life. It is therefore importantto create mechanisms for inter-sectoral co-ordination, e.g.with new bodies such as Karnataka Medicinal PlantsAuthority, to develop appropriate guidelines for the broadspectrum of Governmental line departments, whoseactivities impinge on biodiversity resources. Theseguidelines should focus on habitat integrity andconnectivity, implementation of recommendationsaccepted in the course of environmental impactassessments and also concepts like carrying capacity.

Given that our understanding of biodiversity is inadequate,we need to operationalize the “Precautionary Principle”.This principle suggests that while dealing with novelsituations, such as the use of Genetically ModifiedOrganisms (GMO), we may not have full evidence of theirlikely impacts. Under such circumstances, it is appropriateto remain on the side of caution. However, while doingso, we must also look at all the available evidences,including that from other parts of the world, and keep inmind the imperatives of enhancing productivity.

There is need to work towards the development of a

181

BIO DIVERSITY

realistic system of economic instruments such as accessfees, as positive incentives to encourage prudentutilization of biological resources and negative incentivesor penalties to discourage non-sustainable utilization ofbiological resources and biodiversity. It must be ensuredthat biodiversity conservation and sustainable use effortshelp enhance the quality of life of women and the weakersegments of the population. It should be ensured thatresources generated through ecotourism could supportconservation efforts. To accomplish these objectives, wecould motivate Panchayats with their BiodiversityManagement Committees established under the newBiological Diversity Act or Village Forest Committees orJoint Fisheries Management Committees, by conferringon them authority to charge access/ collection fees, tolevy fines on violators. These committees may be givenspecial social recognition or financial awards forbiodiversity conservation endeavors.

ACTION PLAN

Establishment of seabird conservation sitesIslands like Netrani and Anjidiv, important habitats forseabirds, are reportedly being affected by naval exercises.The State Government along with the Defence authoritiesshould protect the seabirds and other characteristic islandecosystems of Karnataka coast.

Rehabilitation of threatened estuarine fishesTo rehabilitate important threatened fishes such as Milkfish(Chanos chanos) and Kane meen ( Silage sahama),captive breeding may be carried out and the fingerlingsproduced may be released in the estuaries.

Promoting sustainable utilization of marine/estuarinefisha) Strict implementation of uniform “closed season”for marine fishing for the entire west coast, from 10June to 15 August is expected to protect the brood

Karnataka Bio diversity Information System

Karnataka Bio diversity Information System is an information system with spatial and non-spatial data aimed at consolidatinginformation on floral and faunal diversity of the state of Karnataka especially the fragile environs of Western Ghats. KarnatakaBio diversity Information System has been developed by Karnataka Forest Department in collaboration with Department ofBotany from the University of Agricultural Sciences and Indian Space Research Organisation, with funding and administrativesupport from Department of Ecology and Environment, Government of Karnataka.

The Karnataka Bio diversity Information System is capable of providing information related to plants and animal species onvarious queries with regard to their structural and floristic aspects. The package is organised around a GIS and speciallycustomized to the requirement of establishing an operational bio diversity information system for the state of Karnataka. Thepackage is optimum mix of spatial and non-spatial data for display, query and analysis. The species database also providesspecific information related to Rare, Endangered and Threatened and IUCN ratings. The faunal communities being non stationary,their distribution is region specific and data has been provided for the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and also broaddistribution across the state. In Karnataka Bio diversity Information System more than 3500 plant species have been documented,in addition to this, details of faunal diversity found in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Karnataka have also beenprovided based on the secondary data.

Bio diversity assessment in the Western Ghats has been done by collecting primary data through sampling. The state has beendivided into 1920 grids of 10x10 km size and stratified. In each grid depending upon the bio diversity density and status thenumber of sample plots varied. In each grid minimum one sample plot was laid and in some as many as 20 sampling plots havebeen laid to capture the maximum diversity. In the first phase of Western Ghats area nearly 1300 sample plots have been laidto collect the primary data. Also the data available from the permanent bio diversity monitoring plots established by the KarnatakaForest Department were also used to map the diversity of plants and animals.

It is proposed to cover the remained parts of Eastern plain districts in the second phase of the project to complete the task for thewhole state through survey and assessment. In the second phase, priority will be given to agro-bio diversity assessment andmapping.

The Karnataka Bio diversity Information System has been designed to be user friendly by providing access to informationthrough multiple query routes. The user can type either common name or local names (vernacular), or scientific names toaccess the information of species. Similarly the occurrence and distribution of species can be accessed spatially throughadministrative units like taluk, district or forest administration units like Range, Divisions, Circles or National Parks.

182


stock of fishes from exploitation by the mechanizedsector.b) Mesh regulations of nets necessary to exclude

juveniles and non-target species. Licenses foradditions to the fleet of purse seines and trawlersshould be limited to sustainable limits

c) Bottom trawling, which is very destructive to marineecosystems, should be prohibited in Indian territorialwaters.

d) Use of large trawl nets to be regulated, to minimizeincidental catches and other damages to the seabottom ecosystems.

e) Priority steps to be taken to identify fish breedinggrounds and other sensitive areas and such areasshould be declared as “Marine Protected Areas”.Periodical ban on catch and sale of over-exploited fishspecies to be implemented

Conservation of biodiversity in riverine strechesFish congregations are noticed in 12 areas in certainriverine stretches. Of these 3 are declared as ‘Sanctuaries’.The others are also to be declared so.

Management of Protected AreasDegraded habitats outside protected areas must bedeveloped as buffers to withstand the pressures of theperipheral habitations.

Sacred groves and sacred trees and other traditionalconservationSacred groves and sacred trees of the Western Ghatsand the west coast are excellent instances of communitybased conservation. Steps need to be taken to supportand strengthen the community efforts to safeguard andeven restore the lost groves. Other traditional conservationpractices should be documented and encouraged.

Biodiversity friendly management of Soppinbettas andother woodlands should be promoted.

The deemed forests such as Soppinbettas, Kumki andHadi lands,which are rich in biodiversity, are to besustainably managed.

Conservation of the wild relatives of cultivated plantsForests of Karnataka are rich in the wild relatives ofcultivated plants such as Mango, Jackfruit, Garcinia,gooseberry, nutmeg, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, pepper,turmeric, bitter gourd, snake gourd, pulses, brinjals,grapes, yams, aroids etc. Forests and other wildernessareas, which harbour the gene pool of such cultivatedplants, are to be identified and conserved.

Conservation of domesticated animal biodiversityKarnataka has a rich heritage of indigenous livestock,poultry and pet breeds. The State should makearrangements for documentation, monitoring andencouragement through incentives, if necessary, for thein situ conservation, breeding and distribution of this animaldiversity.

Genetically Modified CropsDetailed study needs to be conducted in multi locationbefore introducing genetically modified crops within state.

Capacity Building For Biodiversity ManagementBiodiversity management has tremendous potential to bea huge enterprise with millions of stakeholders, includingvillagers and forest dwellers. Capacity building forbiodiversity management needs to be done at variouslevels:• Decision makers at State, district municipalities and

village panchayat levels• School and college teachers and students• Biodiversity conservation training for local stakeholders• Coast Guards for marine biodiversity protection.• Private sector• Role of NGOs in biodiversity management is to be

strengthened.• A policy is also needed for in-situ conservation of agro

biodiversity.

Biodiversity RegisterDevelopment and maintenance of Biodiversity registersby the Biodiversity committees, JFPM committees,Schools, Colleges, and other NGOs may be promoted todocument the bio diversity wealth of the area.

183

FOREST

FOREST

If trees could scream, would we be so cavalier aboutcutting them down

-Jack Handey

184


FOREST

Current Status

Problems

Trends

Impacts

Prioritisation

Action Plan

185

FOREST

Classification of recorded forest area in Karnatakaon the basis of legal status.

Source: Annual Report 2002-2003, Karnataka Forest Department

CURRENT STATUS

Karnataka is endowed with some of the most magnificentforests in the country. From the majestic evergreen forestsof the Western Ghats to the scrub jungles of the plains, awide variety of habitats exist with very typical flora andfauna, some of them endemic to the region. The forestscomprise of several types ranging from fragile coastalmangroves along the coastlines to tropical wet evergreenforests all along the Western Ghats. In the high rainfallzone, there are pockets of biodiversity-rich shola forestsinterspersed with high altitude grasslands. As we moveinland, moist deciduous forests occur in lesser altitudeswhere rainfall is heavy to moderate. Dry deciduous forestsoccur in areas receiving light rainfall i.e. in the easternfringes of the Western Ghats, in south interior Karnatakaand, to a small extent, in Chincholi and Humnabad taluksof north Karnataka. Tropical thorn (scrub) forests are foundin the northeastern plains where rainfall is scanty andtemperature is high during the summer. Severaleconomically important species such as Sandalwood(Santalum album), Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Teak(Tectona grandis), White Cedar (Dysoxylon malabaricum)grow naturally in the forests of Karnataka.

The State has around 20 percent of its total geographicalarea (TGA) as “recorded forest area” (see box). Accordingto the State of Forest Report 2001 published by the ForestSurvey of India, Dehradun, the total “forest cover” ofKarnataka is 36,991 sq. km representing around 19.3percent of the total geographical area of the State. Thearea under dense canopy cover (canopy density morethan 40%) is nearly 13.6 percent of the total geographicalarea of the State while 5.6 percent ofthe total geographical area fallsunder open forest category (canopydensity between 10 to 40 percent).In addition, the State has 3,245 sq.km of “scrub” (canopy density lessthan 10 percent). In terms ofpercentage of “recorded forest area”to the total geographical area,Karnataka ranks 18th in the countryas per the State of Forest Report2001. However, the State ranks 4th

Terms as defined in the State of Forest Report2001, published by the Forest Survey of India

(FSI), Dehradun

“Recorded forest area” is the area recorded as forest in thegovernment records.

“Forest Cover” consists of all lands having tree canopy densityabove 10 percent irrespective of the nature of vegetation, legalstatus, ownership or land use. (The assessment made in theState of Forest Report 2001 includes forest cover down to 1ha only; areas lesser than 1 ha have been excluded onaccount of technical limitations)

“Scrub” denotes lands having bushes and/or poor tree growthwith canopy density less than 10%.

“Tree cover” refers to the notional area covered by crown oftrees that is too small to be delineated by digital interpretationof remote sensing data used for forest cover delineation. Itincludes all the tree wealth (perennial woody vegetation)existing in the form of linear plantation along roads, canals,etc., scattered trees on farm lands, homestead, urban areaand blocks of plantations and wood lots smaller than onehectare.

Natural Grassland and Shola forest, Kuduremukh National Park

Sl. No. Legal status Area

(Sq. Km) %

1 Reserved Forests 28,689.97 74.94

2 Protected Forests 3,930.70 10.27

3 Village Forests 124.20 0.32

4 Unclassified Forests 5,230.99 13.66

5 Private Forests 308.42 0.81 Total 38,284.28 100.00

186


Classification of recorded forest area in Karnatakaon the basis on forest types.


among all the States and Union Territories inrespect of area under “tree cover” as per theReport.

Karnataka’s forests support a wide range of biodiversity. About 25 percent of the elephantpopulation and about 10 percent of the tigerpopulation of the country are found in the forestsof Karnataka, which also account for around 4500species of flowering plants, 500 species of birds,120 species of mammals,160 species of reptiles, 70species of frogs and 800species of fish, out of which350 species are endemic.The Western Ghats, whichcovers about 60% of theforest area of Karnataka isone among the 18-biodiversity hot spots of theworld and forms animportant ecosystem.

Forests play an importantrole in the socio-economicscenario of any State. This roleis all the more pronounced ina State like Karnataka, whichhas a predominantlyagriculture-based ruraleconomy. Forests and treeshelp in maintaining a stableenvironment conducive tosustained development ofagriculture. Unless the forestecosystem is maintained in asustainable and productivestate, the future of agricultureitself is at stake. Forestsprotect and enrich the soil andwater regime by reducing soilerosion and nutrient loss andby facilitating moistureconservation, nutrientrecycling and microbiological activities. They also protect

District wise Forest cover along with geographical area

Forest Cover (Sq. Kms.)Dense Forest 26,156 Open Forest 10,835 Total 36,991 % of States geographical area 19.30

% of Country's forest cover 5.50

Forest types Area (Sq. Km) %

Evergreen 4,350 11.36 Semi-evergreen 1,450 3.79 Moist deciduous 5,780 15.10 Dry deciduous 7,270 18.99 Thorn forests (Scrub) 8,340 21.78 Unwooded 11,094 28.98 Total 38,284 100.00

187

FOREST

Initiatives of the State GovernmentAround 1.2 million ha of forest and non-forest lands havebeen afforested in the last twenty-five years in the Stateof Karnataka.More than 700 million seedlings have been distributedto the farmers, institutions and people for agro-forestry,farm forestry and development of homestead gardensin the last twenty years.Karnataka has adopted Joint Forest Planning andManagement (JFPM) programme to involve local peoplein protection, planning and management of forests. Morethan 3700 Village Forest Committees (VFCs) have beenestablished covering nearly 2.5 lakh ha of degradedforests. As part of the participatory approach, many entrypoint activities that are both individual and communityoriented like bio gas plants, smokeless chulas anddistribution of bamboo have been initiated.Under the National Afforestation Programme, ForestDevelopment Agencies (FDA), which are federations ofVillage Forest Committees / Eco DevelopmentCommittees have been constituted in the forest andwildlife divisions of the State to consolidate andstrengthen the on going JFPM programme throughafforestation, eco development and other relatedactivities.To encourage sandalwood cultivation, the KarnatakaForest Act, 1963 has been amended. The ownership ofsandalwood trees grown on private lands now vests withthe landowner. The rules governing felling, transport,conversion and disposal of sandalwood have beenliberalized. Provision has been made for payment ofmarket value to the owners of sandalwood treesThe forest-dependent tribal people have been providedspecial concession in collection of minor forest producefrom the forest areas. The LAMP societies in the tribaldominated areas are allotted the right to collect the minorforest produce from the forest by paying a nominal sumof Rs 100 per annum. This has benefited 21 societiescovering nearly 27,400 tribal families. The additionalincome to these societies is estimated to be around Rs60 lakhs per annum.As part of biodiversity protection and conservationinitiative, around 17 percent of the State’s forest areahas been brought under the protected area networkcomprising of five National Parks and twenty-one WildlifeSanctuaries.The forest department is implementing the Project Tigerand Project Elephant programs in the State withconsiderable success. Eco-development works havebeen undertaken as part of wildlife conservation andprotection works.A wilderness tourism policy is being formulated as aconservation tool, which will enable to harmonize thedemands of tourism and the need to conserve thewilderness.The State has constituted the Karnataka State MedicinalPlants Authority to promote medicinal plant conservationand development in the State.

Public distribution of seedlings

People’s participation in forestry programmes(VFC)

Women engaged in JFPM activity

Tiger at Bandipur National Park

Collection of NTFP (Harda fruits)

188


189

FOREST

Value of ecological benefits of one hectareof subtropical deciduous forest and the value

of environmental services provided by atree for 50 years.

Source: Mathur and Soni, (1986) ICFRE records.

hydrological systems and regulate stream flow, therebyaugmenting ater availability, which is so vital foragricultural production. Forests serve as a uniquestorehouse of plant and animal genetic resources andcontribute significantly to the biological diversity. Thisbiodiversity, in turn, serves as an insurance against foodcrises and as an assurance for health care.

Forests meet a large share of the energy needs of thepopulation, more so in the rural areas. A significant portionof the fodder needs of the vast cattle population is alsomet from these forests. Forest products, in addition tocontributing to the State’s income, also play a veryimportant role in the rural and tribal economy. Many of theforest products, including non-timber forest products(NTFP), provide sustenance to the rural and tribal people,who collect a large part of their daily necessities, includingfood and medicines, from the forests. Most of theseproducts represent a direct subsidy to the rural poor, andconstitute an integral element of the factors alleviating theirpoverty. For landless and marginal farmers living in thevicinity of forests, forest-related activities often representthe primary source of income.

In view of multifarious benefits, both tangible andintangible, accruing from the forest, it is difficult to makean assessment of their real value. Several scientists havetried to quantify the intangible values of forests. Howeverbased on a study of 1986 MOEF has standardized theenvironmental value of one hectare of fully stocked forests(density 1) at Rs. 126.74 lakhs which would accrue over50 years.

PROBLEMS

Forest degradation refers to reduction in optimumcapability or productivity of a forest. A forest with canopydensity less than 0.4 (40%) is normally considereddegraded. Around 30% of the total forest cover ofKarnataka is degraded. Many a time degraded forest isconfused with deforestation. Deforestation is often anirreversible process; but a degraded forest is capable ofrecovering to its optimum level within a reasonable time ifthe pressures responsible for the degradation arewithdrawn.

The key problems which have led to forest degradationare:• Increasing livestock grazing inside the forests.• Increasing fuel wood removal from the forests.• Encroachment of forestlands.• Diversion and fragmentation of forests and habitat

destruction.• Unsustainable landscape management practices and

absence of regulatory mechanism of common propertyresources (CPRs).

• Unsustainable forest management practices.• Smuggling and poaching in forests.• Low investments in forestry sector.

Increasing livestock grazing

Nearly 21 per cent of Karnataka’s forest area is affectedby grazing (FSI, 1995). The FSI has reported that nearly54% of the forest area of Dakshina Kannada districtexperiences grazing incidence causing severedegradation of the forests.The livestock population inKarnataka as per 1997 census is 45.4 million. It is on therise in rural areas due to various socio-economic factors:

• Farmer’s dependence on the livestock for manure.• Use of cattle for agricultural operations and transport.

Activity Value of forests (Rs. in lakhs)

Service by a tree

(Rs. in lakhs)

Production of oxygen 22.50 2.50 Conversion to animal protein 1.64 0.20

Control of soil erosion and Maintenance of soil fertility 20.50 2.50

Recycling of water and control of humidity 20.60 3.00

Sheltering of birds, animals, insects, plants 20.50 2.50

Control of air pollution 41.00 0.50 Total Benefits 126.74 11.20

190


Extent of grazing in forests ofDakshina Kannada - (FSI 1998)

• Cattle as source of income generation.• Livestock farming as main occupation.• Livestock farming as insurance against crop failures and

drought.• Religious sentiments of the people.

Grazing and browsing by domestic cattle, goat, sheep,etc is a major problem in the forest areas. Uncontrolledgrazing of forests, often beyond their carrying capacity, bylivestock has adversely affected the regeneration statusand regenerative capacity of our forests. Over grazing alsoaffects soil properties adversely. The adverse effects onsoil include formation of small gullies, loss of topsoil,compaction of soil and reduction of porosity.

The cattle population has increased by 0.71 percent from1990 to 1997, whereas during the same period, thepopulation of buffaloes has increased by 2.25 percent andthat of goats by 14.45 percent. Pressure on forests hasincreased since the gomal lands, traditionally reserved forgrazing, are also being put to other use. A sizeable portionof the fodder requirement is met by free grazing in theforest and this activity is a source of livelihood for manypoor families. Nearly 14 percent of the rural populationare landless labourers who in the non-agricultural seasonearn their livelihood by grazing livestock in the forest. Thisproblem is accentuated further during the drought.

Out of 94.84 million tons of green fodder available in theState, 29.79 million tons are from forest alone accountingfor nearly 32 percent of the requirement indicating veryhigh dependence of livestock on the forest. However asper the carrying capacity of the forests in Karnataka, onlyabout 1.3 million cows can be allowed to graze, which

indicates the gravity of the situation. Moreover, to promotegrowth of grass, farmers set fire to the forest. This resultsin general degradation of forests including reduction ofpalatable grass species.

Increasing fuel wood removal

Removal of firewood from the forest is one of the mostimportant factors responsible for degradation of the forests.The dependence of the people on biomass to meet theirenergy demand is closely associated with their poverty asin many other developing countries. Population increase,inefficient chullas and lack of alternative clean energysources have also accentuated the problem further. Treesare lopped by the community for firewood and for greenmanure. The problem of firewood removal from the forestis more severe in the forested districts like Shimoga, UttaraKanara, Dakshina Kannada, etc due to low availability ofagricultural wastes.

A study regarding household consumption of fuel woodfor domestic purpose conducted by the Directorate ofEconomics and Statistics (2002) indicates that nearly 80percent of the households still depend on fuel wood-basedenergy indicating the severity of the problem. The percapita consumption of fuel wood in the State was estimatedin 1987 to be 1.5 kg/day. Based on this data the presentannual demand for fuel wood in the State may be estimatedto be around 28 million tons. Another study conducted inAugust 1993 by V.Ranganath of Indian Institute ofManagement revealed that the total demand for firewoodin the State was 19.4 million tons, out of which 18 million

Removal of firewood- headload

Grazing incidence

Area (Sq. km.) %

Heavy 302.10 11.54 Moderate 392.73 15.00 Light 714.97 27.31 No Grazing 1,208.40 46.15

191

FOREST

tons was the domestic demand. On reviewing theconsumption pattern it was observed that the major portionof the demand in rural area (94%) is met by gatheringtwigs, lops and tops of a tree and only 6 percent of theconsumption is in the form of logs and billets. The totalsupply from Government and Private land has beenestimated as 0.284 million tons. Thus the bulk of thedemand is met through informal collections from forestarea as well as from crop residues and some shrubs likeProsopis juliflora. It is estimated that out of 20 milliontons of fuel wood consumed in the State, the fuelwoodfrom forest is around 5 million tons per year. This figure isalso corroborated by a study conducted by Ravindranathand Hall (1995). Thus informal removal from forests putsa tremendous pressure on the forest resources leading togradual degradation.

Encroachment of forestlands

Encroachment of forestlands is a multidimensional socioeconomic problem. The origin of the problem lies in thefact that a large portion of the population is either landlessor has marginal land holdings. During the 18th and 19th

centuries and even later people were encouraged to clearthe forests for practicing agriculture. Even afterindependence large extents of forest areas wereencroached for agriculture, which were subsequentlyregularized. Such successive regularizations haveencouraged further encroachments.

Substantial increase in population has led to increasedanthropogenic pressure on forest resources including land.The magnitude of the problem of encroachment inKarnataka can be gauged from the fact that from 1978onwards, more than one lakh families have encroachednearly 98,000 ha of forestland.

About 60.2% of the State’s population is engaged inagricultural and allied activities. Moreover, the per capitaland of the State is 2.13 ha, whereas in the Western Ghats,the average holding is 0.22 ha. Since the proportion ofmarginal and small land holdings is very high in the State,pressure on forest land is immense.

Protection of forestland has been a major challenge, asconsolidation and demarcation of the forests could not beadequately addressed in the past due to inadequateresource availability.

Diversion and fragmentation of forests and habitatdestruction

Karnataka’s forests have been fragmented due todevelopment of infrastructure and other developmentalactivities like dams, canals, roads, railway lines, miningand quarrying, encroachments, expansion of cultivation,hydro-electric projects. Fragmentation of forests is a veryserious problem in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka,creating physical barriers for animal migration and otherecological processes. It has led to increase in man-animalconflicts, especially in case of elephants attempting tomove along their traditional migratory routes causing deathof elephants, human beings and crop damage.

Unsustainable landscape management practices andabsence of regulatory mechanism of common propertyresources (CPRs)

The landscape comprises various landscape elementssuch as forest eco-system, water bodies, river basins,lakes, grazing lands and other such elements. The integrityand stability of the landscape is very critical in maintainingthe structure and function of eco-system. Various causessuch as loss of vegetation in the river basins andcatchments, encroachment of common property

Herd of elephants in Kabini backwaters

192


resources, sedimentation of water bodies due to miningand soil erosion, etc have degraded the landscape.

A fine balance has to be maintained between differentlandscape elements. Any degradation in one elementaffects the other elements because of inherentinterdependence. For example, the loss of grazing landsand other uncultivated lands that used to be a vitalingredient of Karnataka’s agro-ecosystems has resultedin scarcity of biomass resources for the rural populationresulting in increased pressure on forests.

Forest eco-systems play a critical role in regulatinghydrological cycle. In Karnataka major rivers like Cauvery,Sharavathi, Kali, Bhadra etc., have their origin in theforests. Any disturbance to these eco-systems will disturbthe hydrological cycle. Deforestation has resulted in floods,siltation of water bodies (rivers and streams) and loweringof water table. The inflow of water in the rivers has reducedover the years due to change in the rainfall pattern anddisturbances in the hydrological cycle.

Unsustainable forest management practices

The domination of economic objectives over ecologicalobjectives has contributed largely to forest degradation.In order to meet the growing demand of timber, clear fellingand monoculture of a few important timber yielding speciesetc. were followed in the past causing irreparable damageto the forests. Supply of bamboo for pulpwood industries,harvest of evergreen species to meet the demand ofmatchwood and plywood timber and extraction ofsandalwood for sandal oil export had been driven byeconomic objectives. In the past, the State’s policy tosupply fuel wood and pulpwood to the industries atsubsidized rates has also resulted in the over exploitationof the forests.

These factors have led to a deficit of large stems of themost valuable species and over three-quarters of theforests have low seedling or sapling regeneration status.Past regeneration efforts have been influenced byeconomic consideration resulting in the introduction ofmonoculture of Teak (Tectona grandis) and exotic speciessuch as Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina, etc.

Plantations of some major species such as Teak (Tectonagrandis), which occupy around 1,46,366 ha, followed byEucalyptus with 1,44,511 ha and fuel wood plantations ofAcacia, Casurina and other species in 13,47,398 ha arethe result of such economic considerations.

However one positive impact of the introduction of theexotic tree species like Acacia auriculiformis, Eucalyptusand Casuarina equisetifolia in some of the degraded foresttracts of the state has been the increased availability offuel wood. Extensive plantations of these species inprivate lands in a number of districts have alsoconsiderably eased the fuel wood scarcity in the nearbytowns and villages.

The endangered Nilgiri Langur found in Brahmagiri Wild-life sanctuary in Kodagu district

White eye with chicks

193

FOREST

For sustainable utilization of forest resources, theunderlying principle is that the total annual harvest shouldnot exceed the annual increment. Since the productivityof forests has gone down due to degradation and theremovals from the forests are ever increasing due toanthropogenic pressures, annual withdrawal exceeds theannual increment resulting in further degradation.

Smuggling and poaching in forests

Smuggling of timber and poaching of wildlife haveemerged as the most serious threats to the forestresources of the state. Lucrative prices offered for timber,animal skins, bones and other wildlife products havesignificantly enhanced the pecuniary gains of illegal trade,which the Forest Department with its present staff andinfrastructure finds it difficult to counter.

Poaching and illegal trade in wild animals and plants andtheir parts and products have emerged as one of the mostserious threats to biodiversity. This problem if notcontrolled effectively has the potential to substantiallynullify achievements in other fields of biodiversityconservation. The larger ramification of this problem maybe reflected in extinction of some plants and animals andsubstantial decline in the wild prey populations leading tocrop raiding, increased incidences of livestock predationand sometimes loss of human life by carnivores.

Low investments in forestry sector

Investment is very low in forestry sector. The financialsupport is mainly from government initiatives, while theinvestment from the private sector is negligible. The planout lay for the Forest Department including externally aidedproject is around one percent of the State’s annual budget.Considering that about 20 percent of the geographical areaof the State is covered by forest, this level of investment isvery low.

The major investment of the Department has been to raiseplantations, to produce seedlings for public distributionunder farm forestry program and to further strengthen themeasures of protection of forest resources and biodiversity. During the last ten years, the department has

been raising about 50,000 ha of plantations annually,mostly on degraded forest and non-forest Governmentlands. However the investment in the natural forest areashas been very low. Similarly, in the areas of wild lifemanagement, working plan, research, training, etc, theinvestment has been negligible. Because of lowinvestment, it has not been possible to take up sufficientworks of conservation and development in the forestrysector. This has affected the productivity of forests.

Very long gestation period needed for getting the returnsand absence of a proper mechanism to evaluate theenvironmental benefits from forests are the main reasonsfor low investment in forestry sector in the State.

National Forest Policy, 1988Following are the main objectives that govern the NationalForest Policy, 1988:

Maintenance of environmental stability throughpreservation and where necessary, restoration of theecological balance that has been adversely disturbed byserious depletion of the forests of the country.Conserving the natural heritage of the country bypreserving the remaining natural forests with the vastvariety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkablebiological diversity and genetic resources of the country.Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchmentareas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs in the interest of soiland water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughtsand for the retardation of siltation of reservoirs.Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areasof Rajasthan and along the coastal tracts.Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the countrythrough massive afforestation and social forestryprogrammes, especially on all denuded, degraded andunproductive lands.Meeting the requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minorforest produce and small timber of the rural and tribalpopulations.Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essentialnational needs.Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce andmaximizing substitution of wood.Creating a massive people’s movement with theinvolvement of women, for achieving these objectives andto minimize pressure on existing forests.

194


TRENDS

The trend analysis of the degradation of forests indicatesreduction of degradation in the recent years due to manyinitiatives undertaken by the Forest Department. It isgratifying to note that this decline in degradation is due tolarge scale afforestation programs, change in the forestmanagement policy by involving people’s participation,stricter protection in the recent past, etc.

As may be seen from the table, the forest cover inthe State has been showing an increasing trendduring the last fifteen years. The State of ForestReport 2001 has shown substantial increase in theforest cover as compared to that of 1999. Thisincrease is not only because of the change on theground but may include difference due to technicalfactors. The 2001 assessment is based on digitaltechnique at a scale of 1:50000 instead of visualmethod at a scale of 1:2,50,000 used earlier.Besides, certain areas with tree canopy such ascoconut, orchards, coffee and tea estates, etc. which

were not taken into account during forest coverassessments earlier, have been included in the 2001assessment. However such an increase is certainly apositive trend and is largely a result of the initiatives takenby the Forest Department.

Because of a conservation-oriented approach to forestmanagement adopted by the State Government, depart-mental extraction of forest produce has come down con-siderably in the recent years. The figures in the table illus-

Important Acts and Rules for conservation and protection of forest resources of Karnataka

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was enacted to regulate the dereservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forestrypurposes. Forest (Conservation) Rules were formulated by Government of India during 1981 for carrying out the provisions ofthe Forest Conservation Act. In addition consolidated guidelines have been issued by the Government of India in 1992 fordiversion of forest land. The guidelines provide for raising compensatory plantations in lieu of forest land diverted, for whichfunds are to be made available by the user agency.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 provides for various protection and regulating measures including prohibition on hunting ofwild animals, protection of specified plants, constitution and management of National Parks and Sanctuaries, Management ofZoos, trade/commerce in wild animals and products thereto, prevention and detection of wildlife offences etc.,

The Karnataka Forest Act, 1963

The Karnataka Forest Act, 1963 provides for constitution, conservation and protection of reserved forests, village forests anddistrict forests, control of timber and other forest produce in transit, provisions relating to sandal wood, forest development tax,penalties and procedures relating to forest offence cases etc., The Karnataka Forest Rules were formulated during 1969 forcarrying out the provisions of Karnatalka Forest Act, 1963

The Karnataka Preservation of Trees Act, 1976

The Karnataka Preservation of Trees Act, 1976 provides for preservation of trees in the State by regulating the felling of trees andfor planting adequate number of trees. The Act also stipulates constitution of a Tree Authority in different areas. This authorityhas been entrusted with the duties of preserving trees within its jurisdiction. The Act imposes severe restriction on felling oftrees.

Forest Cover change from 1991 to 2001

State of Forest Report.Year of Report (Year of assessment )

Dense forest (including mangrove)

(Crown density above 40 %)

Open forest. (Crown

density 10 % to 40 %)

Total (Sq Km)

Change (Sq Km)

1991 (1987-89) 24,856 7,343 32,199 1993 (1989-91) 24,852 7,491 32,343 +144 1995 (1991-93) 24,861 7,521 32,382 +39 1997 (1993-95) 24,857 7,546 32,403 +21 1999 (1995-97) 24,835 7,632 32,467 +64 2001 (1997-99) 26,156 10,835 36,991 +4524

195

FOREST

trate the sharp decline in the quanti-ties of timber and firewood harvestedby the Forest Department during thelast 30 years.

The analysis of harvest by the ForestDepartment reveals that the harvestshave been within the limits of theState’s annual incremental growth,although, as bulk of the harvesting wasfrom the moist and dry deciduousforests (35% of the total forest area),certain forest areas were over exploited.

Although removal of forest produce throughauthorized means has come down,unauthorized removals are still a matter ofconcern. The high number of forest offencecases of timber smuggling and sandalwoodsmuggling booked by the Karnataka ForestDepartment testify to the increasing demandof the forest products. Howeverover the last five years therehas been a steady decrease inthe number of forest offencecases.

After independence, the mainfocus of development was onagriculture. This resulted inlarge-scale diversion of forestland for extension ofagriculture. In addition, largechunks of forest land werediverted for developmentalactivities like mining, dams,power projects and for regularization of encroachments.However due to strict implementation of the Forest(Conservation) Act, 1980, diversion of forest land hasdecreased considerably after 1980. A comparison ofdiversion of forest land in periods of approximately 25years prior to 1980 and after 1980 reveal a reduction ofdiversion by a factor of five. During the last five yearsonly 4653.57 ha has been released for variousdevelopmental activities, which is 0.12% of the forest area.As against the area of 304.52 sq.km stipulated for

Recorded removal of important forest produce in Karnataka

Note: Poles from 1995-2000 are in numbers; whereas earlier figures are in TonsSource: Annual Reports, Karnataka Forest Department

Forest areas diverted for various developmental activities

Source: Karnataka Forest Department (Forest Conservation Section)

compensatory afforestation the State Government hasalready afforested 343.02 sq.km.

The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India on 30.10.2002 hasordered (Writ Petition No.202/95 Godavaraman V/s. Unionof India) that the user agencies in addition to paying forthe compensatory afforestation shall also pay the netpresent value of forest land diverted for non-forestpurposes. The net present value is to be recovered at therate of Rs. 5.8 lakhs per hectare to Rs.9.2 lakhs per hectare

Number of forest offence cases bookedduring 1997-98 to 2001-02


Produce Unit 1976-80 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-2000Rose Wood Cum 10172 6533 5696 4333 2964Teak Cum 83528 33756 11012 6722 2769Sawn Wood Cum 33025 7664 1182 566 2346Other timber Cum 384852 171823 125093 54932 28620Plywood species Cum 140852 97286 25238 1173 NAPoles Ton 140796 79877 43298 40378 272881(Nos)Bamboos Ton 101507 177192 48948 25169 21882Sandal wood Ton 1711 1152 1275 783 287Fire wood Cum 1349692 769228 532788 231392 200724

Nature of Offence 1997-98 1989-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02

Sandalwood offence cases

722 724 727 668 885

Other Forest offence cases including timber smuggling.

23,775 22,355 20,912 18,467 17,819

Total 24,497 23,079 21,639 19,135 18,704

Sl. No. Purpose

Extent of area diverted from 1956 to 1980

(sq. km)

Extent of area diverted from 1981 to 2002

(sq. km)1 Irrigation Projects 350.27 9.19 2 Hydel Projects 160.92 51.75 3 Mining/quarrying Projects 426.72 43.39 4 Construction of Roads 3.16 0.17 5 Laying of transmission lines 12.05 8.81

6Other purposes (including diversion for agriculture, regularization of encroachments etc.)

962.51 228.23

Total 1,915.64 345.20

196


Care and Share

There has been a paradigm shift in the State’s policy from traditional approach of protection and management to participatoryapproach in management of forests. Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM) Policy has been adopted by the Statefrom 1993 to involve the people through VFCs in various aspects of forest protection, development and management.

Based on the experience gained in the last ten years the JFPM rules have been modified by providing high economicincentives to local people.

The JFPM scheme provides for sharing of the proceeds derived from the sale of forest produce between the Government andVFC. For non-timber forest produce this sharing is in the ratio of 90:10 between VFC and Government while for other forestproduce like fuel wood, fodder, small timber etc. the ratio is 75:25.

Government has also started a new tree patta scheme for protection, development and management of trees on roadsides,canal banks and other similar areas including urban areas. The scheme provides for sharing of forest produce between thebeneficiaries/ members/institutions and Forest Department.

As per the tree patta scheme, beneficiaries/ members/institutions are entitled to 100% usufruct. The final harvest is to beshared in the ratio of 75:25 between the beneficiaries/ members/institutions and the Government.

Afforestation under externally aided projects

1. Large-scale afforestation activities have been taken upunder various externally aided projects with emphasis onraising plantation on non-forest lands, community lands,etc. Special thrust has also been on farm forestry throughdistribution of seedlings to the farming community.

2. In the World Bank aided Social Forestry project, whichwas in operation from 1983-1989, the thrust was onafforestation of farmlands and community lands. Becauseof these initiatives, farm forestry gained momentum indistricts like Kolar, Bangalore Urban, Bangalore Rural,Mandya and Tumkur. These districts are now supplying 6lakh tons of pulpwood per year to paper and pulp industry,thus generating income to the tune of Rs. 48 crore in therural economy. This is in addition to the lops and tops,which are provided by these plantation for localconsumption.

3. Under the JBIC assisted project, afforestation was takenup in eastern plains, which are deficient in forest cover.Though it was initially mooted for period of 5 years startingfrom 1997-98, the project has been given an extension of3 years and will come to an end in 2004-05. Under thisproject 2 lakh hectares of degraded forest land,Government waste land, institutional land and road sideshave already been planted. In addition to this under farmforestry 21 crores of seedlings have been distributedcovering an area of 3 lakh hectares.

4. The JBIC project has been successful in involving peoplein the protection and management of forest and more than3,000 VFCs have already been formed under the project.

Degraded forest land

Rejenuvated forest land afterafforestation

Farm forestry

197

FOREST

Moving towards sustainable forest management

The basic concept of sustainable forest managementinvolves regeneration and sustainable harvest of timberand other forest produce to meet the local needs.However, in view of the State Government’s policiesbanning clear felling and green felling, introduced since1983 and 1990 respectively, logging activities, with theexception of obligatory fell ings necessitated bydevelopment projects with approval for diversions underthe Forest Conservation Act, have been by and largeconservative and restricted to salvaging of dead and fallenmaterial from the natural forest areas excluding theprotected areas. Felling of green trees was done only infuel wood plantations. All these operations were carriedout as per prescriptions of the approved Working Plans.

Working plan is a comprehensive document aimed atachieving continuity in management and development offorests. The working plan of a forest division provides foroverall working and management of the forests of thedivision. While preparing working plan, assessment ofboth the forest resources available and the needs of thepeople are taken into account and prescriptions formanagement are made to strike a balance between thetwo. These prescriptions also need to be consistent withthe principles of sustainable forest management to meetthe needs of the people.

The working plans were earlier written for periods rangingfrom 10 to 30 years and the State Government was thecompetent authority to approve these plans. However theHon’ble Supreme Court of India, in Order dated 12-12-1996 in W.P. No.202/95. Sri. T.N. GodavarmanThirumulakpad Vs. Union of India, directed that workingplans for all forest divisions shall be prepared by the StateGovernments and got approved from the Government ofIndia and that forest working shall be carried out strictlyin accordance with the approved prescriptions of theworking plans.

In view of the Supreme Court direction, revised workingplans have been prepared for all the thirty-seven forestdivisions of the State and approval for the same has beenobtained from Government of India. For the sake ofuniformity, all these working plans have been written fora period of ten years. Similarly management plans for allNational Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries have beenprepared and approved.

of forest land depending upon the density of the land inquestion converted for non-forest use. This will furtherhelp in preventing the diversion of forest land.

IMPACTS

Degradation of forests adversely affects the quality of air,the availability of water and soil fertility. The forests act asa source of life sustaining oxygen and as a sink for CO2

emissions through the process of carbon sequestration.Loss of forests has harmed the process, affecting thequality of air we breathe. Forest degradation has alsoresulted in the loss of productivity/fertility of the soil as theorganic content has been depleted.

Due to depletion of forest wealth the hydrological cycle ofthe landmass in the State is disturbed manifesting in theform of soil erosion, sedimentation, ground waterdepletion, accelerated water runoff, low infiltration, lowwater yield in the reservoirs and occasional floods.

Forest degradation has affected the bio-diversity of plantand animal species. Poor regeneration of species has ledto disturbances in the species composition and populationstructure. About 54 endemic species are now in the RET(Rare, Endangered and Threatened) category.

Encroachment of forestland and diversion of forestlandfor non forestry purposes has caused fragmentation offorest eco-system, loss of habitat, disturbance to wildanimals, loss of endemic species, etc.

The fragmentation of habitats has resulted in loss ofcorridors and traditional migratory routes of wild animalsand birds. One significant example is that of herds ofelephants straying on to agricultural fields causing cropdamage. The extension of cultivation towards forestboundaries is also a reason for the increase in man-animalconflict in recent years. Due to conservation activities thepopulation of wild animals has increased in the protectedareas but the extension of crop cultivation closer to theforest boundaries has aggravated the problem.

Landscape fragmentation has resulted in disturbances inthe ecological processes. Fragmentation leading to less

198


effective regeneration capacity of lands has resulted inthe reduction in the population size and composition ofboth plant and animal species. This in turn has resulted inthe loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding.

Loss of forest area, forest degradation, indiscriminateharvesting and unsustainable management practices arethe main causes of loss of non timber forest produce(NTFP) productivity.

Over grazing has suppressed growth of palatable foddergrass and other species leading to lands mostly coveredwith unpalatable species and weeds. Lantana camara andParthenium are such damaging alien weeds which haveinvaded large forest areas of the State resulting insuppression of natural regeneration of forests.

PRIORITISATION

Livestock grazing has become the highest priority factorcausing the degradation of forest land followed byincreasing fuel wood removal from forest and non-forestlands. Encroachement of forest areas is a problemprevalent throughout Karnataka. Habitat destruction and

absence of regulatory mechanism for common propertyresources recieve equal significance in the prioritisationexcersise and occupy the third and fourth placesrespectively.

ACTION PLAN

Sustainable Management of forests by adoptingscientifically accepted forest management practices

Removal of silviculturally mature trees from well-stockedforest as per Working Plan prescriptions is a scientificallyaccepted forest management practice. However theWorking Plans presently in operation have not prescribedfelling of mature green trees in natural forest because ofa policy ban on felling of green trees and not because ofsilvicultural considerations. The State Governmentreviewed the policy on green tree felling during 2002 andpermitted extraction of silviculturally mature trees fromadequately stocked deciduous forests provided WorkingPlans prescribe such extraction.

Action should therefore be taken to extract silviculturallymature trees from well-stocked deciduous forest (areas



Impact on Public

health



groups

Productivity loss

Impact on Critical

ecosystems

Irreversibility/ Reversibility

Urgency of the

problem Total

Increasing livestock grazing

3 5 4 4 5 4 4 29

Increasing fuelwood removal

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 28

Encroachment 2 5 4 5 5 4 3 28

Fragmentation of land and habitat destruction

3 4 4 4 4 4 4 27

Absence of regulatory mechanism of CPRs/river basins, gomal, mangrove etc

3 4 5 4 4 4 3 27

TOTAL 15 22 21 21 22 20 18 139

Problems

Socio- Economic /Ecological Impacts

199

FOREST

other than the protected areas) after revising the WorkingPlans and getting these approved.Protection and Consolidation of forest lands

Forest lands must be protected through boundaryconsolidation, survey, updating records, databasepreparation and development of GIS systems.

Protection of Common Property Resources (CPR)

a) Development of a comprehensive policy andinstitutional mechanism to manage the CPRs.

b) Development of good database and GIS maps tomonitor the land use and land cover.

c) Development of the CPRs on the sustainable basisthrough participatory approach involving the localcommunity.

d) Prevention of encroachment of the common propertyresources.

Protection of forest resources

The protection mechanism of the Forest Department needsto be further strengthened for which a number of steps,including filling up of the large number of frontlinevacancies, creation of more anti-poaching and anti-smuggling camps, mobile squads at vulnerable places,etc. need to be taken up.

Linking the farming system to forest developmentprogrammes

The proportion of marginal and small land holdings is veryhigh in the State, which is indicative of the State’s smallfarm based economy. Thus there is a need to link thefarming system to the forest development programmesso as to supplement the low incomes derived from thefarms with other income generating sources.

Encouragement to devices that help in reducingpressure on forests

Popularization of energy saving devices like Astraole,smokeless improved chulas and alternate energy sourceslike gobar gas, LPG, solar energy, etc. need to be done to

not only to reduce the pressure on forest but also to reduceindoor air pollution.Reducing the grazing pressure on forest

Stall-feeding should be encouraged in areas where grazingpressure is high. Number of non-productive cattle needsto be reduced through improved animal husbandrypractices. Fodder resources are to be developed inwastelands, gomals and kavals of animal husbandrydepartment. Mixed plantation of fodder trees and foddergrass can be raised in degraded forestlands near villages.

Development of forest resources

The existing forest resources of the State should bedeveloped in terms of area, productivity and quality throughvarious means such as eco-restoration of degraded foreststhrough natural regeneration, enrichment planting in thegaps to restore the tree cover and bio-diversity andintensive planting in open, degraded forest lands.Adequate provision should be made for regeneration ofareas after harvest of older plantations. The resourcedevelopment measures should also include operations likethinning of teak plantations, decongestion of bamboo,climber cutting, tending and soil and water conservation.

Enhancing the forest and tree cover

a) Agro-forestry and farm forestry should be taken up inthe private lands by supporting tree planting on privatelands through distribution of seedlings. This will notonly help in meeting the fuel wood and fodderrequirements but also help in achieving the target ofcovering 33% of the geographical area of the Statewith forest and tree cover.

b) The social forestry program should remain a coreforestry program to bring in additional area, speciallythe non forest government land, under tree coverthrough integration of all employment oriented ruraldevelopment programs and land-based activities suchas watershed, agriculture and animal husbandryprogrammes.

c) The tree felling permission of plantation trees and thefast growing species needs to be reviewed periodicallyto rationalize the rules and to promote tree cultivation

200


in the State. Exemptions from transit passes to somemore species which are not generally found in naturalforests would create interest to grow more trees inprivate lands.

Conserving biodiversity in and outside Protected Areas

a) Protected Areas (PAs) need to be developed assacrosanct areas reserved only for wild lifeconservation by carrying out where necessaryeffective relocation and rehabilitation of people.

b) Identification, conservation and development ofdegraded areas outside the present national park andsanctuary where endemic or localized threatenedspecies are found needs to be done immediately.

Management of forests through people’s participation

a) Issues like enlarging the scope of JFPM to cover highdensity forests, JFPM in protected areas through ecodevelopment committees, involvement of people’srepresentatives etc. need to be addressed.

b) All villages, which have some or other dependenceon forests, need to be covered under JFPM.

c) More focus has to be given on participatory microplanning by following bottom up planning approach.Besides, the existing VFCs are to be strengthenedand made sustainable.

Sustainable management of Non Timber ForestProduce (NTFP) species

a) Development of management strategies to regenerateand sustainably harvest Non Timber Forest produce(NTFP) species needs to be done.

b) The Herbal value of NTFP needs to be sustainablyexploited. There is also need to create awareness inall the stake holders regarding value addition of theseNTFP which will help forest dwellers in getting betterremuneration, leading them to harvest their resourcesustainably.

Conservation and Management of Medicinal Plantresources

Medicinal plants resources are to be conserved in thenatural forests and the cultivation on the private holdingsare to be encouraged.a) Medicinal plant conservation program need to be

based on the principle of “conservation-with-community-participation”.

Strengthening forestry research

a) Development of a research agenda that is adaptiveand responsive to the needs of various end userswhile developing a better understanding of the uniqueecological and socio-economic processes in theWestern Ghats and other forests of the State.

b) Promotion of participatory mode of addressingresearch needs and designing cost-effective ways ofaddressing them whose main emphasis will be onestablishing linkages with research users and toeffectively disseminate the research results.

c) The focus of the research wing of forest departmentneeds to be on supply of quality planting material tofarmers through identification of candidate plus tree,seeds stand, etc., and development of appropriatepropagation techniques.

201

URBAN PLANNING

URBAN PLANNING

An important aspect often forgotten in planning of types isour environment

-Anonymous

202


URBAN PLANNING

Current Status

Problems

Impacts

Trends

Projections

Action Plan

203

URBAN PLANNING


Some of the initiatives taken in urban planning in the stateare noteworthy, since these incorporate environmentaldimensions to urban growth and the quality of life. Four suchnoteworthy initiatives are listed here:

Plans to use Remote Sensing Maps in urban planning.Currently such maps are being developed for a few majorcities, including Bangalore, Mysore and Mangalore.The new Building Bye-laws (2003) of the BangaloreMahanagara Palike, have provided guidelines for exterioropen space, solar water heating and parking based ondifferent characteristics (e.g. width and depth of site) ofbuildings whether residential, commercial or public.The Bangalore Development Authority, in particular, hasbeen developing urban infrastructure and providing sites.Substantial increase in area under the guidelines forparks and open spaces. Fifteen percent of total plan areais now to be incorporated as parks / green areas.For the first time, heritage buildings have been definedin the amendment made in February 2004 to theKarnataka Town and Country Planning Act, 1964.The state government has constituted a Park Authorityto oversee the maintenance and development ofLalbagh, Cubbon Park and Freedom Park.

Legislations on urban planning

The Town Planning Department is responsible for urbanplanning and the Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act1961 forms the comprehensive legal framework for urbanplanning of the state. The Act’s statement of objectivesspecifies that “Physical planning with co-ordinated effort on alarge scale is necessary if the people are to live in a better,healthier and happier environment”. The statement alsoincludes the responsibility:

To preserve and improve existing recreational facilities andother amenities contributing towards balanced use of land.To direct the future growth of populated areas in the statewith a view to ensuring desirable standards ofenvironmental health and hygiene and creating facilitiesfor the orderly growth of industries and commerce, thereby promoting general standards of living in the state.

Other legislations on urban planningKarnataka Municipalities Act, 1964Karnataka Slum Clearance Area Act, 1974Bangalore Development Authority Act, 1976Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act, 1976Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development AuthorityAct, 1985Karnataka Urban Development Authorities Act, 1987

CURRENT STATUS

Karnataka has a good tradition in urban planning butimportant aspects of the environment have not beenincorporated as key elements in the legislations pertainingto urban planning. Ideally, urban planning should followthe regional planning (i.e. economic and physical planning)exercise. In particular, the ‘Statement of Object andReasons’ of the Karnataka Town and Country PlanningAct, 1961, clearly indicates that “Physical planning has toprecede economic planning as otherwise cities, towns andvillages in our country will grow to unmanageable sizeswithout proper planning resulting in unhealthysurroundings”. vbIn recent years, however, regionalplanning has not been conducted for the state.

The Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act 1961makes provision for the preparation of two types of plans.An interim plan called Outline Development Plan (section12 of the Act) in the first instance, followed by a detailedComprehensive Development Plan (section 21 of the Act).The Karnataka Planning Authority Rules, 1965(subsequently amended in 1976, 1977, 1980, 1986 and1988) lists out the details of reports to be prepared andsurveys to be carried out for a ComprehensiveDevelopment Plan in Rules 41 and 42.

It is noteworthy that at no stage of planning isenvironmental assessment or estimation of likelyenvironmental damages and mitigation methods a part ofthe long term urban planning. Such a system requires adetailed understanding and study of hydrologicalcharacteristics of the region, air circulation patterns, studyof ecological characteristics, etc. Similarly at the time ofthe preparation of town planning schemes, sometimesinvolving huge residential development, Environmentalimpact assessment is not prepared even on an informalbasis if not according to the rigour of Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests recommendations. The mainreasons probably are the absence of legal requirements /guidelines and absence of trained manpower/ andfacilities. The Urban Development Department/ PlanningAuthorities prepare the schemes based on planningstandards including accommodation, accessibility,affordability, safety, density standards, etc. Thus there is

204


competitive advantages of regions to attract investment,and regional migration trends based on hierarchy ofsettlements. As investment potential of an area is notcomprehensively assessed, and only a land allocation anduse prescription is made, the actual growth rarely followsthe original assumptions and infringements of regulationsare common.

Development plans and coverage of urban population

Source: Town Planning Department, December 2002.‘Total’ includes two areas that are not towns, viz., Bangalore Mysore InfrastructureCorridor and Bangalore International Airport area.

Urban planning in Karnataka

The Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act, 1961 providesfor a three-tier system of urban planning. This includes theOutline Development Plan for the local planning area which isprepared first. Outline Development Plan broadly indicates theproposed zoning of land use for residential, commercial,industrial, recreational, educational and other public purposes,proposed circulation pattern and a set of zoning regulations.Then the Comprehensive Development Plan is preparedindicating therein the comprehensive zoning of land usetogether with zoning regulations, complete street pattern,improvements to existing road patterns, reservation of areasfor public purpose such as parks, playgrounds and otherrecreational uses, public buildings, institutions, areas forhousing, etc. Finally, the town planning schemes are preparedfor the planning area for implementation of the proposals ofComprehensive Development Plan. This is a time consumingprocess which takes nearly 20 years.

The Karnataka State Legislature has passed an amendmentto the above mentioned Act in February 2004 to do away withComprehensive Development Plan and Outline DevelopmentPlan. The amended provision prescribes preparation MasterPlan by all the Planning Authorities in one stage. Added to thisthere is provision for Interim Master Plan pending preparationof the Master Plan for regulating land use pattern and roadpattern. Further there is a time limit of one year for preparationof Master Plan. Another very important feature is that it ismandatory to revise the Master Plan once in every ten years.

some effort to create a good urban environment andoptimum use of valuable agricultural land, in lieu of thelegal environmental guidelines.

PROBLEMS

Environmental problems associated with urban planningcan be broadly classified under two categories, namely,strategic planning and urban management. Theenvironmental problems associated with urban growth andmanagement include urban sprawl, damage due toconstruction activities (in planned versus unplannedsettlements), threat to the cultural heritage, andinadequacies in the provision of basic environmentalamenities in the urban areas (underground drainage,waste water treatment facilities and solid waste disposalsites).

The two major plans prepared for urban planning, namelyOutline Development Plan and ComprehensiveDevelopment Plan, do not have explicit environmentalcomponents nor an environmental master plan. Althoughthere are guidelines on the proportion of land to be usedfor various purposes like residential, parks and openspaces, etc., environmental planning per se is missing. Aproblem map, though prepared, as a part of thedevelopment plan, explicit environmental components arenot addressed. But it considers items such as theavailability and use of land (factors like slums, marshylands and low-lying areas are included) rather than all theenvironmental components. A study map covering theclimatological aspects like predominant winddirection, rainfall and temperature variationis prepared, and for proposed industrialareas consideration of treatment of industrialwastes/ effluent and nearby natural lakesand reservoirs, etc. are included; but thestudy maps does not cover all ecologicalcharacteristics.

The physical Comprehensive DevelopmentPlan is based on conventional time seriespopulation projection, and is not a part ofthe regional plan exercise. Thus theComprehensive Development Plan does notconsider the resource base, impact of

Type of Plan No. of towns

Total 2001 population

% of state urban

populationRevised Comprehensive Development Plan Bangalore 1 5,686,844 32

Revised Comprehensive Development Plan 7 2,754,010 15

Comprehensive Development Plan 21 3,621,106 20

Outline Development Plan 48 3,046,559 17 Outline Development Plan ongoing 28 1,438,510 8

Total 105 16,547,029 92

205

URBAN PLANNING

The whole planning process is affected due to lack of basemaps, since up-to-date base maps of urban areas coveringthe local planning area are not available. Moreover, theavailable base maps for the conurbation areas do not havethe desired details or accuracy required for urban planning.

Presently base maps for the conurbation area are beingprepared by the traditional civil engineering surveymethods. However, remote sensing maps are beingdeveloped for the three cities of Bangalore, Mysore andMangalore, where the aerial surveys have been conductedbut the maps are awaited by the Town PlanningDepartment from the National Remote Sensing Agency,Hyderabad.

The pressure of growing urban population results indemand for additional land, which may result in using upagricultural land on the periphery of urban areas. Due tothis, the average trip distances will increase, leading tomore pressure on the city centre and associated problemsof infrastructure will increase in the environs of city centre.The local authorities, which are financially constrained,are unable to take up redevelopment schemes in the corearea or allow high-density areas with adequate road widthand urban services.

Planning with high-density areas, however, also dependson social aspects and cannot be adopted in all categoriesof towns. During the preparation of the OutlineDevelopment Plan and Comprehensive Development Planthe Town Planning Department does provide for high-density areas in a few locations of a city.

The high pressure on land is attributable to planned low-density sprawl. As a policy guideline, 125 persons perhectare is used as a planning criterion in Karnataka forassessment of land requirement irrespective of the citysize. This is based on the Urban Development PlanningFormulation and Implementation Guidelines 1996 from theMinistry of Urban Affairs, which recommends 80 to 125persons per hectare for different types of cities. Thus evenfor a fast growing city like Bangalore this low densityguideline of 125 persons per hectare is adopted.

As a guideline, 50 percent of urban land use is reserved

for residential purposes, and as a characteristic almosthalf the urban households in Karnataka live in independenthouses. This preference for low density housing cannotbe sustained given the trend in population growth in thecities.

The deficiency in affordable housing makes theeconomically poorer sections of the population move tothe periphery of the cities. Certain sections of the migratoryurban population do not like to live in the periphery of thecity and seek accommodation nearer to city centres/workplaces. This results in higher density (but low rise)settlements and/or conversion of land uses like waterbodies, borders of roads and railway lines and open spacesinto housing activities. The change in the land use fromgreen belt associated activities to urban activities on theperiphery of the city then affects the hydrologicalcharacteristics and hence the environment of the urbanareas.

With population migrating to urban settlements in searchof improved economic levels, the first pressure is onhousing leading to the high land costs or prevailing highrents in urban areas thus leading to illegal occupancy ofvacant / public land through huts which over a period oftime develops into a slum. Such housing does not haveany basic amenity like light, water or toilet facilities andconsequently affects environment in the immediatesurroundings. Migration into urban Karnataka had beenmost significant in the district of Bangalore (accountingfor 26.2 percent of total urban migration in the state),followed by Dharwad (9.6 percent),) Belgaum (7.5 percent)and Mysore (6.3 percent) as per the Census 1991 data

The high land costs and inability of planning authorities toprovide adequate land at cheap prices result in theformation of unplanned /illegal layouts. Agricultural landzoned for residential land use in the master plans are oftensubdivided into plots and sold by owners withoutpermission from the concerned planning authorities(violating Section 95 of Karnataka Land Revenue Act, 1964and Section 17 of the Town and Country Planning Act,1961 – permission for conversion from agriculture to non-agriculture and approval of layouts). In case, the areafalls under an Urban Development Authority, then a third

206


legislation is violated in the process of illegal land use,namely Section 32 of the Karnataka Urban DevelopmentAuthorities Act, 1987. Thus three pieces of legislationtypically get violated in the growth of illegal layouts.

The purchaser of the agricultural land typically puts up astructure and begins residing in it. The illegal layoutstypically do not have adequate open spaces, access roadswill be too narrow and provision for water supply or sewagesystem or for garbage collection will be absent. No taxesare levied or paid. Such sites called as ‘revenue sites’ area common phenomenon in urban areas. The ownershipof land is legal in this case, the usage many times correct,but change of land use is illegal and layout formation andconstruction of houses illegal.

Absence of provision of water and sewage system by thestate (due to illegal nature of these sites and construction)forces people to draw usage of ground water and use soakpits for toilet activities, thus affecting the environment. Ithas been observed that the users of revenue sites are notthe fresh migrants to urban areas but people who havestayed in urban areas and have saved certain amount ofmoney and want to improve their living conditions.

Migration to urban areas in Karnataka bydistrict, 1991 (in ‘000)

Source: Karnataka Census 1991 (Census 2001 data on migrationis not available), and authors’ calculation.Note: The data pertains to population, both rural and urban, thatmigrated to urban centres in Karnataka.

Muni Madara Oni, Bijapur

Before

AfterDevelopment

Tippunagar, Shimoga

Slum development programmes

District Total Migration

% share in state total

Bangalore 1,198 26 Bangalore Rural 69 2 Belgaum 345 8 Bellary 181 4 Bidar 68 2 Bijapur 246 5 Chikkamagalur 74 2 Chitradurga 214 5 Dakshina Kannada 243 5 Dharwad 441 10 Gulbarga 171 4 Hassan 124 3 Kodagu 40 1 Kolar 163 4 Mandya 106 2 Mysore 290 6 Raichur 134 3 Shimoga 212 5 Tumkur 159 4 Uttara Kannada 97 2 Total 4,573 100

207

URBAN PLANNING

Map showing the growth of Bangalore city from the year 1537 to 2001

208


The current shortage in housing of the urban populationis acute, with households crowded in insufficient spacewithin their homes and shortage of affordable housing hasalso led to increase in slums. According to the Census2001 data on housing, by far the largest number ofhouseholds living in one room or two roomaccommodations in Karnataka was in the district ofBangalore. Planning and providing adequate housing tothe growing urban population of the state with conventionalmaterials, preference for owning single family independentdwelling in the state have significant environmental impact.The conventional use of timber for doors and windowsrather than plastic, glass and steel, and the lack ofinformation on low cost and durable housing using newmaterials (with acceptable architectural styles based onlocal preference) to the masses further aggravates theproblem.

The slum population in Karnataka has been growing at ahigh rate and the living conditions in slums are poorespecially in terms of access to basic services. In termsof distribution of slum population across the state, thehighest proportion is found in Bangalore City.

The overall living conditions in slums in North Karnatakaare worse than in the slums of South Karnataka. Twosurveys conducted in slums indicate the deficiencies inthe provision of basic infrastructural and environmentalservices in slums in Karnataka. The Government ofKarnataka report on the evaluation of the programme ofEnvironmental Improvement of Urban Slums covered 23slums, 14 of which were from Bangalore and 9 in Hubli-Dharwad.

According to the report, of the fourteen slums in theBangalore urban and rural districts, two slums are fullycovered with water supply i.e. for every 150 persons onetap is provided. In the rest of the slums water supply ispartial. Of the nine slums in Hubli-Dhrwad, only five arefully covered with water supply. Whether these taps hadrestricted hours during which water is supplied is not clear.Street lights at the rate of one pole for every 30 meterswas provided in nine slums in Bangalore and urbandistricts and for five in Hubli-Dharwad district.

The Schedule III of the Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000,specifies that the selection of landfill sites (with a life of20-25 years) shall be based on examination ofenvironmental issues. Also, the Department of UrbanDevelopment is to co-ordinate with the concernedorganisations for obtaining the necessary approvals andclearances. The landfill site has to be away from habitationclusters, forest areas, water bodies, monuments, NationalParks, Wetlands and places of important cultural, historicalor religious interest. Moreover, as per the Rules “a bufferzone of no-development shall be maintained around landfillsite and shall be incorporated in the Town PlanningDepartment’s land-use plans” (Schedule III.9).

There exists severe deficiency in the provision of basicurban infrastructure in terms of underground drainage andwastewater collection and treatment which pose severeenvironmental and health problems. This problem canbe linked to the lack of planning in new residential layoutsin urban Karnataka that has led to human settlementswithout proper sewerage system.

Most of the wastewater generated (by volume) comes fromthe domestic sector which is about 97 percent in Class Icities and 100 percent in Class II cities. There is deficit inthe collection of sewage (due to incomplete provision ofdrainage network) in cities, as well as in the treatmentcapacity of the wastewater collected. As per the report ofthe high power committee for redressal of regionalimbalances, 2002, the underground drainage facilities

Houses constructed by various agencies from2000-01 to Aug 2003

Agencies NumbersRajiv Gandhi Rural Housing Corporation Limited 542,062

Grameen Awas Yojana - Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Department

120,610

Pradhan Mantri Grameen Yojana - Grameen Awas Yojana -Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Department

7,448

Matsya Ashraya - Fisheries Department 4,685 Karnataka Slum Clearance Board 21,748 Karnataka Housing Board 187 Total 696,740

209

URBAN PLANNING

have been provided by Karnataka Urban Water Supplyand Drainage Board in 36 cities, while work is in progressin 19 other towns, 162 towns are not covered under thedrainage system as yet.

In Bangalore, the sewerage system is sometimes notconnected to trunk sewers (termed “missing link”) ofBangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, andmunicipal effluents get into natural drains leading to tanks

and lakes. This has led to the increasing deterioration ofwater quality of the natural lakes and tanks in the urbancentres. Some other cities in the state like Hubli-Dharwad,Belgaum, Davanagere do not even have a provision fortreatment plant.

Lakes and tanks support a fragile ecosystem, and helprecharge the ground water table besides providing surfacewater for a variety of uses including nature recreational

View of the restored Vengiahana kere in Bangalore

Satellite imagery showing three major lake valley systems of Bangalore

210


sites within cities. Lakes and tanks in andaround the cities have been polluted withdomestic sewage, dumping of garbage,industrial effluents, and immersion of idols.This negligence of the natural drainagesystem while planning new layouts isanother important cause behind theimproper drainage abusing the tanks andlakes of the state. The shortage of housingand availability of dried up lakes in primespots of urban areas and poor policing ofunauthorized occupancy have led tohousing activity in tank beds.

In South Karnataka the problem isaggravated by the fact that most of thetanks are chain tanks such that the sewagelet into one tank spills over to the othertanks. Sewage flows into small tanks,typically resulting in choking of tanks andare consequently prime areas ofacquisition for construction purposes sometimes legally and sometimes illegally. Historical tanks suchas Kempambudhi in Bangalore, Dalvai, Doddakere andJivanrayanakatte in Mysore, Doddakere in Tumkur, areall examples to this.

In some cities like Bangalore, Mysore, Tumkur andChitradurga, the natural drainage connecting several tankshas been neglected and roads and other structures havebeen built across the natural drainage without taking intoconsideration the drainage capacity and its potentialcontribution. Consequently, city streets are flooded duringthe monsoon.

Another problem associated with urban areas in the stateis the lack of adequate lung space in terms of parks andopen spaces. In smaller towns this problem appears tobe acute, as local bodies lack the financial capability tomanage these spaces. Further, it can be stated that in thebigger cities the open spaces are used as dumping sitesor and encroached upon by service providingorganisations or religious organisations. The general lackof appreciation of the importance of open spaces is a verycommon scenario in all urban areas.

Commercial Street in Bangalore

Old building ofVictoria hospital

Some instances of lakes and tanks lost with urbandevelopment

Glimpses of vintage Bangalore

City Urban structure Former lake/ tank

Football stadium Shoolay lakeHockey stadium Akkithimmanhalli lakeSports stadium Sampangi lakeCity bus stand Dharmanbudhi lakeKGA Golf Course Challaghatta lakeResidential layout & Sports Complex Koramangala lake

Space department Nagashettihalli lakeAmbedkar Medical college Kadugondanahalli lake

BDA layout Domlur lakeResidential layout Millers lakeResidential layout Subhashnagar lakeResidential layout Kurubarahalli lakeResidential layout Kodihalli lakeResidential layout Sinivaigalu lakeResidential layout Marenahalli lake

Playground, Bus stand Shivanahalli lake

Hassan Bus stand TankExhibition Ground Dhoddakere TankOpen Space Subrayanakere lake

Mysore

Bangalore

211

URBAN PLANNING

The norm for parks and open spaces is 15 percent of totalland use, but not only one major town Rabakavi-Banahatti,Bagalkot or city in Karnataka meets this criterion in existingland use at the time plans were prepared! The four townsof Gokak (Belgaum), Sindagi (Bijapur), Dharwad(Dharwad) and Malavalli (Mandya) have double-digitproportion of the land use as parks and open spaces, at14.9 percent, 11.91 percent, 12.8 percent and 10.48percent respectively. These towns also have more thanone hectare of parks/ open space per 1000 population.Among the larger cities, only Dharwad falls in this category,with 1.3 hectare/1000 population.

It is pertinent to note here that that planning interventionin the existing human settlements of the state for has beenundertaken only during the past 2 to 3 decades, while thesesettlements have grown over a much longer period. Thus,planning standards are unlikely to hold for these olderexisting urban settlements and only can be useful in theplanning of new townships.

Private or illegal housing colonies as well as constructionof urban structures in the site areas have threatened sitesof historical and cultural heritage in Karnataka.

The Archaeological Survey of India has been maintainingthe monuments at Hampi after they were declared as

protected in the year 1921. In November 1986, the WorldHeritage Committee of United Nations Education, Socialand Cultural Organisation declared the group ofmonuments at Hampi as a world heritage site! In 1999,when the review of the United Nations Education, Socialand Cultural Organisation report on the Hampi monumentsat the World Heritage Committee session, it was observedthat two large scale two way bridges for vehicular trafficand the second footbridge within the protected areas werethreatening the integrity of the heritage site. Subsequently,the Hampi site was declared as World Heritage in Danger.The constructions of two bridges were to be halted, andcorrective measures undertaken to remove the threatsfacing the site and no further unplanned development wereto be allowed in the Hampi area.

A taskforce constituted by the Government of Karnatakato devise long-term measures to save the Hampi siterecommended relocation of the two bridges. Theconstructions of the two bridges were stopped. A largenumber of unauthorised encroachments in the Hampi site(about 150 near Krishna Temple, Uddanavaraha, Bhadra,Chandikeswara and Pattabhirama Temples) wereremoved. More recently in March 2003, the legislative

Green spaces in Bangalore city

The largest land use under the category of ‘park and openspace’ area among all the cities in the state can be found inBangalore (2132.16 hectares). In Bangalore the area underparks and open space constitutes about 7.5 percent of totalland use, implying the availability of 0.52 hectares per 1000population. A study on Bangalore City noted that there are370 parks and public gardens. Unfortunately, most of theseare poorly maintained. The problem of irregular clearing ofgarbage seems most predominant (in about 270 parks/gardens), besides the problems of public nuisance (in 97)and illegal parking (in 35) in these open green spaces. On anaverage, there is a park for every 16,220 residents of the city,but this seems reasonable. The topographical distribution ofthese parks/ open spaces is highly uneven since most of theparks are concentrated in certain localities within the city.

“Due to rapid urbanization many old tiled buildings, bungalowswith their gardens and a variety of large flowering and fruitingtrees, have been lost. These have given way to a steadyaddition of tall concrete structures and the resultant loss ofprivate open spaces, with their rich vegetation and fauna.”.

Under the environmental legislation of The Environment (Sitingfor Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999, new units of pollutingindustries are not allowed to be set up within 7 km peripheryof the important archaeological monuments including are tenfrom the state of Karnataka. This legislation provides forprotection of heritage sites from industrial pollution.

Monuments in Karnataka specified in Environment(Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999

Locality District Name of Monument

Aihole Bagalkot Durga Temple Complex

Badami Bagalkot Jain and Vishnu Caves

Bangalore Bangalore Tipu Sultan PalaceBijapur Bijapur Gol GumbazBijapur Bijapur Ibrahim RouzeChitadurga Chitradurga Fortress and temples

on the hillHampi Bellary Group of TemplesPattadakal Bagalkot Group of TemplesSomnathpura Mysore Sri Kesava TempleSrirangapatna Mysore Daria Daulat Bagh

212


assembly passed the bill entitled The Hampi WorldHeritage Area Management Authority Bill, 2002.

Encroachments of illegally constructed houses in old fortsare also evident in Srirangapatna, Bijapur, Chitradurga,Gulbarga, and Raichur. Sometimes stones from the fortsare removed for construction purposes. In Raichur, thelocation of a bus stand within the fort area has alsocontributed to the fort’s degeneration. Besides illegalconstruction within cultural sites, urban waste is alsoopenly dumped in and around these sites, degrading theenvirons. In Bijapur, the moat around the fort evenreceives the sewerage of the town habitation.

CAUSES

The rapid growth in urban population in the state has beendriven by both push and pull factors. The absence of basicamenities/ facilit ies and the lack of employmentopportunities in rural areas act as push factors driving awaythe population from rural areas as well as small urbansettlements. On the other hand, the perceived presenceof such facilities in larger urban settlements acts as thepull factor leading to the migration of rural population intothe urban areas.

The inadequate co-ordination between variousdepartments, lack of financial and technical resources(coupled with the inability of some users to pay even theminimum user charges to maintain the system) are thereasons behind the deficit in the provision of basic services.The implementation of 74th constitution amendment of1992 was expected to improve the functioning of the urbanlocal bodies since it provides autonomy to the urban localbodies in planning and management, and also supportsindependent financing options to urban local bodies.

The Comprehensive Development Plan preparedaccording to the Town and Country Planning Act does notmandate an Environmental management plan as a legalrequirement, nor are Environmental impact assessmentsprepared for large-scale residential layouts or major cityextensions, as it is not a legal mandate. Moreover, theTown and Country Planning Department and UrbanDevelopment Authorities and Planning Authorities are

short staffed and do not have specialists in environmentalengineering/planning in their staff.

The general norm used in the Town Planning Departmentassumes a requirement of about 125 persons per hectareas the gross density for the calculation of conurbation.Moreover the tedious legal and administrative proceduresfor land acquisition and the poor financial status hasdissuaded Urban Development Authorities with theexception of Bangalore in acquiring land and developingnew layouts and carrying out other development alactivities.

One of the most important causes is the non-availabilityof affordable housing sites or houses (physical constraint).Second is the financial constraint of urban households,which pushes them to take non-residential plots forhousing construction, or live in poor-quality houses or evenslums, as the case may be. Since urban land is relativelyexpensive for the lower and middle-income groups,agricultural sites are built on without authorisation, whilethose below the poverty line move into slums.

The problem of revenue sites has assumed vastproportions on the periphery of Bangalore, and it isestimated that the area under revenue sites in theBangalore Metropolitan area is 3000 to 45000 squarekilometers, i.e. 5 to 7 times the urban agglomeration areacovered by the 1991 Census. In effect, there is a parallelillegal city co-existing with the legal city.

The improper underground drainage has been caused byincomplete construction of the sewerage system, whichshould have been considered as a priority issue in urbaninfrastructure. Illegal settlements are not provided thedrainage facility, the sewerage system is sometimes notconnected to the trunk sewers and the untreated effluentscontaminate the surface water (in lakes and tanks) as wellas ground water. Finally the deliberate use of tanks bythe planning authorities/urban local bodies for theconstruction of other urban structures has resulted in thepermanent loss of some of the fresh water tanks.

Historical growth of the city ignored the significancemaintaining parks and open spaces. Thus, the older parts

213

URBAN PLANNING

of the city of Bangalore are completely built up and it isunlikely that land can be released for parks/open spaces.In comparison, the new extensions of a major city likeBangalore has more designated space for parks and greenareas. A second cause of the lack of parks and openspace is the inability of the development authorities toacquire and maintain such space due to their financialconstraint.

IMPACTS

The environmental impacts of the problems associatedwith urban planning and growth are listed below:• ground water contamination due to soak pits and

improper drainage system near open wells,• decrease in groundwater recharge due to increasing

surface runoff due to paved areas,• polluting surface water bodies like tanks by the letting

sewage into the lakes,• health problems due to uncollected garbage strewn

around,

• health problems due to crowding of families in one-room or two-room houses,

• increase in temperatures due to radiation frombuildings and paved roads (heat islands), andinadequate tree cover to counter this rise intemperature. Air circulation is also reduced due tothe dense residential development and loss ofvegetation/tree cover,

Urbanization has been accompanied by disruption andsometimes destruction of fragile ecosystems, including

Change in biodiversity with urbanisation

The growth of concrete structures in a city like Bangalore hasoften taken place in areas that formerly held green cover orlakes and tanks. Consequently some bird species like theLesser Florican, Great Indian Bustard, Sandgrouse andothers, have been lost, while others like the Babblers, residentShrikes, Red headed Merlin, Red Starts and Sparrows, havebeen driven out of the city environs. The loss of these birdshas been replaced by wetland bird species (addition of marshhabitats) and those that adapt to urban structures well, likethe Blue Rock Pigeons.

Urban Green Belt in Karnataka

A Green Belt is land area predominantly for agricultural use, meant to check the haphazard and uncontrolled growth of the cityas well as to prevent neighbouring town/ settlements from merging into one another. Moreover, the Green Belt is also supposedto serve as local food production area and also function as a sink for air pollution generated from urban activities (industries,vehicles). I.e. the concept of a Green Belt is meant to provide for healthy environmental conditions to a city. The main legislationfor urban planning in Karnataka, namely the Town and Country Planning Act 1961, however, does not have any provision toclassify land as Green Belt in the Outline Development Plan or Comprehensive Development Plan. The Department hassuggested a set of new guidelines to identify certain lands within a Local Planning Area to declare it as Green Belt under theKarnataka Land Revenue Act, 1964, such that these lands can be permanently maintained as open space in and around anurban area. The Town and Country Planning Act does provide for identification of lands to be used as parks/ open spaces andearmarking certain lands (beyond conurbation limit but within the Local Planning Area) as agricultural zone, and within theagricultural zone certain areas can be further notified as Green Belt (under the Land Revenue Act). The Town PlanningDepartment has so far notified green belts for only three cities of Bangalore, Bidar and Mandya.

The task of delineation of the limits of the green belt is difficult, since it presupposes the determination of the size and growthrates of a city which depend upon several factors beyond the control of the city planner and the city administrator (like regionaland national economic growth rates). Since urban development and growth is a dynamic phenomenon, typically the growth ofa city/ town cannot be confined to a notified area. For instance, in case of Bangalore under the 1972 Outline Development Planthe planning area was 500 square kilometers (220square kilometers conurbation and 280 square kilometers agriculturalzone), and in the 1984 Comprehensive Development Plan the planning area was increased to 1279 square kilometers (439square kilometers conurbation and 840 square kilometers agricultural zone), but in 1995 the demarcation for conurbation and“green belt” was revised to 597 square kilometers and 682 square kilometers to accommodate the growth of the city.

Encroachments in the green belt are also common as rural tracts urbanise. Some of the peripheral expansion is illegal andunauthorised, and the 1999 Task Force Report on the Bangalore Green Belt, documented of such construction and layoutsfound in the Bangalore Green Belt area. Given the difficulty in managing an urban green belt, experts have suggested that thegreen belt should be developed with proper parks, open spaces, or forestry, rather than allowing irregular cultivation or leavingbarren areas.

Source: Town Planning Department and Task Force Report on the Bangalore Green Belt, 1999.

214


water bodies and as surface water bodies and groundwatertables decline, the green cover with its accompanying lifesupport system is adversely affected.

The construction of residential and non-residentialbuildings (schools, hospitals) and developmental activityof constructing access roads and infrastructure provisioncreate increased demand on items like cement, steel,bricks and stone, timber, etc. Moreover, the environmentalpressures while such construction is going on are in termsof vehicle movements, dust, water requirement,contamination, noise etc. Places where constructionworkers stay and the environs in that region also getsaffected temporarily. Once the construction is over andnormal land use activities start, the requirements andwaste generated by this population puts newenvironmental pressures. These problems have beenobserved more recently in the city of Bangalore, wheredebris from construction work has increased particulateair pollution, and constricted road space causes trafficcongestion.The increased movements of heavy vehicles carryingconstruction material like trucks and lorries, and concretemixtures during the peak hours have also caused trafficsnarls, eg. along southern part of ring road, BannerghattaRoad, and Airport Road, where heightened constructionactivity has taken place.

TRENDS

Urban planning should specifically address the issues ofpressure on natural resources and increases pollution andwastes while making physical plans. The definition of urbanarea as per the Census, 2001 includes all places with a

Urban Population by classification of Towns in Karnataka, 2001 and theprojections for 2011

municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notifiedtown area committee, etc. and all other places which havea minimum population of 5000, at least 75 per cent ofmale main workers engaged in non-agricultural pursuits;and a density of population of at least 400 persons persquare kilometere qualify to be termed as urban areas.Thus, one may find an anomaly of small habitations with5000 population being considered as urban areas, whilehabitats having large population of sometimes 20000 to30000 persons not being considered in this report.

During 1991-2001, the population growth in urbanKarnataka has been higher than that in the rural areas.The urban population increased by 40,12,070, muchhigher than the rural population increase of 37,44,687during the said period. The ratio of urban to ruralpopulation growth in the state (1.071) is higher than thenational average (0.600). This indicates that urbanisationhas a strong foothold and the trend is towards anincreasing rate in Karnataka. Among the 27 districts inthe state, the extent of urbanisation (proportion of urbanto total district population) is highest in Bangalore Urban(88 percent), followed by Dharwad (55 percent), DakshinaKannada (38.4 percent), Mysore (36.9 percent) and Gadag(35.2 percent). In other districts the urban population isless than 35 percent.

It is noteworthy that through the last two decades,Bangalore has continued to be the most urbanised district,followed by Dharwad. Interestingly, these two districts alsohave the highest proportion of in-migration taking place.The growth pattern of towns of various classes between1991 to 2001 (in terms of the percentage decadal growth)

Urban Population

% Share of urban

Population

Urban Population

% Share of urban

PopulationI lakh or more Class I 12,043,036 67 15,792,075 70 50000 - 99999 Class II 1,726,134 10 3,002,218 13 20000 - 49999 Class-III Cities/towns 3,096,525 17 3,042,434 13 10000 - 19999 Class-IV Towns 839,021 5 624,630 3 5000 - 9999 Class-V Towns 192,477 1 195,437 1 Less than 5000 Class-VI Towns 22,665 0 17,598 0 Karnataka Urban All towns 17,919,858 100 22,674,392 100

2001 Census Data Projections for 2011

Population range Class of Town

215

URBAN PLANNING

is negative for class IV, class V and class VI. On thecontrary, highest growth for the decade 1991-2001 isregistered by class II cities (69.5 percent). This is far higherthan the growth registered by class I cities (33.73 percent).In terms of the share of population, Class I cities havenearly two thirds of the total urban population. Bangaloreurban agglomeration, which consists of Bangalore City andsurrounding towns, contains 31.1 percent of Karnataka’surban population.

PROJECTIONS

Given the trend in growth of the urban population inKarnataka in the last decade, the urban population for 2011is projected at 22,674,392. The share of class I cities isexpected to go up to 69.6 percent. In particular, Bangaloreurban agglomeration population is expected to go up to7.64 million.

Assuming that the current norm of 125 persons per hectarewill continue to apply, with the urban growth projected,the land required would be nearly 40,000 hectares to caterto urbanization in the next ten years. On the other hand,Town Planning Department estimated the total localplanning area requirement as 11,500 square kilometers.

ACTION PLAN

• Modifications to the Outline Development Plan/Comprehensive Development Plan should be madeto statutorily provide land for landfill sites, sewagetreatment plant and underground drainage. The Actshould be amended in such a way that the land is notdiverted for any other purpose.

• Traffic surveys to assess the transportation modesadopted, changing needs, destination surveys needto be conducted for a five-year period to ensureadequate development of transportation corridors,economical and sustainable mass transport systems.

• The long time required for Plan preparation results incropping up of activities that are not as per the plannedactivities. This results in degraded environment.Hence the time required for the preparation ofComprehensive Development Plan should bereduced to a single stage process. The time taken for

preparation of Outline Development Plan /Comprehensive Development Plan needs to be cutdown to three years by amending the relevantprovisions of Town and Country Planning Act.

• Rainwater harvesting to be made mandatory for theapproval of building plans.

• Incentives like reduction in property tax forbuildings adopting rainwater harvestingsystems could be introduced to encouragerainwater harvesting.

• In cases of economically weaker sectionhousing schemes provided by theGovernment like Ambedkar Housingschemes, Bangalore Development Authority,Slum Board, etc., instead of individualrainwater harvesting system, communityrainwater harvesting should be provided bythe government.

• Rainwater harvesting should be mandatoryfor any new Government building and shouldbe adopted for all completed buildings in thenext one-year.

• Bangalore Water Supply and SewerageBoard should examine incentives for houses,multistory buildings with rainwater harvestingfacilities.

• The encroachments in the catchments of lakes andtanks and in the overflow zones should be identifiedand removed. Only green activities like parks that willnot interfere with the natural drainage should beallowed in these areas.

• Residential and commercial multistoreyestablishments should obtain Consent under the airand water act and get environmental clearance fromthe Karnataka State Pollution Control Board.

• Solar water heating in all Multistorey Buildings,residential and commercial, should be mademandatory for approval of building plans.

• Setting up of Environment Cells in the UrbanDevelopment Authorites and Urban Local Bodies toincorporate the environment component in planningand maintaining cities and towns.

• The Corporations should formulate EnvironmentManagement Plans for all Class I cities in Karnataka.

• Eco-corridor/Eco-villages in different climatic and

216


geographical areas should be developed to function on principals of environment conservation. These will developas model sustainable eco areas for demonstration and study for the State.

• Eco-corridor/Eco-village Project for sustainable development: Few cities are to be developed on principals (all orsome) of Environment Conservation and management as model cities. This project can be taken up at Udupi andManipal on the Coast, Sakaleshpur on the foothill of the Western Ghats, Shringeri/ Koppa in Western Ghats,Basavan Bagevadi / Kushtagi in the Northern plains, Information technology corridor in Bangalore in SouthernPlateau.

• Definition of the word ‘Heritage’ to include not only historical monuments but also old trees and parks, tanks, oldwells and old buildings. These need to be identified and conserved.

• Environment Conservation and Management Plans should be prepared for places of historical interest.• Preservation of heritage sites could be designated to a state government appointed special Heritage Conservation

Committee of the Department of Ecology and Environment that would work closely with the municipal bodies andother departments.

• The existing institutions need to be strengthened to analyze environmental data, implement and enforce environmentconservation and management measures applicable to urban area by training the existing staff and providingadequate equipment.

Stages of Outline Development Plan

217

HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

HHHHHEALEALEALEALEALTHTHTHTHTH ANDANDANDANDAND E E E E ENVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENT

It is but for the pollutants released by us that we wouldhave been otherwise living healthy lives

-Anonymous

218


HHHHHEALEALEALEALEALTHTHTHTHTH ANDANDANDANDAND E E E E ENVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENTNVIRONMENT

Current Status

Problems

Action Plan

219


! CURRENT STATUS

Environmental pollution triggers varied and widespread

allergies and disorders in the general population and

affects every system of the human body thereby affecting

the quality of human life. While genetic factors may also

be responsible for causing diseases yet environmental

degradation plays a much more active role in contracting

various diseases.

Growing number of diseases have been linked to

environmental exposure. These diseases range from

traditional water borne, food borne and vector borne

ailments and acute respiratory infections to asthma,

cancer, arsenicosis, fluorosis, certain birth defects and

developmental disabilities

Environmental health hazards kill at least three million

children of less than five years of age every year as per

the Population Reference Bureau. The vulnerability of

children to pollution starts with exposure in the mother’s

womb. Children from the fetal stage through adolescence

are in a dynamic stage of growth as their immature

nervous, respiratory, reproductive and immune system

develop. They are more vulnerable to permanent and

irreversible damage from toxicants than adults. They

experience higher rates of exposure to pathogens and

pollutants. Children between 5 to 18 years face higher

exposure to toxic chemicals due to participation in

household chores and work outside their homes. School

going children contract various diseases, as sanitation

facilities are not adequate in several schools.

! PROBLEMS

Air pollution

Outdoor air pollution

Air pollutants produce ill effects on various systems of

human body like central nervous, cardiovascular,

hematological, gastrointestinal, respiratory and also cause

behavioral changes.

The lung is an organ with the largest surface area where

gas exchange takes place and therefore receives the brunt

of the air pollution. Pollutants produce airway inflammation,

obstructions and hyper-responsiveness. Various

precipitants produce airflow limitation and symptoms of

asthma. It also causes lung cancer and cardiopulmonary

mortality.

Both outdoor and indoor pollution are responsible in

producing respiratory infections and allergies. The main

sources of outdoor air pollution are vehicles and industries.

Urban air pollution is largely and increasingly the result of

the combustion of fossil fuels for transport, power

generation and other human activities. Combustion

processes produce a complex mixture of pollutants.

Automobile exhaust produces three categories of

substances:

• Substances that mainly affect airways – oxides of

nitrogen, sulphur di oxide, Ozone, suspended

particulate matter, photochemical oxidants.

• Substances that produce toxic effect – Carbon

monoxide and lead.

• Substances with carcinogenic effect – Benzene,

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons aldehydes.

Air pollution from combustion sources is associated with

a broad spectrum of acute and chronic health effects.

Loose soil accumulated on road sides or elsewhere due

to natural or man made activities becomes air borne

causing respiratory diseases. Other outdoor air pollutants

are pollen and fungi.

Air polluting industries include thermal power plants, iron

and steel plants, smelters, foundries, stone crushers,

cement plants, refineries, lime kilns, chemicals and

petrochemical plants, etc. Burning of low grade fuel in

urban areas for various purposes is one of the causes of

air pollution. In addition, tyre, rubber, plastic, garbage etc

are also burnt. Such combustion emits toxic pollutants

including dioxins and furans which are quite harmful to

human beings.

Indoor air pollution

Cooking and heating with solid/bio fuels such as dung,

wood, agricultural residues or coal are the largest source

220


of indoor air pollution. When used in simple cooking

stoves, these fuels emit substantial quantities of pollutants

that include respirable particles, carbon monoxide,

nitrogen and sulphur oxides. Most of the stoves or chullahs

used for cooking are not energy efficient. The fuels are

not burnt completely. The products of incomplete

combustion of biomass include carbon monoxide, hydro

carbons, suspended particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen,

sulphur and poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Magnitude of the problem

A study conducted in 1996 revealed that acute respiratory

infections constitute 45% of out patients, 30% of inpatients

and 50% of intensive care admissions in children. Annual

attack rate of pneumonia in preschool children is 40 per

thousand, which gradually drops to 9 per thousand in 9 to

15 years of age. 10% of hospital admissions are due to

pneumonia.

A study was conducted in 12 schools on 6560 children in

the age group of 6 to 15 years. The data was correlated

with urban / rural, location of school in relation to heavy

traffic and socio economic status. This study showed

increased prevalence of asthma and abnormal lung

function in children studying in schools located near heavy

traffic regions.

Since traffic police officers are more exposed to the

automobile exhaust, study on 1045 traffic police and 1160

non-traffic police was conducted. It was observed that as

much as 26.12 per cent of traffic police constables suffered

from asthma. Prevalence of other air pollution related

complaints were also high in traffic constables when

Prevalence of asthma in school children inBangalore

Asthma and other illness related to air pollution forpolice constables

Reduction in asthma rate at placesaway from Bangalore

Source – H. Paramesh, XI National Symposium onEnvironment 2002

Prelavance of Asthma - Industries

Prelavance of Asthma - Automobiles

GroupTotal No.of

children

Children with

Abnormal lung

function

% of asthma

Schools in low traffic regions

2,565 286 11.15

Schools in heavy traffic regions

3,722 720 19.34

Schools in heavy traffic with low socio-economic status

273 85 31.14

Symptoms Traffic (1045)Non traffic

(1160)

Asthma 26.12% 14.90%Cough 27% 14.40%Breathlessness 7.80% 3.60%Rhinitis 10.70% 4%Urticuria 11% 0.10%Feverishness 0.57% 0.17%Conjunctivitis 1.40% 0.00%

No. of Asthma patients

%No. of

Asthma patients

%

01 – 10 189 69.2 102 58.910 – 20 76 27.8 40 23.120 – 30 6 2.3 18 10.830 – 40 2 0.8 13 7.5

Traffic Police Non Traffic PoliceDistance

in Km

221


compared to their counterparts handling non traffic

duties.

Also the farther the residence from the center of the

city of Bangalore, the incidence of respiratory

symptoms were significantly low. Total suspended

particulate matter and respirable suspended

particulate matter generally exceed the standards in

Bangalore.

Allergic asthmatics are sensitive by 10 fold and sulfur

dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide trigger asthma in 65

percent of the patients. Suspended particulate matter

exposure increases emergency visits for asthma attacks,

hospitalization and increased specific immunoglobulin

levels, Ozone increases asthma by 43 percent (Paramesh

2000).

Studies conducted by Agashe have shown that the major

pollens encountered in Karnataka are from parthenium,

amaranthus spinosus, casuarina and eucalyptus.

Concentration of pollen goes up with increase in

temperature and humidity. Pollens from flowering trees

are found more from January to April, grass pollens from

July – November, weeds from November to January.

According to a study, nearly 7.5% of children are allergic

to pollens and fungi and 10% of the Indian population is

allergic to pollens. The occurrence of pollen allergies

change significantly from season to season. Early

identification of specific allergens, separation from the

source and awareness about the trees causing less allergy

that could be planted around the house, are measures

that can prevent such allergies.

There is convincing evidence to show that the indoor air

pollution and bad air quality produces acute lower

respiratory infections, asthma, cold, headache, chronic

obstructive lung disease, lung cancer, cataract and to some

extent tuberculosis.

A study in a village near Hoskote on 119 children in the

age group 6-15 years showed that girls suffer more than

boys in the ratio of male: female (2.52: 5.80), mainly due

to the fact that they live in ill-ventilated huts and use dung

and agricultural wastes as fuel for cooking. Girls help the

mothers in the kitchen, and inhale the smoke, leading to

airway inflammation and asthma. Similarly, women suffer

more than men.

Other indoor air pollutants

Aerobiologicals

Dust mites are responsible for dust allergy. These are

prevalent in house dust and are found in almost every

house. They are microscopic and measure only 0.1 to 0.5

mm. Adult dust mite can live up to 3 months and produce

excreta about 200 times of their body weight during the

life span. They live on atmospheric water and dead skin

of humans. They are predominantly seen in places with

high humidity, on carpets, upholstered furniture, stuffed

toys, woolen blankets and mattresses. It needs 100 dust

mites per gram of dust to develop sensitivity and 500 dust

mites per gram of dust to develop wheezing. Their

Indoor air pollutants

Source – ICMR Bulletin - 2001

Prevalence of respiratory infection / indoorpollution.

Source E Cherian, H Paramesh, 2002

ChemicalCow dung

Wood Coal Kerosene LPG

Carbon monoxide

144.00 156.00 94.00 108.00 14.00

Poly organic material and polyorganic hydrocarbon mg/m3

3.56 2.01 0.55 0.23 0.13

Formaldehyde mg/m3

670.00 652.00 109.00 112.00 68.00

222


concentration varies inversely with altitude. According to

a study by Zeiger in 1994, dust mites do not grow at an

elevation of 1.6 kilometers above sea level. In Bangalore

there are about 4000-5000 dust mites per gram of dust in

humid months from July to October. 50 percent of

persistent asthma is due to dust mites.

Fungi: Fungi are both outdoor and indoor pollutants. Fungi

spores increase with decrease in temperature and

increase in relative humidity. They are common in wet, ill

ventilated places, basements, shower curtains, attics and

indoor plants.

Irritants

Tobacco Smoke: It is a major indoor pollutant . A published

report (Paramesh, 2002) showed that nearly 6 percent of

the asthma attacks were triggered by tobacco smoke in

1994 that increased to 7.5. in 1999. Prenatal maternal

active or passive smoking affects the new born leading to

low birth weight, increased infant mortality, decreased lung

function, increased wheezing, lower resistance to

respiratory diseases. Post-natal parental smoking

adversely affects children, due to improper development

of lungs and decreased forced expiratory volume at one

second; increased bronchial hyper reactivity, increased

persistent wheeze, increased asthma exaggeration,

increased immunoglobulin level and inhalant

immunoglobulin.

Formaldehyde: Major sources for this colorless gas

include plywood, paneling, furniture, tobacco smoke,

poorly vented wood and gas stoves. Health effects of

formaldehyde include irritation of eyes, pressure feeling

on head, irritations of respiratory tract, pulmonary edema,

pneumonia

Combustion by products: These include particles,

Carbon monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen

Dioxide and partially oxidized organic substances. The

main sources include combustion of gases, from wood

stoves, tobacco smoke, ill ventilated fire places, heaters,

automobile exhaust, etc. The ill effects are blurred vision,

drowsiness, emphysema, respiratory infections, asthma,

decreased lung capacity and death from carbon monoxide.

Cleaning agents and aerosols: Sources include hair

sprays, fabric softeners, paints, perfumes, deodorizes, etc.

They affect the health due to irritation of mucus

membranes of respiratory tract, eyes and cause

headache, mental confusion and abdominal pain. They

are known to trigger asthma attack in 6 percent of the

children.

Sick building syndrome: The ill effect of poor air quality

in indoor environment results in sickness. The inhabitants

may complain of lethargy, fatigue, headache, dizziness,

nausea, mucus membrane irritation and sensitivity to

odors.

As a rule of thumb, a spot measurement of carbon dioxide

greater than 700 parts per million over outside levels

indicates poor ventilation. The current recommendation

for ventilation is 15 cubic feet metre/person, office spaces

20 cubic feet metre/person, hospital rooms 25 cubic feet

metre/person, hotel rooms 30 cubic feet metre/room,

smoking lounge 60 cubic feet metre/person and class

rooms 15 cubic feet metre/person. Indoor air pollution

levels can be reduced by source control, removal of the

pollutants, providing good ventilation, etc.

The incidence of respiratory diseases in Karnataka

(Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis, Pneumonia, Asthma) is

increasing at the rate of 1.1 percent per annum.

Noise pollution

Noise pollution causes physical, physiological and

psychological stress to human beings. Exposure to noise

has also been associated with a range of possible physical

effects including colds, changes in blood pressure, other

cardiovascular changes, problems with the digestive

system and general fatigue.

As towns and cities become more densely populated as

a result of industrial growth, the problem of unwanted noise

is increasing both during the day and at night. The

industries are expected not to use noisy gadgets and

machines well past sunset. But non availability of quality

power supply encourages industries to use non-insulated

generators. These cause sleep disturbance and violate

223


the provisions of the Noise Pollution (Regulation and

Control) Rules, 2000.

Occupational health hazards

Although limited details are available regarding occupati-

onal health hazards of the industrial workers of Karna-

taka, studies do indicate that occupational health of the

workers employed in certain type of industries especially

which are of medium and small scale is a cause for

concern.

Very few studies have been carried out with respect to

occupational health hazards of the workers employed in

industries in Karnataka. The health hazard evaluation

studies conducted for workers of electroplating units in

Bangalore revealed higher serum b-2, Microglobuline

levels. Similarly, such study in an instruments

manufacturing unit in the state confirmed higher lead levels

in blood and higher urine zinc levels among workers of

particular sections.

Mining/quarrying occupations are more closely related to

health hazards due to exposure to silica. Granite, stone

quarrying, dressing/crushing are some of the specific

activities related to silica exposure, which result in Silicosis.

Exposure to mixed dust (mixture of silica and other dust)

from other minerals like iron ore (iron oxide) results in

Pneumoconiosis. Regional Occupational Health Centre,

Bangalore, reported that persons working in mine/quarry

related activity suffer

f r o m

Pneumoconios is .

The same study has

also revealed that,

although the workers

were physically fit for

day-to-day operation

they were subjected

to physiological

strain due to dusty

o p e r a t i o n a l

conditions leading to

Pneumoconiosis.

Water pollution

Lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a

matter of great concern. It is estimated that 75 to 80 percent

of water pollution by volume is caused by domestic

sewage. The remaining is industrial waste water which

could be more toxic.

Due to improper drainage and lack of proper disposal

facilities, industries and local bodies use large areas of

land for disposal of wastewater. Small-scale industries

Noise may be broadly classified as

Industrial noise – This includes noise from different ma-chines in different factories and industries and mills. Signifi-cant among them are noise from mechanical saw and pneu-matic drill.

Transport noise – This includes road traffic noise, railwaytraffic noise and air traffic noise.

Community noise – This includes noise from musical in-struments, indiscriminate use of amplifiers and other gad-gets in commercial establishments.

It is stated that there is a silent village near Hubli where 30to 50 percent of population is deaf and one of the factorsresponsible for deafness is stated to be impure water.

Psychological and physical effects of different decibelLevels

135 dB Painful110 dB Discomfort88 dB Hearing impairment on

prolonged exposure80 dB Annoying65 dB Intrusive

Industrial pollution related occupational health problems

IndustryNo of units in

KarnatakaMain pollutants Major illnesses observed

Cement 10 Suspended Particulate MatterRhinitis, Bronchitis, Asthma, Interstitial fibrosis. Chronic cough

Distilleries 27Oil, grease, suspended solids, tannins, Sodium salts

Bronchitis, Interstitial pneumonia, lipid pneumonias

Tannery 4 Cromillin Dermatitis

Sugar 58Suspended solids, colour, toxic effluents

Pneumoconiosis (Bagassosis)

Paper and pulp

5Non-biodegradable, substance, with very high Biological Oxygen Demand.

Nausea, vommiting, indigestion, cancer

Iron and steel

1SPM, Magnesium oxide, NOx SO2, Chlorine gas.

Asthma, Tuberculosis

Fertilizer 2Liquid effluents, suspended solids, ammonia

Respiratory diseases and skin problems

224


located in clusters or industrial estates, not having proper

disposal facilities are also causing ground water pollution

due to discharge of industrial effluent on land. Several

incidents of ground water contamination due to industrial

clusters are reported specially due to electroplating units,

tanneries, dyeing and printing units etc. The heavy metals

and other toxic compounds present in the effluent may

pose considerable health risks amongst the population

using such contaminated water

The major industries causing water pollution include:

distilleries, sugar, textile, electroplating, pesticides,

pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper mills, tanneries, dyes and

dye intermediates, petrochemicals, steel plants, etc. Non-

point pollution sources such as fertilizer and pesticide

runoffs in rural areas from the agricultural fields are also

emerging as a major cause of concern. Only 60 percent

of chemical fertilizers applied is utilised in soils and the

balance is leached from soil polluting the ground water.

Excess phosphate runoff is leading to eutrophication in

lakes and water bodies.

The human body consists of 60 to 70 percent of water of

the total body weight. In addition, water acts as

transportation route for chemicals, heavy metals, algal

toxins, other organic substances which produce chronic

systemic illness, malignancies, birth defects and change

the functions of immune system. Mortality from diseases

like gastroenteritis occurs mainly due to contamination of

water.

Adverse health effects are associated with ingestion of

contaminated water, lack of access to sanitation, contact

with unsafe water, and improper management of water

resources and agriculture. Infectious diarrhea makes the

largest single contribution to the burden of disease asso-

ciated with unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Besides,

the water borne diseases like cholera, jaundice and other

gastrointestinal track infections are quite significant

amongst the population.

Industries release many toxic effluents into water bodies.

Coming in contact with these effluents can lead to skin

diseases and ingestion of water with high concentration of

toxic chemicals can even result in death.

These diseases occur in different parts of the state, mostly

during summer when there is scarcity of drinking water

and the source of water gets contaminated. The data

maintained by the Health and Family Welfare department

(2003) indicates that

• Number of attacks for gastroenteritis, viral hepatitis

and typhoid are increasing.

• The number of deaths are decreasing (this may be

attributed to better medical facilities)

• The status of cholera remains more or less constant.

The yearly occurrence of water borne diseases like cholera

and gastroenteritis makes it very clear that environmental

impact of water on health is very profound and significant.

Fluorosis occurs in drinking water with high fluoride

Statement showing water borne/related diseases

Source: Directorate of Health and Family Welfare, 2003

Attacks Deaths Attacks Deaths Attacks Deaths Attacks Deaths Attacks Deaths1991 17455 691 747 16 - - 659 17 - -1992 15262 608 402 14 - - 282 17 - -1993 16206 855 424 13 - - 678 7 26047 11994 15932 325 304 10 - - 632 0 20349 01995 18645 396 532 38 - - 7146 1 10250 01996 22983 377 657 6 - - 1332 6 22221 121997 23665 361 714 10 67 2 1714 4 3880 51998 23881 501 434 2 1 0 3824 2 2435 01999 17743 126 134 3 54 2 4792 2 24356 12000 31132 265 354 3 3 1 3011 10 27210 02001 23893 198 342 1 68 7 5438 28 33346 62002 25218 146 384 0 27 0 4578 15 42936 2

YearGastroenteritis Cholera Leptospirosis Viral Hepetatis Typhoid

225


content. The upper limit for fluoride in drinking water which

the body may tolerate, is 1.0 mg/l. In the districts of Kolar,

Gadag, Bellary, Gulbarga, Koppal Davangere,

Chitradurga, etc., fluoride is present much above the

permissible limit in the groundwater. In Kolar district 80

percent of children in the age group 6 to14 years are

affected with fluorosis. In the mining areas of Bellary, the

fluoride levels range from non-detectable to 3.7 milligrams/

litre. Fluoride levels exceeded drinking water standards

(IS:10500-1991) in 8 out of 14 locations. Fluorosis occurs

in three forms dental, skeletal and non-skeletal. Dental

fluorosis is used as a clinical index for identifying

endemicity for fluorosis.

In addition, chemicals like arsenic, nitrates (due to use oforganic manure, seepage from sewage pits etc) andmercury found in drinking water cause many healthproblems.

Lead, one of the most widely used nonferrous metals isalso highly toxic. A study in Bangalore by Paramesh andSameera (2000) on 863 children, 516 boys and 347 girlsshowed that 71.14 percent including children less than 6years of age and 25 new born on cord blood revealedlead level 10 or more milligram/decilitre. However noneof them were symptomatic.

When the lead level in blood increases above 10 mg/dl,one can see cognitive deficiencies, decrease peripheralnerve conduction, mild kidney dysfunction, anemia notresponding to iron treatment, intestinal colic, nausea,vomiting, convulsions and coma. In adults no symptomswill occur unless the lead level is over 100 milligram/

decilitre.

Bio Medical Waste

It is estimated that bio medical waste generated in thestate is 89,297 kilograms per day. Of this, private andhealth care establishments generate 40,000kilograms\day, blood banks 196 kilograms\day and andsmall clinics 8000 kilograms\day and veterinary clinics 800kilograms\day. Nearly 1kilogram per bed per day of hospitalwaste is generated daily. Only 10-15 percent of the hospitalwaste is infected waste and needles and blood constitute

2 percent of total waste.

Diseases transmitted through Water

1. Water Washed Diseases – Inadequate supply of waterfor personal hygiene cause diseases like scabies, trachoma.

2. Water Based Diseases – These are mostly infectionstransmitted through aquatic invertebrate animals e.g.,Leptosopirosis and guinea worm

3. Water Related Vector Borne Diseases – infectionsspread by insects that depend on water through vectorbreeding in water – malaria, filariasis, dengue fever,Japanese encephalitis.

The overall rate of injuries sustained by the sanitary

workers is 180 per 1000 workers per year. A study by

Occupational Safety and Health Administration shows that

80 percent of all injuries are due the needle pricks.

Handling the infected material and accidental pricking by

needles, contacting body fluids cause the following

• Common Illness – HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C.

• Less common illness – Herpes, Malaria,

Staphylococcal skin infections, syphilis, spirotrichosis,

toxoplasmosis diphtheria.

• Other least common illness – Blast mycosis,

brucellosis, cryptococossis, mycobacteriosis, and

mycoplasma. Specific data on various illness are not

available except isolated case histories.

The measures to be implemented for proper management

of biomedical waste include separation of infected wastes

and needles from general waste, breaking the tip of

needles and disposable syringes, proper disposal at safe

place assigned by the authorities, use of gloves by

personnel who handle waste or body fluids, immunization

of waste handlers for Hepatitis B, Tetanus. Reuse of glass

syringes after proper sterilization could be thought of

instead of disposables.

Plastics contribute to nearly 6.2 percent of the total

municipal solid waste in the state. The burning of plastic

bags emits chemicals which can produce leukemia and

other cancers. Plastic grinding generates polymer dust

which causes interstitial pneumonia, Bronchitis, eye

irritation. Further, the burning of plastics releases toxins

like dioxins which cause eye irritation and accumulates in

fatty tissues resulting in carcinogenic effects.

226


Prioritization matrix

Rag pickers often get cuts and bruises which get infected

with germs causing abscess, impetigo, erysephalas,

exposure to food wastes with plastics and fungi grown on

food waste cause allergy, asthma, rhinitis, etc.

!!!!! ACTION PLAN

Strengthening and modernizing Karnataka State Pollution

Control Board is to be considered as a top priority to

improve air quality monitoring to cover Respirable

Particulate Matter having diameter not more than 10 and

2.5 microns, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur, and

carbon monoxide. Periodic monitoring of sulphates,

nitrates, ground level ozone, persistent organic pollutants

and other toxins are also required to be undertaken.

Action should be initiated to conduct

environmental health risk assessment

studies due to air pollution in industrial

areas, congested areas in the cities, slums

and the studies should include vulnerable

sections of society like slum-dwellers,

children, women, traffic police, roadside

vendors, industrial workers etc.

In order to correctly assess the impact of

water-borne diseases arising due to water

pollution and contamination due to

industrial waste discharge and improper

waste management, Health Department

should take action for systematic

epidemiological studies. Such studies

should also include vector diseases.

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

should seriously reconsider the effluent

standards prescribed for different industries

in the State.

Environmental health studies, with sharp

focus on children and women to assess the

health impacts of deteriorating indoor air

quality is another urgent need. It is

desirable to investigate the health impacts

due to synergistic effects of pollutants

emitted by various sources like industries,

automobiles, burning of leaves, rubber plastic etc in urban

areas like Bangalore. Base-line data on this important

environmental problem is very essential for evolving

effective policy and action plans.

Agriculture and Horticulture Departments should under

take both short term and long term studies to study the

levels of heavy metals in vegetables, fruits and food grains,

The presence of toxic chemicals due to use of untreated

water, pesticides, heavy metals like chromium, lead,

mercury, arsenic, etc should also be ascertained.

Environmental health education and awareness programs

should be given priority and efforts need to be made to

integrate this into the school and college curriculum.

Environmental pollution problems

Health problems Vulnerable group of

population

Out door air pollution

High. Respiratory infections, Cold, Middle ear infections, sinusitis, Pneumonia, Respiratory allergy, Bronchitis, Allergic Rhinitis, Asthma, Chronic cough, Increase Blood Pressure, congestive heart failure. Leading to heart and central nervous system problems

High. Elderly children and urbanites

b. Indoor air pollution

High. Respiratory infections, Cold, Middle ear infections, sinusitis, Pneumonia, Respiratory allergy, Bronchitis, Allergic Rhinitis, Asthma, Chronic cough, Increase Blood Pressure, congestive heart failure.

High. Women, children, rural and urbanites

C. Industrial pollution / related occupations health

Medium. Pneumoconiosis, Interstitial fibrosis, Pneumonias, Dermatitis, Cancer, etc.,

High. Young and adults working

Surface Water Pollution

High. Typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis, hepatitis, vector borne diseases, dengue, leptospirosis, malaria, worm infections

High. Children, women, elderly slum dwellers

Ground Water Pollution

High. Birth defects, miscarriages, low birth weight, premature death, skeletal abnormality, convulsions, skin rashes, eye irritation

High. Children, women, elderly slum dwellers

Air Pollution

Water pollution

227

ENERGY

ENERGY

It is energy that drives the world and the quest for whichpollutes it.

-Anonymous

228


ENERGY

Current Status

Issues

Causes

Impacts

Trends

Prioritisation

Action Plan

229

ENERGY

CURRENT STATUS

Karnataka uses three major sources of energy - firewood,electricity and petroleum products. Firewood is used bypeople for cooking and water heating and by tiny and smallscale industries making bricks and tiles, jaggery, puffedrice, etc., for heating purposes. Electricity is used byseveral sectors - domestic, industries, agriculture,transport, trade, public utilities and services for severalactivities like motive functions, refrigeration, heating andcooling, electrolysis, etc. Petroleum products are used fortransportation through vehicles, for captive power plantsand for meeting the cooking needs of domestic consumers(Kerosene and LPG). Some quantity of kerosene is usedfor lighting especially by poor people.

Let us now see the share of different energy forms in thetotal energy consumption in the state for the year 2000-01. The share of electrical energy is 47.5% of the total.The share of petroleum products is around 10.5%. Energyfrom firewood and other traditional fuels like agriculturalresidues has a share of 42%, nearly equal to the share ofelectrical energy. Coal is used mainly for generation ofelectricity at the thermal power plant at Raichur.

Electricity

For a long time, Karnataka depended only on major hydelpower plants to meet its electrical energy needs - fromthe first power project at Shivanasamudram set up in 1902till the operation of the power house at Nagjhari on Kaliriver in 1979-84. This led to the construction of largereservoirs at several places mainly in Shimoga and UttaraKannada districts leading to the loss of good forest areas.The public became concerned about the ecologicalconsequences of these mega projects.

The State set up the Raichur Thermal Power Plant in 1984which now generates 1470 MW. Environmentally thisresulted in problems of emission and storage and disposalof flyash. A nuclear power plant at Kaiga set up by theGovernment of India is also operational. Location of theseprojects far away from the load centre is not as peraccepted network balancing and optimization practices.

A private entrepreneur has ventured into the experimentof setting up of a barge mounted power plant at TanneerBhavi in Gurpur river near Mangalore. Its impact on thecoastal environment is not clear and it needs to be studiedand analysed.

The installed capacity of electricity generation in the Statein the beginning of the year 2003-04 was 6539 MWincluding the State’s share of central generating stationsof 840 MW. The share of hydro, thermal and wind were3227 MW(49.35 percent), 3215 MW (49.17 percent) and96.7 MW (1%) respectively. The Karnataka PowerCorporation Ltd (KPCL) and the Visvesvaraya VidyuthNigam Ltd(VVNL) both owned by the government ofKarnataka operate a large number of power plants rangingin size from 0.35 MW to 1470 MW. The installed capacityof the power plants of these organizations was 4350.50MW and 348.52 MW respectively as given in Tables 1and 2. Installed capacity of the Independent Power


Compensatory afforestation has been raised successful tothe extend of 34000 hectares.

Installed capacity from wind energy systems has increasedfrom 0.55 MW in 1994-95 to 96.7 MW in 2002-2003 with anannual generation of 135 million units. From cogeneration insugar units, the state generates 182.7 MW of power and 91.85million units of energy. A separate organisation called theKarnataka Renewable Energy Development Ltd is functioningfrom 1996 to promote use of renewable energy.

Electricity companies provide subsidy for those using solarwater heaters in their monthly electricity bills.

Fly ash utilization in Raichur thermal plant is around 30% andit is expected to reach 60% in a few years. KPC has enteredinto agreements with cement manufacturers and small scaleunits in this regard.

To improve the efficiency of production and operation,separate organizations for generation (KPC), transmission(KPTCL) and distribution have been established in the state.

The state has been in the forefront in the development anduse of biogas plants from 1980 onwards. This provides analternate energy source to people, improves the sanitation ofthe area and increases the quality of the manure. About 30,000biogas units are installed every year in the State. The Statehas setup 3.09 lakh biogas plants by 2002 out of a totalpotential of 6 - 8 lakhs.

Micro hydel power plants have been setup initially onexperimental basis and later on for commercial production.

230


Producers is given in Table 3.

Several co generation and biomass based projects andwindmills have been taken up by the government andprivate organisations. Details are given in Tables 4 & 5.There is an estimated potential of cogeneration in thesugar industry of about 2000 MW. There is also enormousscope for generation of power from mini\micro hydelprojects and windmills. Most of the decentralizedrenewable power comes from the private sector and thisis expected to increase rapidly in the years to come.Electricity generated by different agencies under differentcategories is given in Table 6.

MoEF Notification on fly ashThe Ministry of Environment and Forests issued a notification on 14th September 1999 which was amended in 2003 to deal withmanagement of fly ash. The salient features of this notification are:

All coal or lignite based thermal power plants shall fully utilise fly ash generated within a period of nine years from thepublication of this notification. 30 percent fly ash utilization shall be reached within three years from the publication of thisnotification with further increase in utilization by at least 10 percent points every year progressively.

Manufacturing units located within a radius of 100 km from coal or lignite based thermal power plants cannot manufacture claybricks or tiles without mixing at least 25 percent of ash with soil on weight to weight basis.

Thermal power plant shall maintain month wise records of ash made available to each brick kiln.

User agencies from the Government and private sector shall prescribe the use of ash and ash based products in theirrespective schedules of specifications and construction applications including appropriate standards and codes of practice.

All local authorities shall specify in their respective building bye laws and regulations the use of fly ash and ash basedproducts and construction techniques within a period of 4 months from the publication of this notification.

Actions initiated for the utilization of fly ash in the State

The Public Works Department has included the items of fly ash bricks and fly ash for road embankment in the schedule ofrates of Gulbarga and Bellary Circles. The said schedule of rates are being used by the Irrigation Department, UrbanDevelopment Department& Housing Department

Nirmithi Kendras produce products utilizing fly ash.

Fly ash building products are used in the construction of Ashraya houses and other buildings by the Rajiv Gandhi RuralHousing Corporation.

Statement showing the names of power plants, flyash generatedand its utilisation in the State as on 31 March 2003

There is an estimated shortage on meeting peak powerdemand of about 1300 MW. The current emphasis ison setting up large thermal projects in Bellary andDakshina Kannada districts and near Bangalore.

The major load centre is Bangalore. Severaltransmission voltages - 400 kv, 220 kv, 110 kv, 66 kvand 33 kv - exist in the State. In the recent past therehave been addition of lines in all voltage categories.

Karnataka Electricity Board is now reconstituted as theKarnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited inorder to focus on transmission, networking and

Name and address of unitQuantity of ash

generated (MT\ month)

Percentage Utilisation

Vasavadatta Cements Sedam, Gulbarga 27,699 100.00Rajshree cements Aditya Nagar, Malkhed, Gulbarga 65,022 100.00Tata Power Corporation, Wadi, Gulbarga 66,440 100.00Grasim Industries Ltd, Kumarapatnam, Haveri 13,900 64.70Jindal Thermal Power Company, Toranagallu, Bellary 25,073 50.50Raichur Thermal Power Station, Raichur 1,755,901 29.80

231

ENERGY

despatching. Distribution is passed on to differentdistribution companies in Bangalore (BESCOM), Hubli(HESCOM), Gulbarga (GESCOM) and Mangalore(MESCOM). Transmission and distribution losses are high.Tariff for High Tension consumers is high and this resultsin cross subsidies for I.P sets. Energy consumed bydifferent categories of consumers is given in Table 7.

Table 8 gives the decennial growth rates for differentconsumers of electricity. The percentage growth for 10years is low for High Tension power (27.28%), highest fordomestic consumers (159.5%) and moderate for LowTension power (65.33%). Table 9 gives the details ofdomestic connections obtained districtwise. The ratio ofnumber of consumers to the population indicates thedisparities that exist in the use of electricity in householdswhich is a key element in determining the quality of lifethat people lead.

Table 10 gives the details of captive generators set up inthe State as on 31 March 2003. The installed capacity ofthe 21,631 units adds up to 4433 MVA. The powergenerated by these captive units during the year exceeded2900 Million Units.

Firewood consumption

Firewood is the main source of fuel for 65 percent of thehouseholds in the state. In the rural areas, firewood is theprimary source of cooking fuel in about 85 per cent of thehouses. It is mainly used for cooking and water heating.Current estimates of consumption are around 0.5 tons /head / year of firewood. Large scale growth of prosophisjuliflora in almost all districts in the northern plateau

Windmills at the Kappatagudda windfarm

provides the needed firewood for people in villages inthese districts thereby reducing pressure on forests. Thepeople in Malnad areas (districts of Uttara Kannada ,Mangalore, Udupi, Shimoga, Kodagu and Chikkamagalur)depend on firewood collected from forests. This affectsthe quality of forests especially in the periphery. Furtherthe per capita consumption is higher in these districts.

With a view to meet the energy needs of the ruralhouseholds in the State, the government has been playingan active role in the setting up of biogas plants. In therecent past, in excess of 20,000 units have beenestablished every year. Details are given in Table 11.Further, improved stoves not only reduce indoor airpollution but also minimize the use of firewood, Table 12gives the details of these stoves established in this Statein the recent years.

The reserved forest area has remained nearly the samein the recent past as per the annual reports of the ForestDepartment. Forest degradation is not visible from thisdata. Firewood sale through depots of the ForestDepartment, the Karnataka State Forest IndustriesCorporation and others has come down from 2,85,479 m3

in 1990-91 to 1,16,107 m3 in 2001-2002 (about less thanhalf). The number of depots has also come down from151 (1990-91) to 44 (2001-2002). Reasons and impactsdue to these reductions need to be looked into.

Petroleum products

LPG consumption has gone up from 3,10,245 MT in 1999-00 to 5,00,880 MT in 2003-2004 . Petrol consumption alsohas gone up from 3,81,958 MT to 5,09,918 MT in the sameperiod. Diesel consumption was 21,55,062 MT in 1999-00 and 22,98,370 MT in 2003-2004. This is only a marginal

Sales of various petroleum products in Karnataka(in MT)

Source: State Coordinator, Indian Oil Corporation, 2004

Year LPG Petrol Diesel1999-00 3,10,245 3,81,958 21,55,0622000-01 3,65,861 4,33,252 21,55,6532001-02 4,13,358 4,81,647 21,58,3902002-03 4,61,441 4,98,228 22,20,6712003-04 5,00,880 5,09,918 22,98,370

232


increase and it has to account for increases in the capacityof captive DG sets also. One inference is, moredependence on privately owned vehicles.

ISSUES

The energy sector has close links with environment. Hencethe key issues are listed under two categories - direct(energy related) and indirect (affecting the environmentof the State).

Direct• Shortage of electrical energy for the past two decades

to meet the demands. [Poor reliability and availability- (< 6 hrs / day in many places)]

• Poor efficiency in energy utilisation in industries,agriculture, transport and domestic sectors as well ashigh distribution losses.

• Depletion of non renewable resources.• Unequal distribution of energy (particularly electrical

energy) in different districts of the State.• Improper location of power plants.

Indirect (Environment related)• Degradation of forests due to firewood collection.• Loss of forests due to hydro and nuclear power projects

and transmission lines.• Soil pollution due to fly ash accumulation in thermal

power plants.• Air pollution due to thermal power plants.• Air pollution due to captive diesel generators.• Air pollution due to transport vehicles.

The demand for electricity is higher than the supply in theState for more than two decades. This had led to largescale introduction and growth of captive D.G sets not onlyin major industries but also in small scale industries,offices, hotels, health centres and many other places. Thetotal capacity works out to about two-thirds of thegeneration capacity of the State. This is very high andundesirable. This means use of depletable resources,inefficiency as well as more emissions.

Low energy efficiency is a major concern in the State. Lowefficiency means more energy consumption and hence

more consumption of non renewable resources. Severalstudies conducted in the State show that the efficienciesof irrigation pumpsets are very low and that the efficienciesof normal chulas are in the range of 10-15% . Efficiency ofenergy consumption is measured by Specific EnergyConsumption(SEC) given by the ratio of energyconsumption to production (physical units or monetaryunits). Studies conducted on Specific Energy Consumptionin several sectors like metallurgy, paper, sugar, textiles,tiles, etc., show large variations thereby indicating the factthat there is enormous potential for reducing energyconsumption while maintaining the same production levels.Many industries are taking steps to improve energyefficiency.

As regards the issue of depletion of resources, the Statehas increased the share of thermal power generationduring the past 15 years and the demand for petroleumproducts is increasing due to the large number of captiveDG power plants and the increasing growth of privatetransport vehicles. There may be a few hotspots whereforest regeneration might have reduced considerablybecause of over exploitation due to the large scalecollection and harvesting of firewood. These hotspots areto be identified by detailed studies on the quality of theforests.

Energy distribution, particularly electrical energy andpetroleum fuels, has not been uniform in the state fordecades. Development has been concentrated mainly inBangalore and to some extent in Mysore, Mangalore,Hubli, Belgaum and Bhadravathi.

(Source : Based on studies done at I.I.Sc., and KSCST)

Energy efficiencies forsome common end use devicesEnduse Place Efficiency (%)

Irrigation centrifugal pumps Hassan 9.2 - 69.4Irrigation centrifugal pumps Mandya 42.3 - 78.1Diesel generator Bangalore 32.2 - 41.8Shearing machine Bangalore 33.1 - 36.4Press brake Bangalore 9.0-24.0Electric furnace (induction type) Bangalore 10.8

Electroplating Bangalore 13.45Welding (mg set) Bangalore 14 - 18Welding (rectifier, set) Bangalore 24 - 32

233

ENERGY

The location policy followed by the State has resulted inthe clustering of several power plants in the ecology richUttara Kannada and Shimoga districts. Whereas it isacceptable to locate hydro projects in these areas, it isnot easy to justify the location of a nuclear power plant inthe forest area. Forest area is lost not only for the settingup of a power plant but also for the construction of twotransmission lines.

CAUSES

The causes for the problems that are there in the energysector are listed below:Shortages arise due to poor and inadequate planning,financial constraints, poor growth of alternative renewableenergy sector and high transmission and distributionlosses.

Poor efficiency in the use of energy is due to inefficientdevices and old technologies, poor instrumentation andenergy audit, lack of norms for various components andsubsystems, poor maintenance of equipment., poor qualityand standard of devices, improper matching of input

Threat to State’s white water

The State’s white-water is under grave threat. White-water,that is river rapids, is a major eco-tourism resource. All existingstretches of white water in our land are in the rivers of northernIndia with a single, remarkable, exception: the Kali riverbetween Ganeshgudi and Dandeli. These are the last, 14 km,free flowing, waters of the river. The river rafting on this superbstretch of the Kali is run by professionals of the ecologicallysensitive Jungle Lodges and Resorts. It is so popular thatfrom receiving 6,550 tourists in 1998-99 it welcomed 16,500guests in 2002-03.

This growth rate is astounding, especially at a time wheninternational tourism took a beating after 9/11. But, instead ofbeing proud of the achievements of this green, non-polluting,job-generating “industry”, a Ministry of the government isthinking of destroying it. It is planning to build a Mini HydelProject here which will submerge 10 islands, some as largeas 10 to 15 hectares and covered with enormous trees, impacton 200 hectares and cover the foaming rapids in still water.Karnataka’s white water advantage will be destroyed. All foran insignificant 18 MW of power: just 1.5 times the powergenerated by the captive diesel generator installed in a singlecomplex in Bangalore: the ITPL. Is the gain to the contractor,his sponsors, loggers and the State Electricity Board, worththe loss of a habitat, where the rare black panthers are foundand of a free river which attracts growing number of incomeand employment generating eco-tourists. Surely, eco-sanitymust prevail over myopic cupidity.

- Hugh and Colleen Gantzer, Deccan Herald Spectrum, April 11, 2003

electrical power and output load (due to poor quality ofpower supply), lack of awareness about new devices andabsence of research institutions in energy conservation.

Incorrect location of power plants in forest area is due tolack of awareness about ecology. Lack of properenvironment friendly routing of transmission line arisesas environmental and ecological aspects are not integratedin the planning and implementation stages of the projects.

Inequity is caused because of inadequate infrastructure,poor economic growth / demand in districts, target basedapproach in extending domestic connections and poorfinancial affordability of people to get low tension supply.

Soil Pollution arises due to the use of high ash contentcoal, and non utilisation of fly ash by industries.Poormanagement of the catchment area of hydel power plantsis resulting in soil erosion and siltation of reservoirs.

Solar powered lanterns

234


Hazards arising from improper disposal of fly ash:

Fly ash is reported to cause ailments like allergicbronchitis, silicosis and asthma.

Fly ash can become air borne easily and contaminatesurface water. It also affects the aquatic life and corrodesexposed metallic structures in its vicinity.

Fly ash can reduce agricultural productivity in the vicinityof the generating plant by settling on the leaves andreducing photosynthesis.

The heavy metals present in fly ash may leach into groundwater resulting in contamination.

Problems relating to bio fuels and resource optimisationare largely due to poor management of village wood lots(indiscriminate cutting and felling), overexploitation, poormaintenece support, use of inefficient stoves and impropermanagement of cooking, lack of awareness, contentionson the use of forests for firewood, grazing, etc., nonavailability of data regarding collection by people andregeneration, no proper institutional mechanism and poorprofessional approach.Shortage in electrical energy has led to the high growth ofcaptive power plants. This adds to air pollution. In the caseof transport sector, the reasons for air pollution are theuse of inefficient vehicles, poor transportation planning incities, poor handling of traffic at junctions, low level ofawareness, use of improper / adulterated fuels likekerosene, etc., in I.C engines and large scale dependenceon private individual owned two wheelers (poor publictransportation system).

The causes for indoor air pollution include use of wrongfuels like tyre, use of inefficient stoves, poor design of theroom without ventilation, non provision of chimneys, useof kerosene for lighting, etc.

IMPACTS

Shortage in electricity has lead to reduced production inindustries and agriculture and hence to loss in productivityand consequent reduction in the total state domesticproduct. There is an addition to capital costs due to theestablishment of captive power plants. Use of diesel inthese plants means outgo of foreign exchange. Hightransmission and distribution losses mean higher costs ofenergy. Similarly low efficiency devices lead to higher costsof production. Leaching of fly ash may lead to reducedagricultural production in the neighbourhood.

Due to shortage and non availability of energy, thestandard of living is poor in many villages. People needelectricity for lighting and water supply. Use of impropercooking stoves and fuels has lead to health problems.

The large scale requirement of firewood has led to thedegradation of forests in the Malnad area. Forest areas in

Shimoga and Uttara Kannada districts have been lost dueto submergence for creation of reservoirs for various hydropower projects. This has a consequent impact onbiodiversity of these districts also. Similarly forest areasare lost for the right of way for transmission lines likeSharavathy to Shimoga and to Hubli, Kaiga to Sirsi etc.This also affects the biodiversity. There may be changesin the coastal ecosystem due to the barge mounted powerplant at Taneer Bhavi, Mangalore.

TRENDS

Since additions of large power plants to the grid haveimpacts on environment, it is desirable to assess the futuredemands of electric power carefully and scientifically suchthat there is no over estimation. Currently there is ashortage of electric power. Electricity planners assume anannual growth rate of 9%. Shortages cannot be predictedaccurately due to the nonavailability of data on shortagesand energy from other sources.

There is a shift in the pattern of industrialization in theState from high energy intensity industry to low energyintensity software, Information Technology EnabledServices(ITES) and Business Process Outsourcing(BPO)industries. Though the energy shortage may not increasein the coming years for this reason, there will be anincrease in the demand for high quality power supply andthis will not reduce the diesel based captive powergeneration.

Similarly it is difficult to predict the effect of energyefficiency increases that may happen in the next 5-10years. A lot of measures are required to improve energy

235

ENERGY

efficiency in the system.The disparity in energy use in manydistricts remains the same for the past twenty years andwill not improve unless affirmative actions are initiated.

There is an increasing trend discernible in the total capacityof captive DG sets. There is an increase in the use ofthese sets in industries, small scale units, service unitslike hospitals, hotels, computer centres, etc., and even inhouses. This might continue unless quality of power supplyimproves. The situation regarding fly ash utilisation is betterand it is expected to improve in the near future.

Firewood consumption from forests in Maidan areas hasreduced as people use prosophis juliflora, but thedegradation of forests in Malnad area has not reducedand is expected to increase at least at the same rate ofincrease of population in these areas. If biomass basedgasifiers are installed in several places, the impact onforests will be more.

PRIORITIZATION

In order to find out the most important problems, marksare assigned for several parameters considered relevantfrom social, economic and ecological points of view to eachproblem / issue.

Based on the total, it is possible to identify problemsneeding attention. It was agreed to perform the analysisfor the entire state as well as for five regions - Bangalore,Coastal, Malnad, North maidan and South maidan regions.

Policy Issues

Current practices for electricity generation depend onconventional and large projects. The growth rate ofrenewable energy systems in different areas is poor.Environmental issues like degradation of forests, locationpolicies for various power plants like nuclear plants, coastbased / barge mounted power plants, etc., need to beintegrated into the planning processes. Private

Scale: 1=Low, 3= medium, 5=high

Prioritization Matrix

Problem Public Health


Impact on vulnerable

groups

Productivity Loss

Critical Ecosystem Irreversibility Urgency Total

Degradation of forests due to firewood extraction

3 5 5 5 3 5 5 31

Loss of forest areas due to power plants 1 5 3 3 5 5 1 23

Air pollution due to thermal plants 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 15

Air pollution due to vehicles 5 1 5 3 1 5 3 23

Air pollution due to captive power plants 3 1 5 1 1 5 3 19

Soil pollution due to thermal plants 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 15

Unequal distribution of energy 1 1 5 5 1 1 5 19

Energy shortage 3 1 5 5 1 1 5 21Low Energy Efficiencies 5 5 5 5 1 5 5 31

Poor location strategy 1 5 3 3 3 5 3 23

236


participation in decentralised energy systems needsencouragement and formal mechanisms.A holistic view of regional level (district level or substationlevel) energy plan and implementation (looking at allaspects of energy) is missing. The problems of quality ofenergy, shortages and disparities in distribution have tobe addressed.

Biofuels are finding several new applications like use ofhonge oil in I.C engines, use of firewood in gasifiers,production of charcoal from prosophis, use of ethanol intransport vehicles, etc. Biofuels already are used in largequantities for meeting the domestic needs like firewoodfor cooking and water heating and needs of tiny and smallscale industries. The contentions on the use by severalsectors, demands and availabilities may create additionalpressures and needs to be studied. A policy has to beevolved for biofuels.

There are no studies on the amount of optimal energy tobe consumed for the production of several products likesugar, textiles, steel, aluminium, oxygen, etc. It is possiblethat one manufacturing unit producing steel (say) mayconsume more energy than another for producing one unitof similar product. Since the Specific Energy Consumptionvaries amongst industries producing the same type of item,norms for SEC have to be established. This will improveefficiencies in production. This is particularly important fortraditional units like bricks and tiles. Energy audits andtechnology audits need to be made mandatory to allindustries.

Issues in implementation

The following issues are to be looked at in order to balanceenvironmental aspects.

There are not enough measurements in variousapplications. For example, I.P sets are not metered.It isnot possible to do energy analysis - the percentage ofenergy flow into several paths and segments from asubstation. Automated reliable instrumentation andrecording of energy consumption by various segmentsneeds attention. Quality of power supply needs to bemeasured at different places and quality indices

calculated.

There is no study or measurement of head loads offirewood collected from forests by people as well as itsimpact on degradation / regeneration of forests. There isa large data gap in respect of firewood supply andconsumption by different categories of consumers .Thequantum of firewood collected from forests and the qualityand production of biomass in forests need to be assessedperiodically. Popularisation of efficient and renewableenergy devices is weak and needs strengthening.

Firewood is the dominant energy source for rural and urbanpoor households. Many energy efficient stoves both fixedand portable types have been developed in the state.Capacity and skills have been built at district levels. Thepotential for stoves is estimated to be 60.76 lakhs andabout 15.90 lakh stoves have been constructed so far.The annual target is around 60,000 units of improvedchulas and this is mostly being met.

Similarly, large energy efficient stoves for canteens, hotels,hostels, jaggery making, etc., have been developed andsuccessfully installed in several places. All these wouldlead to a considerable reduction in demand for firewoodand consequently reduced pressure on forests.

ACTION PLAN

• There should be long term plans for not only generationand transmission but also distribution systems. It isdesirable to conduct the planning activity in acomprehensive manner involving experts from severalsectors. Planning for all energy sources should be doneand load forecasting made more accurate. Rigorousmathematical techniques including location theory,network optimisation etc should be used fully.

• Environmental aspects should be integrated into theplanning and design of generation, transmission anddistribution systems from the beginning. Environmentalcosts should also be included in the costs of powerplants, lines, sub stations etc. The money realisedshould be used by the Government for environmentalupgradation in the State.

237

ENERGY

• Energy conservation should be taken up in a large scaleby setting up a separate organisation to develop normsof energy use for different end use tasks like motivepower, refrigeration etc, measure energy consumptionand enforce the norms of specific energy use by tasks.Awareness on energy conservation should be built upand testing facilities created.

• Distribution losses should be brought down by takingup improvements which are area specific. All substations should be modernised, automated andinstrumented to improve quality and minimiseunaccounted energy. The distribution companies shouldinstall modern voltage regulation equipment at substations so that proper voltages are available to allconsumers. There should be penalties for poor qualityof electricity supplied.

• District level planning and implementation with aview to have an integrated decentralised power systemshould be taken up in a coordinated manner to includegeneration, transmission and distribution. This could besubject to State level guidelines to maintain standardsand uniformity.

• Eco friendly location policies need to be followed. Ecosensitive \ eco fragile regions have to be avoided forestablishment of power plants. Unique sites like thewhite waters, rapids, coasts etc could be avoided. Largestorage based hydel power plants could also beavoided. Thermal plants should be located near loadcenters and forest land should not be diverted for suchpurposes. Further, generating stations should bedistributed in the entire State and not concentrated in afew places. Transmission lines should be routed on theperiphery of forests to the extend possible and not bythe shortest route through thick forests. Alternativenetworking should be looked into. Ecological costsshould be considered while determining the routing.

• Rural energy needs should be addressed through aprofessional body. It should look at issues like creationof awareness and proper utilisation of end use devices.IP sets should be tested for quality, endurance andefficiency. Domestic and electric connections can reachmost of the population in rural areas if arrangementsare made to provide loans for initial capital costs,minimal costs standard plan for house connection and

reliable power. . Proper advice needs to be rendered inregard to crops and irrigation pattern to minimise energyand water wastage. A campaign should be launched tocover all feasible households with biogas plants andefficient chulas. All Below Poverty Line(BPL) familiesshould be brought under the Bhagya Jyothi scheme ina time bound manner.

• The demand for biofuels like firewood, ethanol, hongeoil, biogas, etc., is increasing and hence it is necessaryto have an integrated biofuel policy dealing withproduction, transport, distribution, regulation,monitoring, etc. It is desirable to setup a formalorganisation with professional management to look intothe following aspects:

i) Long term forecasting of demand for differentbiofuels,

ii) Scientific production of biofuels in identified forest/non forest areas.

iii) Linking production to demand for each biofuel.iv) Proper market orientation.v) Development of energy efficient devices and

popularisation.vi) Development of energy plantations in a large scale.vii) Proper use of agricultural waste.vii) Establishment of service and technical support

centers.• Confidence building and encouragement is a highly

necessary activity to be taken up in the State. We needto generate expertise in the areas like load forecasting,system planning, integrated distribution management,etc., Designers and engineers should be sensitised toenvironmental and ecological concerns.

• Solar water heaters should be encouraged for allheating tasks in houses and industries throughincentives and penalties. Water to households shouldbe provided with sufficient pressure so that energy isconserved.

• The responsibility of raising and managing fuel woodplantations could be given to the user agency in caseof diversion of forest land for energy related projects.

• Data on energy distribution and use is not available inseveral instances. Proper scientific data collectionshould be taken up and made mandatory.

238


Cooling towers, Raichur Thermal Power Station, Raichur

Panoramic view of Raichur Thermal Power Station

239

ANNEXURES

240

ANNEXURES

RURAL AND URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATIONStatus of Rural Water Supply in Karnataka State – 2003Distribution of Slums Across Districts and Class I Cities in Karnataka during 2002

WATER RESOURCESGroundwater levels from May 2002 to May 2003

AIR QUALITYAir quality in various cities of Karnataka for 2002-2003Air Pollution Control Status as per 2002-2003

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTIONCharter on corporate responsibility for environmental protection (CREP)Cleaner Production measures in selected ‘17 categories of highly polluting industries’River Water Quality adjacent to highly polluting industries / industrial areas for April 2001 - March 2003

MINING AND QUARRYINGDistrict wise production of Major Minerals (96-97 to 2000-01)

WASTE MANAGEMENTMunicipal Solid Waste generation per day in 6 City Corporations of Karnataka for 2002Budget allocation for MSW management for the year 2002-2003Work force available for MSW management in major city corporations of KarnatakaExisting Solid waste transportation capacity of various city corporations

BIODIVERSITYThreatened bird species of the stateHotspots of hopeHotspots of despair

ENERGYTable 1: Power stations under KPCL as on 31-3-2003Table 2: Power stations under VVNL as on 31-3-2003Table 3: Independent power producers as on 31-3-2003Table 4: Details of non conventional units (Cogeneration and Biomass) installed in KarnatakaTable 5: Power Generation from Wind Energy in KarnatakaTable 6: Generation of electricity under different categories by different agencies (2002-03)Table 7: Categorywise installations and energy consumption in the State-2003-04Table 8: Growth rate of various categories of consumers of electricityTable 9: Electricity consumers distribution pattern-2001Table 10: Details of captive generators as on 31/03/2003Table 11: Biogas plants implemented in districtsTable 12: Improved stoves implemented in districts

Some important legislations on environmentImportant notifications having implications for the environmentTerms of Reference for the preparation of the State of the Environment Report 2002-2003

241

Annexures


Status of Rural Water Supply in Karnataka State – 2003

Source: Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Department

55

No. % to Total LPCD and above

Bagalkot 17 35 69 87 125 333 46.77 379 712Bangalore (U) 0 330 120 101 150 701 64.79 381 1082Bangalore (R) 54 9 128 134 631 956 30.09 2221 3177Belgaum 5 100 376 242 272 995 64.44 549 1544Bellary 3 58 134 112 283 590 57.28 440 1030Bidar 19 14 80 56 42 211 23.29 695 906Bijapur 0 125 156 78 165 524 52.04 483 1007Chamarajanagar 0 84 120 140 165 509 75.18 168 677Chikkamagalur 234 22 194 121 134 705 19.79 2857 3562Chitradurga 0 70 191 111 132 504 33.14 1017 1521Dakshina Kannada 0 696 318 221 235 1470 47.88 1600 3070Davangere 0 24 101 121 145 391 31.94 833 1224Dharwad 15 46 70 65 49 245 54.69 203 448Gadag 27 10 23 30 38 128 34.04 248 376Gulbarga 0 220 355 259 374 1208 62.59 722 1930Hassan 0 92 597 702 532 1923 44.53 2395 4318Haveri 0 8 70 85 176 339 48.85 355 694Kodagu 142 98 80 72 60 452 82.94 93 545Kolar 35 59 218 176 217 705 18.29 3149 3854Koppal 0 14 46 72 133 265 33.42 528 793Mandya 0 27 195 160 204 586 29.43 1405 1991Mysore 3 0 97 137 303 540 26.77 1477 2017Raichur 48 154 113 83 131 529 37.7 874 1403Shimoga 4 301 297 288 178 1068 23.39 3498 4566Tumkur 30 614 467 408 399 1918 37.33 3220 5138Udupi 57 364 285 350 346 1402 41.38 1986 3388Uttara Kannada 18 192 154 340 594 1298 22.74 4411 5709

Total 711 3766 5054 4751 6213 20495 36187 56682% to total habitations 1.25 6.64 8.92 8.38 10.96 36.16 63.84 100

40-55< 55 LPCD

TotalDistrict

No. of Habitations with LPCD

0-10 01-Oct 20-30 30-40

242

Distribution of Slums Across Districts and Class I Cities in Karnataka during 2002*

Note: * Information on Raichur District pertains for the year 2001 Source: Karnataka Slum Clearance Board

Name of Class I City

Number of Slums

Bangalore ( U) 366 Bangalore City 366Bangalore (R ) 71Tumkur 113 Tumkur 26Kolar 70 Kolar 3Mysore 108 Mysore 52Dakshina Kannada 17 Mangalore 13Udupi 27Mandya 62 Mandya 24Chamarajanagar 54Chikkmagalur 60 Chikkamagalur 13Hassan 116 Hassan 24Davanagere 82 Davanagere 38Chitradurga 41 Chitradurga 22Shimoga 153 Shimoga 48

Bhadravathi 40Kodagu 4Dharwad 80 Hubli-Dharwad 61Haveri 63Gadag 48 Gadag 13Uttara Kannada 68Belgaum 110 Belgaum 18Bijapur 78 Bijapur 50Bellary 136 Bellary 38Bagalkot 113 Bagalkot 11Gulbarga 179 Gulbarga 60Koppal 54Bidar 85 Bidar 23Raichur 70Karnataka 2428

Name of the DistrictTotal No. of Slums in the

District

No. of Slums in Selected Class I Cities

243

WATER RESOURCES

Groundwater levels from May 2002 to May 2003

Source: Department of Mines and Geology

0-2 (m)

col 3 as % of col 2

2-4 (m)

col 5 as % of col 2

> 4 m Col 7 as % of col 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Bagalkot 13 6 46 5 39 - - 11 85

Bangalore (Rural & Urban) 25 10 40 11 44 - - 21 84

Belgaum 38 20 53 6 16 5 13 31 82

Bellary 12 5 42 4 33 2 17 11 92

Bidar 12 5 42 1 8 - - 6 50

Bijapur 20 11 55 1 5 1 5 13 65

Chamrajnagar 8 3 38 - - - - 3 38

Chikkamagalur 25 18 72 1 4 1 4 20 80

Chitradurga 14 7 50 5 36 2 14 14 100

Dakshina Kannada 26 23 89 1 4 - - 24 92

Davangere 9 3 33 2 22 1 11 6 75

Dharwad 5 2 40 2 40 - - 4 80

Gadag 11 3 27 5 46 1 9 9 82

Gulbarga 53 8 15 7 13 6 11 21 40

Hassan 27 18 67 6 22 1 4 25 92

Haveri 2 1 50 1 50 - - 2 100

Kodagu 18 11 61 1 6 - - 12 67

Kolar 17 4 24 11 65 2 12 17 100

Koppal 10 4 40 5 50 - - 9 90

Mandya 21 8 38 3 14 2 10 13 62

Mysore 13 6 46 1 8 - - 7 54

Raichur 22 12 55 6 27 1 5 19 86

Shimoga 26 16 62 2 8 3 12 21 81

Tumkur 20 3 15 9 45 7 35 19 95

Udupi 23 15 65 4 17 - - 19 83

Uttara Kannada 30 17 57 6 20 - - 23 77

Total 500 239 47.8 106 21.2 35 7 380 76

DistrictNo of

stations analysed

Fall in groundwater level Total stations recording fall in

ground water

Col 9 as % of col 2

244

AIR QUALITY

Air quality in various cities of Karnataka for 2002-2003

Red indicates values above the stipulated standardsSource: Annual Report 2002-2003, Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

Air Pollution Control Status as per 2002-2003

Source: Annual Report 2002-2003, Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

SPM µg/m3

RSPM µg/m3

SO2

µg/m3NOx µg/m3

140.0 60.0 60.0 60.0 Chitradurga Chitradurga Commercial 78 140.2 --- 6.0 4.0 Gulbarga GDA building Commercial 250 156.0 122.7 4.2 6.0 Gulbarga Super Market, Janatha Bazar Commercial 250 541.7 111.7 6.3 4.1 Hassan Narasimha Raja Circle Commercial 45 432.0 --- 13.0 19.0 Hubli K.C. Circle Commercial 529 490.6 --- 7.9 12.5 Bangalore Anand Rao Circle Commercial 365 160.0 68.0 11.0 31.0 Davanagere PWD office Davangere Commercial 56 280.0 --- 14.9 4.8 Gadag Above CMC Commercial 62 276.1 96.7 4.2 7.0 Karwar Above Savitha Hotel Commercial 19 293.1 32.2 0.6 12.0 Raichur Office Building Commercial 7 127.4 --- --- --- Davanagere RO, KSPCB Residential 37 82.1 --- 2.2 2.1 Bellary Vaddu village Residential 12 130.4 --- 18.6 1.1 Bellary Top of regional office Residential 59 250.4 --- 1.9 0.8 Chickmagalur Shariff colony Residential 6 539.0 --- 6.3 46.0 Hassan Kuvempunagar Residential 45 35.0 --- 3.9 7.7

360.0 120.0 80.0 80.0 Belgaum KSCPB Building Autonagar Industrial 60 18.8 27.1 --- --- Bidar Regional office building Industrial 50 116.2 --- --- --- Bangalore Amco Batteries Industrial 365 119.0 55.0 12.0 26.0 Bangalore Graphite India Industrial 365 111.0 52.0 16.0 16.0 Belgaum SSI Assocaition Udhyambhag Industrial 60 27.1 85.4 --- --- Davanagere M/s.HPF Ltd Industrial 57 131.0 --- 5.3 3.2 Dharwad Hindustan Lever Ltd Industrial 86 108.6 73.3 2.2 7.9 Dharwad Office building, Lakamanhalli Industrial 123 153.6 --- 3.3 4.0 Hassan B.Katihally Indl.Area Industrial 45 96.0 --- 6.0 9.3 Hassan KIADB Indl.Area Industrial 45 128.0 --- 7.4 5.5 Hassan HSSK ltd. Industrial 45 477.0 --- 12.0 19.0

Mangalore Regional office building, Baikampadi Industrial 45 111.6 --- --- ---

70.0 50.0 15.0 15.0 Hubli KIMS Sensitive 92 54.0 173.0 3.6 7.2

Air Quality (average Values of the air pollutants monitored) in µg/m3

City Location of AAQM station Classification of area

Total No. of samples Collected

Standards for Residential, Rural, and Other areas

Standards for Industrial areas

Standards for Sensitive areas

Category of Industry

Total No of Industries

APC system under

operation

APC system under

contruction

APC system under

planningDefaulters Industries

Closed

Industries yet to be

commissionedLarge 889 747 6 12 15 109 149Medium 1340 1048 12 28 10 242 109Small 9876 7208 76 123 756 1713 964Total 12105 9003 94 163 781 2064 1222

245

Charter on corporate responsibility for environmental protection (CREP)

1. CEMENT INDUSTRY1. Cement Plants, which are not complying with notified standards, shall do the following to meet the standards by

augmentation of existing air pollution control devices by July 2003 and by replacement of existing air pollution controldevices by July 2004. Non complying units shall give bank guarantee to respective SPCBs.

2. Cement Plants located in critically polluted or urban areas (including 5 km distance outside urban boundary) will meet 100mg/Nm3 limit of particulate matter by December 2004 and continue working to reduce the emission of particulate matter to50 mg/ Nm3. The new cement kilns to be accorded NOC/Environmental Clearance w.e.f. 01.04.2003 will meet the limit of50 mg/ Nm3 for particulate matter emissions.

3. CPCB will evolve load based standards by December 2003. and along with NCBM will evolve SO2 and NOx emissionstandards by June 2004.

4. Cement industries will carry out feasibility study and submit target dates to CPCB for co-generation of power by July2003.

2. DISTILLERIES1. For existing molasses based distilleries, utilization of spentwash to achieve zero discharge in inland surface

watercourses will include:a. Compost making with press mud/agricultural residue / Municipal Waste;b. Concentration and drying / Incineration;c. Treatment of spentwash through biomethanation followed by two stage secondary treatment and dilution of the treated

effluent with process water for irrigation as per norms prescribed by CPCB / MoEF;d. Treatment of spentwash through bio-methanation following by secondary treatment (BOD < 2500 mg / l) for controlled

discharge into sea through a proper submerged marine outfall at a point permitted by SPCB / CPCB in consultationwith National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), so that Dissolved Oxygen in the mixing zone does not deplete, lessthan 4.0 mg/l;

2. For new standalone distilleries & expansion of existing molasses based distilleries without achieving zero discharge insurface water / ground water will not be considered by MoEF / SPCB.

3. DYES & DYE INTERMEDIATES1. Industry Associations will conduct feasibility study for adoption of cleaner technologies for H-Acid manufacture (catalytic

hydrogenation and others) within one year.2. Dye intermediate industries will install salt recovery systems in case of sodium sulphate and reuse recovered salt in the

process by December 2003.3. An action plan for installation/up-gradation of incineration systems as per CPCB guidelines to handle concentrated

wastewater and reuse of treated weak wastewater will be submitted within six months.4. Wherever possible, waste generated from one industry will be utilized by others (e.g. use of effluent generated from Vinyl

Sulphone plant in H-Acid plant).5. Industries will regularly monitor ground water quality. This will be initiated immediately.6. H-Acid industries will examine the feasibility to increase product yield from 1.09 to 1.86 for reducing iron sludge, within six

months.7. In case of dyestuff, wherever possible (to be decided by the Task Force within six months), industries will use spray drying

instead of salting to minimize load on Effluent Treatment Plants.8. Industries will minimize loss of volatile organics with solvent recovery of at least 90%9. Scrubbing systems for SOx and NOx emissions will be upgraded by July 200310. Proper on-site storage facilities and final disposal of solid waste on secured landfill will be ensured immediately.

4. FERTILIZER INDUSTRY1. Efforts will be made for conservation of water, particularly with a target to have consumption less than 8, 12 and 15 m3/

tonne of urea produced for plant based on gas, naphtha and fuel oil, respectively. In case of plants using Naptha and Gasboth as feedstocks, water consumption target of less than 10 m3/tonne will be achieved. An action plan for this will besubmitted by June 2003 and targets will be achieved by March 2004.

2. Phase out use of arsenic for CO2 absorption in ammonia plants and chromate-based chemicals for cooling systems byDecember 2003.

3. Ground water monitoring around the storage facilities and beyond the factory premises will be carried out at regularintervals particularly for pH, fluoride. CPCB will finalize the guidelines for groundwater monitoring by December 2003.

4. No effluent arising from process plants and associated facilities will be discharged to the storm water drain. The industries,where waste water/effluent flows through the storm water drains even during the dry season will install continuous systemsfor monitoring the storm water quality for pH, ammonia and fluoride. If required, storm water will be routed through effluent


246

treatment plant before discharging. An action plan will be submitted by June 2003 and necessary action will be taken byJune 2004.

5. Proper and complete nitrification and de-nitrification will be ensured, wherever such process is used for effluent treatment,by September 2003.

6. All the upcoming urea plants will have urea prilling towers based on natural draft so as to minimize urea dust emissionswhile the existing urea plants having forced draft prilling towers, will install appropriate systems for achieving existingnorms of urea dust emissions. In this regard, industries will submit action plan by June 2003 and completion of necessaryactions by June 2004.

7. The sulphuric acid plants having SCSA system will switch over to DCDA system by March 2004 to meet the emissionstandard for SO2 as 2 kg/tonne of H2SO4 produced. Plants having DCDA system will improve the conversion and absorptionefficiencies of the system as well as scrubbers to achieve SO2 emissions of 2 kg/tonne of H2SO4 produced in case of plantshaving capacity above 300 tpd and 2.5 kg/tonne in case of plants having capacity upto 300 tpd.

8. An action plan for providing proper dust control systems at rock phosphate grinding unit in phosphoric acid plants/singlesuper phosphate plants, so as to achieve particulate emission levels of 150 mg/Nm3 will be submitted by September 2003and complied with by March 2004.

9. Regular monitoring of ambient air quality with regard to SO2, NOx, PM, SO3, fluoride and acid mist will be carried out.10. Gypsum will be effectively managed by providing proper lining, dykes with approach roads and monitoring of groundwater

quality around storage facilities. Accumulated gypsum will be properly capped.11. Explore recovery/buy-back of spent catalyst by September 2003. Industries will also explore recovery of chromium from

the sludge.12. Carbon slurry, sulphur muck and chalk will be properly managed and disposed of in properly designed landfill either within

premises or in common facility. Action plan on this will be submitted by June 2003 and implemented by March 2004.

5. INTEGRATED IRON & STEEL INDUSTRIES1. To meet the parameters of leaking doors, leaking lids, leaking off take in coke oven plants, of the notified standards

under EPA within three years (by December 2005). To rebuild at least 40% of the coke oven batteries in next 10 years(by December 2012).

2. Direct inject of reducing agents in blast furnace by June 2013.3. Utilization of Steel Melting Shop (SMS) / Blast Furnace (BF) Slag to the extent of 70% by 2004, 80% by 2006 and 100%

by 2007.4. Charge of tar sludge / ETP sludge to Coke Oven by June 2003.

5. Inventorization of the Hazardous Waste (tar sludge, acid sludge, waste lubricating oil and type fuel falls in the categoryof Hazardous Waste) as per Hazardous Waste (M&H) Rules, 1989 as amended in 2000 and implementation of theRules by December 2003.

6. To reduce specific water consumption to 5 m3/t for long products and 8 m3/t for flat products by December 2005.7. Installation of Continuous stack monitoring system & its calibration in major stacks and setting up of the online ambient

air quality monitoring stations by June 2005.8. Up-gradation in the monitoring and analysis facilities for air and water pollutants. Also to impart elaborate training to the

manpower so that realistic data is obtained in the environmental monitoring laboratories.9. The industry will initiate the steps to adopt the following clean technologies/measures to improve the performance of

industry towards production, energy and environment.· Energy recovery of top blast furnace gas.· Use of Tar-free runner linings.· De-dusting of cast house at tap holes, runners, skimmers ladle and charging points.· Suppression of fugitive emissions by using nitrogen gas or other inert gas.· Slag and fly ash transportation back to the abandoned mines, through empty railway wagons returning back to

the mines.· Processing of the waste containing flux & ferrous wastes through waste recycling plant.· Promotion of Energy Optimisation Technology including energy audit· To set targets for resource conservation such as raw material, energy and water consumption to match international

standards.10. Inventorisation of sponge iron plants to be completed by SPCBs/CPCB by June 2003 and units will be asked to install

proper air pollution control equipment by December 2003 to control primary and secondary emissions.

6. Oil Refineries1. All the refineries located in the critically polluted areas, identified by CPCB, will submit an action plan within six months for

phase wise reduction of SO2 emission from the present level. Future refineries will have Sulphur Recovery Unit withminimum 99% efficiency.

2. With regard to NOx emission, the new refineries/process units will install low NOx burners. For retrofitting of low NOxburners in existing units, the expert committee will suggest the strategies and action plan within six months including NOxstandard.

247

3. Refineries will install continuous emission monitoring systems for SOx and NOx in major stacks with proper calibrationfacilities and action plan will be submitted within six months.

4. Refineries will monitor total HC and Benzene in the premises (particularly at loading/un-loading operations and ETP). Thestatus and action plan will be submitted within six months.

5. Refineries will prepare action plan for conservation of water resources and maximizing reuse/ recycling of treated effluentwithin six months. The treated effluent discharge quantity (excluding once through cooling water) will be limited to 0.4 m3/per tonne (for 90% of time) except for the monsoon season.

6. Oil spill response facilities at coastal refineries will be in position within two years.7. Refineries will explore new technologies for reduction in the generation of oily sludge. Strategy and action plan for liquidation

of existing sludge will be submitted within six months.8. The petroleum coke having high sulphur content will only be sold to/ reused by organized industries (having consent from

SPCBs), which have systems to control SO2 emissions. This will be ensured by June 2003.

10.0 Pesticides industry1. Waste streams should be segregated into high COD waste, toxic waste, low COD waste, inorganic waste etc. for the

purpose of providing appropriate treatment by June 20032. Streams should be detoxified and treated in ETP or thermally destroyed in incinerator, as per CPCB guidelines. The waste

streams should be treated suitably before taking to evaporation ponds by June 20043. Solvent recovery should be improved to achieve atleast 90% recovery wherever possible by Dec. 20034. By December 2004, the incinerator for rest of the solvents which cannot be recovered shall be in place incinerated.5. As by-products are not being recovered fully, industry will make effort to recover by-product as far as possible by March

2004.6. For air pollution control from processes, scrubber efficiency will be improved and maintained as per the best practicable

technology for control of HCl, Cl2, Methyl Chloride, Phosphorus Pentoxide, Ammonia, H2S and volatile organic carbons(VOCs) by December 2003.

7. An incinerator will be installed, where necessary by December 2004.8. For control of fugitive emissions (particularly for hazardous air pollutants), the industries will adopt standard engineering

practices. System of leak detection and repair (LDAR) programme especially for solvents, should be developed by industriesby March 2004.

9. Incinerators will be upgraded to meet CPCB norms for hazardous waste incinerators for Halogenated compound andPOPs. The implementation target will be decided on the basis of action plan submitted by individual industries by June2003.

10. The present bio-assay test will be replaced by Toxicity Factor test method developed by CPCB. Toxicity factor of four (TF-4) will be achieved by December 2003 and industries will improve their system to achieve TF-2 by July, 2006.

11.0 Petrochemicals1. For the storm water generated from process area and tank farm area during initial hours of rain, an arrangement will be

made for collection and oil separation including further treatment as required. Such arrangement will include provision forbuffer tank (holding tank) and monitoring of effluent quality.

2. In order to control high COD and persistent organic pollutants including toxic constituents, the industry will select appropriateunit operations for pre-treatment of effluent within inside battery limit before sending to the biological treatment systems forbetter functioning of ETPs. Action plan for the same will be submitted within 6 months and implemented within one year(March, 2004).

3. The industry will adopt periodically leak detection and repair (LDAR) programme to check fugitive emissions within sixmonths. Fugitive emissions of carcinogenic compounds (e.g. Benzene) will be controlled by closed vapor collection andrecovery system. The frequency of the programme will be proportionate to the risk potential of carrying fluid. Based onleak detection as per LDAR programme, action will be taken to eliminate fugitive emissions. This will be a continuousactivity. Measures will be taken to monitor health of the workers.

4. The industry will submit an action plan within 6 months to ensure that no halogenated organics is sent to the flares inorder to avoid formation of persistent organic pollutants. All HAPs and halogenated organics will be routed to theincineration system having end-on pollution control facility.

5. For incinerable waste, properly designed incinerator will be installed within the premises or as a common facility.Industry will check the design and will adopt sound engineering practices for proper operation of incinerators.Continuous monitoring will be done for operational parameters and specific parameters in tail gas to ensure the efficientfunctioning. The non-incinerable hazardous waste should be disposed of in a secure-landfill.

6. Industry will go for self-assessment and regulation by conducting environmental auditing regularly, besides havingregular monitoring of pollutants in air emission, liquid effluent and receiving environment.

12.0 PHARMACEUTICALS1. Waste streams should be segregated into high COD waste, toxic waste, low COD waste, inorganic waste etc. for the

purpose of providing appropriate treatment by December 2003.2. High COD streams should be detoxified and treated in ETP or thermally destroyed in incinerator by March 2004.

248

3. Proper facilities should be provided for handling and storage of hazardous waste. For final disposal of hazardous waste,recycling and reuse should be given priority, either within the premises or outside with proper manifest system. In case ofincinerable waste, properly designed incinerator should be installed within the premises or outside as a common facility.The non-incinerable hazardous waste should be disposed of in properly designed secure-landfill either within the industry’spremises or in a common facility by March 2004.

4. For new industries which are not connected with CETP & TSDF and which cannot afford to install treatment facilities maynot be considered for granting consent to establishment.

5. Consent for establishment and consent for operation under the Water Act will be based on pollution load and concentrationof pollutants. Each industry will submit pollution load, concentration of final discharge along with water balance to SPCB/CPCB for formulation of strategy.

6. Industry will take up on priority, the control of hazardous air pollutants (such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride, 1-4 dioxane,methanol, toluene, methyl chloride etc.) and odorous compounds (mercapatan & hydrogen sulphide) by Dec. 2004.

7. Industries on their own will carry out monitoring of environmental parameters, audit it at regular interval and submit thesame to SPCB.

13.0 PULP & PAPER INDUSTRY

Large Pulp and Paper1. Discharge of AOX kg/tonne of paper to be reduced to 1.5 kg/tonne of paper within 2 years and to 1.0 kg / tonne of paper

in 5 years2. Installation of lime kiln within 4 years3. Wastewater discharge to be less than 140 m3/tonne of paper within 2 years, less than 120 m3 / tonne in 4years for units

installed before 1992 and less than 100 m3 / tonne of paper per units installed after 19924. Installation of odour control system within 4 years.

Small Pulp and Paper1. Recovery of chemicals by installation of Chemical recovery plant or utilization of black liquor with no discharge from

pulp mill within 3 yearsShift to waste paper2. Upgradation of ETPs so as to meet discharge standards within 1 year3. Waste water discharge/ tonne of paper shall be less than 150 m3/tonne of paper within 3 years

14.0 SUGAR INDUSTRY1. Operation of ETP shall be started atleast one month before starting of cane crushing to achieve desired MLSS so as to

meet the prescribed standards from day one of the operation of mill.2. Reduce wastewater generation to 100 litres per tonne of cane crushed by April 2004.3. To achieve zero discharge in inland surface water bodies by December 2004.4. To provide 15 days storage capacity for treated effluent to take care of no demand for irrigation by April 2004.5. To install ESP/bag filter/high efficiency scrubber to comply with standards for particulate matter emission to <150 mg/Nm3

by April 2004.

15.0 TANNERY1. All the chrome-tanning units in the country will have the Chrome Recovery Plant either on individual basis or on collective

by December 2005.2. Recovered Chromium is to be utilized in tanning process by December 2004.3. All the tanneries will install water meters and flow meters to measure actual consumption and wastewater discharge by

December 2003.4. Water consumption rates will be brought down to 28 m3/tonne of hides by taking water conservation measures by December

2003.5. All CETPs and ETPs will take the following measures:

· Deployment of qualified and well trained staff for O & M of the ETPs/CETPs by December 2003.· Installation of automatic monitoring instruments by CETPs/large tanneries by December 2003.· Separate Energy meters for ETPs / CETPs by December 2003.· Replacement of open anaerobic lagoons with cleaner technology options will be implemented by December

2005.· Implementation of guidelines developed by CPCB for Health & safety of workers employed in the industry / ETP/

CETP by December 2003.· All large tannery units (processing more than 5 tonnes/day of hides/skins) will undertake Environmental Auditing

on annual basis by June 2004.· Modification / up-gradation of the CETPs/ETPs wherever necessary will be taken up by tannery units and CETP

management by December 2005.6. For TDS Management following methods will be adopted:

249

· Manual / mechanical desalting by December 2003.· Use of cleaner technology for less use of salt by December 2005.· High Rate Transpiration system for effluent treatment will be adopted wherever feasible by December 2004.· Treated wastewater will be mixed with the sewage wherever feasible and further treated and the treated combined

effluent will be used on land for irrigation by December 2005.7. For solid waste management, the following methods will be adopted:

· Utilization of process sludge for by-product recovery by December 2004.· Resource Recovery from process sludge and ETP sludge in the form of Biogas by December 2004.· Safe disposal of hazardous sludge and non-hazardous solid wastes by December 2005.

8. Use of Boron bearing compounds will be dispensed with by December 2003.9. Ground water quality monitoring to be strengthened wherever the treated effluents are applied on land for irrigation by

December 2004.

16.0 THERMAL POWER PLANTS1. For existing thermal power plants, a feasibility study shall be carried out by Central Electricity Authority (CEA) to examine

possibility to reduce the particulate matter emissions to 100 mg/Nm3. The studies shall also suggest the road map to meet100 mg/Nm3 wherever found feasible. CEA shall submit the report by March 2004.

2. New / expansion power projects to be accorded environmental clearance on or after 1.4.2003 shall meet the limit of 100mg/Nm3 for particulate matter.

3. Development of SO2 & NOx emission standards for coal based plants by Dec. 2003. – New / expansion power projects shallmeet the limit of SO2 & NOx w.e.f 1.1.2005 – Existing power plants shall meet the limit of SO2 & NOx w.e.f. 1.1.2006

4. Install/activate opacity meters/continuous monitoring systems in all the units by December 31, 2004 with proper calibrationsystem.

5. Development of guidelines / standards for mercury and other toxic heavy metals emissions by December 2003.6. Review of stack height requirement and guidelines for power plants based on micro meteorological data by June 2003.7. Power plants will indicate their requirement of abandoned coal mines for ash disposal & Coal India / MOC shall provide the

list of abandoned mines by June 2003 to CEA8. Power plants will provide dry ash to the users outside the premises or uninterrupted access to the users within six months.9. Power Plants should provide dry flyash free of cost to the users.10. State P.W.Ds / construction & development agencies shall adhere to the specifications / Schedules of CPWD for ash / ash

based products utilisation.11. New plants to be accorded environmental clearance on or after 1.04.2003 shall adopt dry flyash extraction or dry disposal

system or Medium (35-40%) ash concentration slurry disposal system or Lean phase with hundred percent ash water re-circulation system depending upon site specific environmental situation. Existing plants shall adopt the appropriate systemsby December 2004.

12. Flyash Mission shall prepare guidelines/manuals for flyash utilization by March 2004.

250

Cleaner Production measures in selected ‘17 categories of highly polluting industries’

Existing Technologies/Practices Cleaner Production Measures

Segregation of effluent streams and characterisation for separate treatments as necessary.Solvent recovery systemsSalt recovery from high TDS (inorganic) containing streams through forced evaporation system or TDS removal through Reverse Osmosis process

Scrubbers for point source emissions. Collection of fugitive emissions from the processing sections and loading/unloading sections through hoods and ducts and providing control equipment such as absorption/adsorption systems.

Cyclone to control emission. Multi-cyclones or bag filters for control of emissions from boilers.

Super Claus process with greater sulphur removal efficiencies and SCOT process for off-gas treatment.Catalytic cracking units should be provided with particulate removal devices.

To minimise fugitive emissions of HC, floating and fixed roof tanks are provided for storage of lighter products and crude oil respectively.

Steam injection in flaring stacks to reduce particulate emission, vapour recovery system to be installed to control losses of volatile organic compounds (VOC"s) from storage tanks and loading areas and it should achieve 90-100% recovery.

The gypsum and iron sludge can be used in the cement and pigment industries.

Cleaner process technologies e.g catalytic hydrogenation, use of spent acid after nitration for acidification of fusion mass, which can eliminate generation of iron and gypsum sludge.

Effluents containing chromium recovery is treated and discharged

Large and medium units should provide individual chrome recovery system. The small-scale units need to adopt the chrome recovery system in a group of 4 to 5 units. This results in substantial saving besides reducing the concentration of chrome in the trade effluent.

Drum soaking instead of pits soaking which reduces the water consumption besides bringing down the soaking time from 12 hours to 3 hours.

Possibilities of collection of dirt soak liquor and adding polyelectrolyte to flocculate and settle the suspended solids. This soak liquor after treatment and filtration can be reused

Starch is most commonly used as sizing material for cotton textiles. This starch cann’t be recovered and also contributes high BOD.

The starch can be substituted with othersizing materials such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CWC), polyvinyl acetate (PVA) whichare comparatively more expensive but are renewable

Mercerising waste contains about 4% caustic. Few textile industries have provision for its recovery.

Spent caustic from mercerising as well as other units can be recovered and reused either by membrane separation technology or by most commonly used evaporation method.

Various types of dyes are used to impart the desired quality in the fabrics, which generates coloured effluent.

Instead of discharging the exhausted dye bath, it can be reconstituted by adding appropriate amount of make-up dyes and auxiliary chemicals. The reconstituted dyebath can be reused for dyeing successive batches.

The wastewater is treated by physico-chemical and/or biological treatment process. Some industries uses filtration along with physico-chemical treatment to reuse the specific effluent streams.

The effluent can be further treated by activated carbon adsorption process or other advanced treatment process so that the treated effluent can be recycled/reused.

1. Bulk Drug IndustryCollection of all the streams and providing Biological treatment (mostly activated sludge process and lagoons)

2. Oil RefineriesTo minimise emissions of SOX, Sulphur Recovery Units (SRU) based on Claus/Modified Claus process, are installed. Besides this, scrubbers are

l i t ll d f t lli th

3. Dyes and dye intermediates industryGypsum, iron sludge and sludge from ETP are generated as solid waste.

4. Tannery Industry

5. Textiles

251

Cleaner Production measures in selected ‘17 categories of highly polluting industries’ contd...Existing Technologies/Practices Cleaner Production Measures

Use of elemental chlorine in bleaching of pulp which is resulting in generation of toxic effluent containing chloro compounds of lignin. It results in generation of AOX, which is highly toxic and carcinogenic.

Use of chlorine dioxide and use of oxygen at alkali extraction stage should be preferred. It reduces generation of AOX by about 70%. The use of oxygen/ozone as bleaching agents makes the effluent recyclable from this section with no colour.

Use of kraft pulping process for delignification of wood/bamboo raw material in large-scale mills.

Use of modern pulping process like RDH pulping. Oxygen delignification should be practised. These processes produce pulp of low kappa number and high brightness, which require low bleach chemicals. Low steam requirement with high pulping yield are the attempted benefits.

Land disposal of lime sludge by the mills having chemical recovery plant.

Most of the large-scale mills dispose lime sludge on land. Limekiln should be used for recalcination of lime sludge, so that it can be reused in the process.

Discharge of black liquor by the small-scale agrobased pulp & paper mills.

Chemical Recovery Plant (CRP) is required to be installed by such mills. The black liquor can be taken to CRP for recovery of pulping chemicals. Some agro-based pulp & paper mills have installed CRP and running it successfully. The installation of CRP by all units is necessary to control pollution and colour.

Removal of colour through lignin precipitation by adding polyelectrolyte.

For the industry where chemical recovery is not economically feasible and problem of colour persists, the removal of lignin through precipitation and its conversion into useful and marketable product e.g. binders should be practised.

6. Pulp & Paper Industry

252

River Water Quality adjacent to highly polluting industries / industrial areas for April 2001 - March 2003

River Water Classification:Class “A”: Drinking water source without conventional treatment but after disinfectionClass “B”: Out door bathing (organized)Class “C”: Drinking water source after conventional treatmentClass “D”: Propagation of wild life, fisheriesClass “E”: Irrigation, Industrial, cooling and controlled waste disposal

Source: KSPCB Annual reports (2001-02, 2002-03)

River and location where the samples are collected A

pr-0

1

May

-01

Jun-

01

Jul-0

1

Aug

-01

Sep-

01

Oct

-01

Nov

-01

Dec

-01

Jan-

02

Feb-

02

Mar

-02

Apr

-02

May

-02

Jun-

02

Jul-0

2

Aug

-02

Sep-

02

Oct

-02

Nov

-02

Dec

-02

Jan-

03

Feb-

03

Mar

-03

Upstream of MPM and VISL, Bhadravati A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B

Downstream of MPM, Bhadravati A B C C C A C B C B B B C D D D C D C C C C C C

Upstream of Harihar Polyfibres C C C C C C C C C C C C C C B C C C C C C C C C

Downstream of Harihar Polyfibres C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C B C C C C C C

Upstream of West coast paper mills C C C C C C C C C A - - C - - B - - - B - - -

Downstream of West Coast Paper Mills A A A B C C C B C A - - - - B - - - D - B - -

Intake of KIADB, Nanjangud B C C C C B A B C - - B B C C - C B - B

Bathing ghat, Nanjanagud C C C C C C B C C B C D B B B C C C C C C C C C

Kabini River (Mysore dist.)

Bhadra River ( Shimoga dist.)

Tungabhadra River ( Davanagere dist.)

Kali River ( Uttara Kannada dist.)

253

District wise production of Major Minerals (96-97 to 2000-01)

Source: Administrative reports (from 97-98 to 2000-01) of the Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) -Govt. of Karnataka


1996 - 97 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00 2000 - 01 Five year Ave.(%)

Bangalore (North) 7,747 6,573 6,558 11,650 11,756 0.03Bangalore (South) 0 0 0 0 0 0Kolar NF 3,933 0 0 3,413 0Belgaum 153,742 118,188 169,342 159,940 230,211 0.55Dharwar 219,179 191,976 168,150 126,045 150,065 0.56Bellary 7,405,690 10,022,025 12,384,186 14,990,048 17,038,681 40.75Raichur* 1,511 1,566 2,369 1,637 1,967 0.01Chitradurga 7,730,922 1,363,907 1,306,176 1,291,312 106,863 7.78Bijapur 894,762 798,444 4,563,128 802,342 564,236 5.02Gulbarga 10,474,208 8,518,243 6,749,749 2,986,890 6,790,325 23.41Bidar 0 0 0 0 0 0Dakshina Kannada 150,962 168,136 151,357 120,350 100,887 0.46Chickmagalur 5,645,370 6,211,564 4,970,698 5,493,850 4,910,733 17.95Mysore 181,521 219,074 258,760 258,149 435,984 0.89Hassan 36,489 50,964 24,088 21,185 36,121 0.11Mandya 850 978 2,040 2,594 430 0Shimoga 88,564 58,959 54,273 68,537 40,817 0.21Tumkur 614,232 788,947 663,085 499,331 374,441 1.94Uttara Kannada 138,587 94,932 80,105 87,570 113,537 0.34

District

Production (Tonnes, * kgs)

254

Municipal Solid Waste generation per day in 6 City Corporations of Karnataka for 2002

WASTE MANAGEMENT

* Per Capita Waste generated = Waste generated /PopulationSource: Respective City Corporations

Budget allocation for MSW management for the year 2002-2003

Source: KUIDFC, 2002-03

Work force available for MSW management in major city corporations of Karnataka

Note: Fig in bracket indicates number of private workers engagedData under Health officer Grade includes Deputy Health officer and Chief Health officer also

Source: Personal Communication with Respective City Corporations, 2002-03

City Corporations Population (2002)

Waste generated (tons / day)

Waste Collected (tons /day)

Per capita waste*

generated (grams/day)

Bangalore 5,882,162 2,500 1,400 425 Mangalore 551,701 250 200 453 Hubli / Dharwad 801,442 250 200 311 Mysore 794,677 230 183 289 Belgaum 516,155 120 100 232 Gulbarga 452,944 120 100 264 Total 8,999,081 3,470 2,183 386

City Corporation

Population (2003-03)

Waste generated (Tons p.a.)

Budget allocated

(Crores p.a.)

Budget spent Per capita (Rs.p.a.)

Bangalore 5,882,162 912,500 60.00 102.00 Belgaum 516,155 43,800 4.95 97.00 Gulbarga 452,944 43,800 4.70 110.00 Hubli-Dharwad 801,442 91,250 10.00 124.00 Mangalore 551,701 91,250 4.90 89.00 Mysore 794,677 83,950 7.20 91.00 Total 8,999,081 1,266,550 91.75 613.00

Sanctioned Working Sanctioned Working Sanctioned WorkingBangalore 9 9 317 317 8196 10713 (5804)Belgaum 1 1 15 14 661 507Gulbarga 1 1 17 11 422 266Hubli-Dharwad 2 2 47 47 816 702Mangalore 5 3 18 14 650 750 (350)Mysore 2 2 30 25 1181 892Total 20 18 444 428 11926 13830

PourakarmikasHealth inspectorCity Corporation Health Officer

255

Existing Solid waste transportation capacity of various city corporations

Source: Respective City Corporations, 2002-03

City Corporation Truck (6 tons/trip)

Tipper (5 tons/trip)

Dumper placer (3 tons /trip)

Tractor (2 tons/

trip)

Compactor (4 tons/ trip)

Maximum transportation

possible in tons (Avg 2 Trips/day)

Bangalore 19 2 9 3878Belgaum 15 Nil Nil 1 Nil 184Gulbarga Nil 3 Nil 14 Nil 86Hubli-Dharwad 18 Nil Nil 7 Nil 244Mangalore 22 2 3 Nil Nil 302Mysore 16 8 2 18 Nil 356Total 378 13 24 42 9 5050

307 [includes tipper]

256

Threatened bird species of the stateBIODIVERSITY

Category Common Name Scientific Name Habitat

White-Backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis Dry plainsLong-billed Vulture Gyps indicus Dry plains

Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps GrasslandsLesser Florican Sypheotides indica Grasslands

Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis WetlandsLesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus WetlandsPallas's Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus WetlandsLesser Kestrel Falco naumanni GrasslandsSociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarious WetlandsNilgiri Wood Pigeon Columba elphinstonii Evergreen ForestsYellow-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus Dry deciduous ForestsWhite-bellied shortwing Brachypteryx major SholaBroad-tailed Grass bird Schoenicola platyura High altitude GrasslandsPied or White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis Dry deciduous ForestsGreen Munia Amandava formosa Wetlands

Darter Anhinga melanogaster WetlandsPainted Stork Mycteria leucocephala WetlandsBlack-necked Stork Ephippiiorhaynchus asiaticus WetlandsOriental White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus WetlandsFerruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca WetlandsGreater Grey-headed Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus WetlandsRed-headed Vulture Sacrogyps calvus Dry deciduous ForestsPallid Harrier Circus macrourus GrasslandsAsian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus WetlandsMalabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus Evergreen ForestsGreat Pied Hornbill Buceros bicornis Evergreen ForestsGrey-breasted Laughing thrush Garrulax jerdoni Shola

White Stork Ciconia ciconia WetlandsLarge Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo WetlandsWhite Necked Stork Ciconia episcopus WetlandsSpoon Bill Platalea leucorodia WetlandsLesser Whistling Teal Dendrocygna javanica WetlandsBar Headed Geese Anser anser WetlandsBlack Bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda WetlandsSmall Indian Practincole Glareola lactea WetlandsBlack Ibis Pseudibis papillosa WetlandsGlossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus WetlandsGreat Stone Plover Esacus magnirostris WetlandsWhite Bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster WetlandsLesser Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos javanicus WetlandsAvocet Recurvirostra avosetta WetlandsLesser Frigate Bird Fregata minor WetlandsWhite Ibis Threskiornis aethiopica WetlandsFlamingo Phoeniconaias minor WetlandsDemoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo WetlandsAlexandrine Parakeet Psittacula eupatria Dry deciduous ForestsGreat Black Woodpecker Dryocopus Evergreen ForestsCeylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger Evergreen Forests

Criteria nearly met

Locally Threatened

Critical

Endangered

Vulnerable

257

Hotspots of hope

District Taluk Habitat Ecosystem Plants Animals

Bagalkot Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir/Lakes Water Fowl

Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir / Lakes Water Fowl

Kanakapura Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Kanakapura Agricultural land

Ragi (Elusine Coracana) varities( Mallige, Majjige, Gidda, Jenumuthige, Ambukavi, Pichakaddi, Rathnachudi) Paddy(Oryza Sativa) (Raskadam gandhasale, Salem sanna Raskadam, Godhavari Isuku Vadlu, Annekombina batha, Salem sanna Basumathi)

Saudathi Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir / Lakes Water Fowl

Khanapur, Jogalpet

Relic Evergreen Forests Evergreen Forests

Dipterocarpus indicus, Myristica malabarica, Garcinia gummi-gutta

Harapanahalli Dry Deciduous/Scrub Forest

Scrub/Thorny forests

Holoptelia integrifolia, Dichrostachys sp., Acacia leucophloea, Dyospyros melanoxylon

Sloth Bear

Lingsugur Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Kollegal Grasslands Grasslands Grasses, ground orchids and other herbs

Kollegal Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Tarikere Evergreen Forests Evergreen Forests Rhynchostylis, Catlea, Luisia

Forests Dry deciduous forests

Anogeisus latifolia, Terminalia sp., Tectona grandis, Dyospyros melanoxylon

Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Dhole

Montane Grasslands Grasslands Grasses, ground orchids and other herbs

Poeciloneuron indicum Forests Evergreen Forests Poeciloneuron indicum Lion-tailed Macaque

Sringeri Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Bijapur

Chamarajanagar

Chikamagalur

Bagalkot

Bangalore-Rural

Belgaum

Bellary

258


Mangalore Mangrove Mangrove



Belthangadi, Sringeri, Karkala, Sulia,

Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Channagiri Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir / Lakes Water Fowl


Arkalgud Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Savanoor Human Habitation Human Habitation Baobab

Evergreen Forests Evergreen ForestsDendrobium, Rhynchostylis, Catlea, Luisia

Nilgiri Langur

Evergreen Forests Sacred Groves

Somvarpet Evergreen Forests Evergreen ForestsDipterocarpus indicus, Myristica malabarica, Mesua ferrea

Lion-tailed Macaque

Bagamandala, Somwarpet Evergreen Forests, Evergreen Forests

Dipterocarpus indicus, Chrysophyllum sp., Myristica malabarica, Mesea ferrea

Nilgiri Langur, Lion-tailed Macaque


Greybreasted Laughing Thrush, Whitebellied Shortwing

Kushalnagar Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes



Scrub Forest Scrub Forest Wolf and Fox

Srirangapatna Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Gundlupet, Virajpet Forests Moist and Dry

deciduous forests

Anogeisus latifolia, Santalum album, Terminalia sp., Acacia leucophloea, Tectona grandis

Elephant, Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Dhole

Kodagu

Kolar

Mandya

Mysore

Davangere

Dharwad

Hassan

Haveri

Dakshina Kannada

Hotspots of hope contd..

259




H.D.Kote, K.R.Nagar Streams/Rivers River Members of

Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Sorab, Tirthahalli Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir / Lakes Water Fowl

Streams/Rivers Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Thirthahalli Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

All Evergreen ForestsDipterocarpus indicus, Myristica malabarica, Garcinia gummi-gutta

Amphibians

Sira Human Habitation Human Habitation Painted Stork

Sira, Koratagere, Kunigal, Tumkur Reservoir / Lakes Reservoir / Lakes Water Fowl

Madhugiri Rocky Mountain Highest Monolith Rock in Asia

All Evergreen ForestsDipterocarpus indicus, Myristica malabarica, Garcinia gummi-gutta

Amphibians

Kundapura Evergreen Forests Evergreen Forests Saraca asoka, Rattan Lion-tailed Macaque

Udupi Evergreen Forests Sacred GrovesUdupi Island Island



Karkala Streams/Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae Freshwater Fishes

Sirsi, Siddapur, Kumta All Evergreen Forests


Amphibians

Honavar Dipterocarpus indicus Forests Evergreen Forests Dipterocarpus indicus Lion-tailed Macaque

Karwar, Honnavar, Kumta Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine

invertebrates

Honnavar Evergreen Forests Evergreen ForestsDipterocarpus indicus, Myristica malabarica, Mesua ferrea

Lion-tailed Macaque

Sorab Evergreen Forests Sacred GrovesHonavar Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove vegetation

Haliyal Moist Deciduous Forest

Moist Deciduous Forest

Mysore

Shimoga

Tumkur

Udupi

Uttara Kannada

260

Hotspots of despair



Siddapur, Honnavar, Sirsi Myristica Swamps Evergreen Forests

Myristica fatua, Gymnacranthera canarica, Semecarpus travancorica

Phylloneura westermanii (Monotypic damselfly)

Siddapur Relic Evergreen Forests Evergreen Forests


Siddapur, Sirsi, Yellapur

Relic Evergreen Forests Evergreen Forests


Siddapur, Kumta, Honnavar, Joida Riparian Forests Evergreen Forests Riparian flora

Bhatkal, Kumta, Ankola

Rocky and sandy beach Beach

Marine algae, Spinefex, Ipomoea biloba, Canavalia, Hydrophylax maritima

Marine invertebrates

Kumta Rocky Mountain RocksKarwar Sandy beach Beach Olive Ridley Turtle

Kumta Umbrella Palm Forests Evergreen Forests Corypha umbraculifera

Uttara Kannada

District Taluk Habitat Ecosystem Plants Animals Causal factor

Agro ecosystems Agro ecosystem Crop Diversity

Reservoir /Lakes Reservoir/ Lakes Water Fowl Urbanization

Bidadi Reservoir /Lakes Reservoir/ Lakes Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles

Bangalore South

Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles

Devanahalli Tamrind Sacred Groves No Protection

Bangalore South

Lake Lakes Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles

Bangalore North

Lake Lakes Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles

All districts

Bangalore-Rural

Bangalore-Urban

261

Hotspots of despair contd..


Cave Dry deciduous forests

Wroughton's Free Tailed Bat(Otomops wroughtoni)

Hydro electric project

Belthangadi Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Siltation

Mangalore Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Siltation

Belthangadi Semi evergreen Forests

Fruit Bats conserved Sacred Grove

Bats Deforestation

Mangalore Mangrove Mangrove Candelia, Avecennia, Rhizophora

Threat of clearing of mangroves

Mangalore Streams /Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae

Freshwater Fishes River Diversion Scheme

Mangalore Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Saline intrusion

Mangalore Sea side Sea side Water Fowl Barge mounted projects

Mangalore Sandy beach Sea side Marine invertebrates

Occupational pressure, Water pollution, Costal erosion

Harihar Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles

Harihar Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Pollution in river

Naregal Reservoir/ Lakes Reservoir/ Lakes Water Fowl

Maddur Human Habitation

Human Habitation

Grey Pelican, Painted Stork

Ecotourism and Habitat Loss

Bhadravathi Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Flow of untreated sewages,dumping of wastes, washing of vehicles, Pollution in river

Sagar Streams/ Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae

Freshwater Fishes Monoculture, Encroachment

Sorab Evergreen Forests

Sacred Groves Decline of Sacred Kans

Streams /Rivers Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Belgaum

Dakshina Kannada

Davanagere

Dharwad

Mandya

Shimoga

262

Hotspots of despair contd..

Source: Dr Madhav Gadgil and team


Tumkur Scrub-Deciduous Forest

Dry deciduous forests

Anogeisus latifolia, Terminalia sp., Acacia leucophloea, Dyospyros melanoxylon

Yellow Throated Bulbul

Roads

Sira Scrub Forest Scrub Forest Black Buck Habitat loss

Udupi Laterite hill tops Human Habitation

Paracautlea bhatii Urbanization

Kundapur Mangrove Mangrove Candelia, Avecennia, Rhizophora

Threat of clearing of mangroves

Kundapur Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Siltation

Udupi, Kundapur

Sandy beach Sea side Marine invertebrates

Occupational pressure

Udupi Sandy beach Sea side Marine invertebrates

Costal erosion

Bhatkal Rocky and sandy beach

Beach Marine algae, Spinefex, Ipomoea biloba, Canavalia, Hydrophylax maritima


Urban Effluents, Garbage dumping, CRZ Violation, Unplanned tourism

Kumta Sandy beach Beach Marine algae, Spinefex, Ipomoea biloba, Canavalia, Hydrophylax maritima


Destruction of Mangroves

Kumta Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Shell Miming, Aquaculture, Destruction of Magnroves

Siddapur Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Shell Miming, Aquaculture, Destruction of Magnroves

Karwar Estuary Estuary Fishes, estuarine invertebrates

Sand Mining, Industrial pollution

Island Island Sea birds Naval base activitiesKumta Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove

vegetationClearing of mangroves

Kumta Streams /Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae

Freshwater Fishes Forest Encroachment, Monoculture

Kumta Streams /Rivers River Freshwater Fishes Saline intrusion, Siltation

Honavar Streams /Rivers River Members of Podostemaceae

Freshwater Fishes Monoculture, Encroachment

Tumkur

Udupi

Uttara Kannada

263

ENERGY

Table 1: Power stations under KPCL as on 31-3-2003

Source: KPCL, 2004

Table 2: Power stations under VVNL as on 31-3-2003

Source: KPCL, 2004

Power station No of units X capacityInstalled

capacity in MW

Raichur Thermal Power Station 7 X 210 1,470.00 Sharavathi Generating Station 10 X 103.5 1,035.00 Gerusoppa Dam Powerhouse 4 X 60 240.00 Linganamakki Dam Powerhouse 2 X 27.50 55.00 Bhadra Right Bank Canal Powerhouse 1 X 7.2+ 1 X 6 13.20 Bhadra left Bank Canal Powerhouse 2 X12 + 1 X 2 26.00 Nagjhari Powerhouse 3 X 135 + 3 X 150 855.00 Supa Dam Powerhouse 2 X 50 100.00 Kadra Dam Powerhouse 3 X 50 150.00 Kodasalli Dam Powerhouse 3 X 40 120.00 Ghatprabha Dam Powerhouse 2 X 16 32.00 Varahi Underground Powerhouse 2 X 115 230.00 Mani Dam Powerhouse 2 x 4.50 9.00 Mallapur Mini Hydel Scheme 2 x 4.50 9.00 Sirwar Mini Hydel Scheme 1 x 1 1.00 Kalmala Mini Hydel Scheme 1 x 0.40 0.40 Ganekal Mini Hydel Scheme 1 x 0.35 0.35 Kappatagudda Wind Farm 9 x 0.225 + 11 x 0.230 4.55 KPCL total installed capacity 4,350.50

Power station No of units X capacity

Installed capacity in MW

Sir K Sheshadri Iyer Hydro Electric Station (Shivanasamudram) 4 X 6 + 6 X 6 X 3 42.00

Shimsha Hydro Electric Station 2 X 8.6 17.20 Mahatma Gandhi Hydro Electric Station 4 X 18 + 2 X 12 120.00 Muirabad Powerhouse 3 X 9 27.00 Tungabhadra Dam Powerhouse 20 % share 14.40 Yelahanka DG Station 6 X 21.32 127.92 VVNL Total installed capacity 348.52

264

Table 3: Independent Power Producers as on 31-3-2003

Source : KPCL annual reports

Table 4: Details of non conventional units (Cogeneration and Biomass) installed in Karnataka

Source: KREDL

Name Capacity (MW)Ugar Sugar Works (Cogen) 44.00 I.T.P.L (Diesel) 9.00 Shamanur Sugar (Cogen) 22.00 Shree Renuka Sugar (Cogen) 9.60 E.D.C.L. (Minihydel) 9.00 M.P.C.L (Minihydel) 11.60 B.P.C.L. (Minihydel) 2.00 SMIORE (Minihydel) 16.00 Tungabhadra Steels (Minihydel) 2.40 Jindal Tractbel Power (Thermal) 260.00 Bannari Amman Sugar (Cogen) 16.00 ICL Sugars (Cogen) 12.00 PrabhuLingeswara Sugar (Cogen) 17.50 Tata Electric (D.G) 81.30 Rayalaseema Alkalies (D.G) 27.10 Taneer Bhavi Power Co. 220.00 South India Paper Mills 7.80 Amoga Power plant 1.50 Malavally Power Plant 4.50 Dandeli Ferro Alloys 1.50 Bhouraka Power Plant 3.50 Nijuveedu (wind) 6.00 Atria (Shiva) 6.00 Atria (Shimsha) 12.00 Jamkhandi Sugars 1.05 BESE 7.59 Cepco wind 0.60 Enercon Wind 8.40 Raithara Sakkare Karkhane 3.00 Vijayalakshmi 1.75 Godavari Sugars 24.00 Moodabagil 0.33 Gem Sugars 22.50

Year Installed capacity in MWs (cumulative)

1998-99 181999-00 802000-01 1112001-02 1662002-03 188

265

Table 5: Power Generation from Wind Energy in Karnataka

Source: KREDL

Table 6: Generation of electricity under different categories by different agencies (2002-03)

Source: KPCL

Financial Year Installed capacity in

MWs (cumulative)

Generation (Million Units)

1994-95 0.55 1995-96 1.90 1.35 1996-97 5.84 7.41 1997-98 17.88 11.27 1998-99 19.13 26.62 1999-2000 37.22 39.45 2000-2001 40.97 72.08 2001-2002 69.77 93.07 2002-2003 96.70 135.30

Utility Generation (in Million units)

Karnataka Power Corporation(KPC)

a) Hydel 6,639 b) Wind 11 c) Thermal 9,391 Total KPC 16,041 Central Grid Share 9,098 Vishveshvaraiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd 935 Tungabhadra dam share 15 Independent Power ProducersCo-generation 342 Mini hydel 237 Wind 111 Major 2,500 Total by all IPPs 3,189 Total in Million units 29,279

266

Table 7: Categorywise installations and energy consumption in the State-2003-04

Table 8: Growth rate of various categories of consumers of electricity

Sou

rce:

KP

TCL

Energy consumption in million units

Company

Category

No

of

inst

alla

tions

Ener

gy

cons

umpt

ion

No

of

inst

alla

tions

Ener

gy

cons

umpt

ion

No

of

inst

alla

tions

Ener

gy

cons

umpt

ion

No

of

inst

alla

tions

Ener

gy

cons

umpt

ion

Bhagya Jyothi\Kutir Jyothi 911,258 110.43 423,439 91.51 481,085 103.91 251,912 51.41

Non commercial light and fans and AEH 3,424,299 2,137.63 990,873 400.75 1,625,086 696.76 2,192,640 934.14

Irrigation pump sets 495,661 3,904.02 201,106 2,125.18 395,563 2,251.21 326,245 1,504.66

Water supply-Urban and Rural 24,628 194.16 9,358 67.26 19,476 210.70 18,883 148.12

Public lighting-Urban and Rural 18,467 242.56 6,030 85.84 1,438 1.70 16,238 131.92

Other LT 580,342 514.05 162,785 222.00 235,791 385.66 294,037 495.15 LT Total 5,054,728 8,253.00 1,793,791 2,292.71 2,758,439 3,649.94 3,099,955 3,265.40 HT 3,355 2,539.00 572 472.28 715 525.89 1,213 1,216.70 Total 5,058,083 10,792.00 1,794,363 2,764.99 2,759,154 4,175.89 3,101,168 4,482.10

BESCOM GESCOM HESCOM MESCOM

Category No. of connections

% growth

Conn. Load (kW) % Growth Energy

consumption% Growth in

energy

1970 679,245 - 206,131 - 150 -1990 3,296,253 485 818,030 397 712 4752000 6,560,119 965 1,547,975 752 1,848 123210 Years growth (1990-2000) - 99 - 89.23 - 159.5

1970 30,167 - 77,426 - 48 -1990 661,919 2194 1,705,930 2203 976 20332000 1,304,323 4321 3,488,414 4284 1,787 372310 year growth (1990-2000) - 97.05 - 104.5 - 83.09

1970 110,246 - 368,608 - 149 -1990 673,907 611 2,357,928 640 3,537 23742000 1,181,963 1072 4,038,057 1184 6,589 442210 year growth (1990-2000) - 75.39 - 71.25 - 86.30%

1970 35,525 - 214,598 - 206 -1990 210,021 591 1,205,132 562 773 3752000 278,733 900 2,137,775 952 1,278 62010 year growth (1990-2000) - 32.72 - 77.39 - 65.33

1970 403 - 677,787 - 1,519 -1990 2,005 498 1,202,487 177 4,652 3062000 3,416 848 1,378,606 198 3,383 22310 year growth (1990-2000) - 70.37 - 14.65 - 27.28%

1970 1,004,443 - 1,604,937 - 2,663 -1990 5,355,067 533 7,614,443 474 11,089 4162000 10,202,019 1017 13,506,544 829 16,149 60610 year growth (1990-2000) - 90.51 - 77.38 - 45.63

Domestic

AEH

IP Sets

LT Power

HT Power

All categories

267

Table 9: Electricity consumers distribution pattern-2001

Source: KPTCL

District Population (2001 census)

Domestic lighting

Bhagya jyothi\ Kutir

JyothiAEH Total

consumers

Ratio of total consumers to

populationBagalkot 1,652,232 115,236 52,263 7,959 175,458 0.10Bangalore Rural 1,877,416 309,181 104,841 58,122 472,144 0.25Bangalore Urban 6,523,110 721,475 26,335 693,573 1,441,383 0.22Belgaum 4,207,264 370,627 139,798 51,319 561,744 0.13Bellary 2,025,242 143,673 75,233 21,620 240,526 0.11Bidar 1,501,374 97,145 54,762 10,910 162,817 0.1Bijapur 1,808,863 92,365 72,919 11,460 176,744 0.09Chamarajnagar 964,275 103,856 43,354 6,266 153,476 0.15Chikkamagalur 1,139,104 144,364 38,078 15,202 197,644 0.17Chitradurga 1,510,227 139,470 76,500 11,968 227,938 0.15Dakshina Kannada 1,896,403 175,310 19,039 66,385 260,734 0.13Davangere 1,789,693 208,075 73,737 31,877 313,689 0.17Dharwad 1,603,794 147,459 43,452 47,174 238,085 0.14Gadag 971,955 105,840 49,649 5,808 161,297 0.16Gulbarga 3,124,858 175,021 119,334 32,412 326,767 0.1Hassan 1,721,319 205,037 79,653 22,378 307,068 0.17Haveri 1,437,860 120,365 67,663 7,449 195,477 0.13Kodagu 545,322 55,805 7,013 16,637 79,455 0.14Kolar 2,523,406 293,463 120,891 29,636 443,990 0.17Koppal 1,193,496 83,656 55,225 4,923 143,804 0.12Mandya 1,761,718 205,806 84,511 18,470 308,787 0.17Mysore 2,624,911 262,064 80,868 76,411 419,343 0.15Raichur 1,648,212 94,563 68,726 9,291 172,580 0.1Shimoga 1,639,595 174,164 64,874 30,830 269,868 0.164Tumkur 2,579,516 318,420 108,728 36,953 464,101 0.17Udupi 1,109,494 133,409 17,803 36,696 187,908 0.16Uttara Kannada 1,353,299 146,608 79,196 14,716 240,520 0.17Total 52,733,958 5,142,457 1,824,445 1,376,445 8,343,347 0.15

268

Table 10: Details of captive generators as on 31/03/2003

Source: Electrical Inspectorate

District Installed Capacity (MVA) Generation (MUs) % installed

capacityBagalkot - - Bangalore North 421.86 65.92 9.52 Bangalore South 1,072.24 82.36 24.19 Belgaum 1,034.90 401.67 23.34 Bellary 47.90 9.90 1.08 Bidar 28.05 4.84 0.63 Bijapur 26.16 31.18 0.59 Chamarajnagar 22.62 0.49 0.51 Chikkamagalur 15.94 1.88 0.36 Chitradurga 60.37 18.01 1.36 Dakshina Kannada 236.25 412.15 5.33 Davangere 67.60 84.39 1.52 Dharwad 70.21 25.16 1.58 Gadag - - - Gulbarga 410.94 615.39 9.27 Hassan 38.21 27.09 0.86 Haveri - - - Kodagu 50.29 263.97 1.13 Kolar 49.34 12.04 1.11 Koppal - - - Mandya 94.14 58.65 2.12 Mysore 234.88 245.76 5.30 Raichur 133.12 46.51 3.00 Shimoga 79.04 189.54 1.78 Tumkur 74.76 38.70 1.69 Udupi 44.99 1.75 1.01 Uttara Kannada 119.31 267.83 2.69 Total 4,433.12 2,905.17

269

Table 11: Biogas plants implemented in districts

Source : Annual reports of RDPR Department, Government of Karnataka

Target Realization Target Realization Target Realization Target Realization

Bagalkot 400 307 375 89 350 345 250 190 Bangalore Rural 150 278 375 609 1,000 1,089 950 748 Bangalore Urban 150 92 125 271 500 344 300 300 Belgaum 2,500 3,596 4,375 6,598 4,500 7,643 3,500 2,860 Bellary 500 356 500 280 800 316 400 310 Bidar 350 51 250 19 1,000 111 250 228 Bijapur 700 39 375 137 750 115 100 115 Chamarajnagar 250 107 375 240 300 370 350 274 Chikkamagalur 1,000 439 1,250 1,200 1,200 1,079 500 391 Chitradurga 1,200 500 625 380 700 565 300 240 Dakshina Kannada 200 506 625 357 500 332 200 155 Davangere 1,500 925 1,250 877 1,200 521 400 410 Dharwad 200 153 250 464 600 264 300 259 Gadag 200 99 125 114 250 100 100 6 Gulbarga 150 31 125 180 250 281 200 197 Hassan 1,000 4,800 5,620 3,940 5,000 5,136 3,000 2,330 Haveri 200 346 375 1,075 1,500 1,577 2,000 1,534 Kodagu 50 38 65 429 600 685 300 263 Kolar 400 303 500 289 600 388 400 356 Koppal 200 56 125 36 250 79 100 54 Mandya 300 769 1,000 893 1,000 1,152 800 613 Mysore 1,300 850 1,875 1,208 2,500 921 900 695 Raichur 150 4 125 128 400 211 200 173 Shimoga 2,000 1,705 2,500 1,903 1,500 1,844 2,150 1,803 Tumkur 200 194 250 629 1,500 1,491 1,500 2,217 Udupi 250 92 125 80 250 87 100 94 Uttara Kannada 500 1,046 1,440 867 1,000 663 450 354 Total 16,000 17,682 25,000 25,025 30,000 27,719 20,000 17,169

Numbers Numbers NumbersNumbersDistrict

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003

270

Table 12: Improved stoves implemented in districts

Source : RDPR Department, 2004

Target Realization Target Realization Target Realization Target RealizationBagalkot 1,750 - 300 300 1,000 350 134 - Bangalore Rural 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,410 6,000 3,854 - Bangalore Urban 5,000 5,000 2,500 2,687 3,000 3,206 1,835 754 Belgaum - 3,869 1,000 1,120 1,500 3,805 Bellary 4,500 3,075 3,000 3,504 4,500 3,821 625 425 Bidar - 1,890 1,000 1,240 1,500 953 349 - Bijapur 4,500 1,538 300 - 1,000 4,170 262 174 Chamarajnagar 3,600 309 800 860 1,000 2,285 221 - Chikkamagalur 4,000 161 700 778 1,000 2,366 - - Chitradurga 3,600 3,600 3,500 3,750 4,000 963 - 410 Dakshina Kannada 8,000 4,650 1,000 1,200 1,000 200 - - Davangere - 2,225 3,500 3,725 4,000 2,500 Dharwad 4,000 627 500 679 1,000 1,200 48 48 Gadag 4,000 4,300 300 - 1,000 330 - 150 Gulbarga - - 100 110 1,000 2,056 - - Hassan 2,000 2,000 1,500 2,000 2,000 1,490 300 - Haveri 3,000 3,000 1,000 1,293 2,000 3,543 300 - Kodagu 2,000 - 900 900 1,000 681 188 188 Kolar - 1,852 2,500 3,484 3,000 3,277 672 672 Koppal - 2,500 1,000 500 1,000 500 - - Mandya 3,800 1,600 400 425 2,000 870 175 175 Mysore - 2,500 4,000 4,260 5,000 6,393 580 580 Raichur - 1,600 3,500 3,819 1,000 1,618 590 - Shimoga 4,500 - 4,000 4,500 4,500 2,600 1,042 2,600 Tumkur 1,750 2,140 2,400 2,426 2,500 4,746 1,360 1,360 Udupi - 800 2,400 2,400 2,500 - 250 250 Uttara Kannada - 471 900 900 1,000 234 100 100 Total 65,000 54,707 48,000 52,750 60,000 58,011 9,031 7,886

2002-2003Numbers NumbersDistrict

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002Numbers Numbers

271

Some important legislations on environment

Indian Explosive Act 1884 Air pollution

The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act 1905To prevent or reduce atmospheric pollution in and around Calcutta

The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act 1912 To check smoke nuisance in Mumbai area.The Petroleum Act 1934 Energy/air pollutionMotor Vehicle Act, with Regulations and Standards 1939 Section relating to emission standardsInflamable substances Act 1942 Air pollutionThe Gujarat Smoke Nuisance Act 1963 Air Pollution (smoke control)The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 Amended in 1987Indian Penal Code (IPC) Section 278 Polluting atmosphereThe Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1982 Framed under Section 53 of Air Act 1981The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1983

Indian Penal Code (IPC) Section 277 Fouling water, spring, reservoirNorthern India Canal and Drainage Act 1873 Water pollution (non industrial)Obstruction in Fairways Act 1881 Water pollution (non-industrial)Indian Ports Act 1908 Water pollution (non-industrial)The Shore Nuisance (Bombay-Kalova) Act 1893 To check coastal and marine water pollutionMaharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act 1969 Water PollutionThe Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 Amended in 1978 and 1988

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1975 Amended in 1976,1981 and 1989

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules (Procedure for Transaction of Business) Rules 1975

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Cess Act 1977 Amended in 1991 and 1992The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Cess Rules 1978 Amended in 1991 and 1992Orissa River Pollution Prevention Act 1953 Water Pollution

Laws relating to noise polution The Madras Town Nuisance Act 1869Town Nuisance Act 1889The Factories Act 1948Bihar Control of Uses and Play of Loudspeakers Act 1955

Laws pertaining to air quality

Laws pertaining to water

272

Laws relating to wildlife, forest conservation, fisheries, and pest control.

The Cattle Trespass Act 1871 For preservation of forest and FisheriesAndhra pradesh wild Elephant Preservation Act 1873 Wildlife management and protectionIndian Fisheries Act 1897 For preservation of forest and FisheriesIndian Forest Act 1927 For preservation of forest and FisheriesThe Uttar Pradesh Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act 1912 Wildlife management and protection

The Punjab Fisheries Act 1914 Applicable in Delhi, Punjab and Haryana

The Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 To prevent pollution through the use of pesticides

The Mysore Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1917 Pest control (agriculture)

The Andhra Pradesh (Andhra Area) Agricultural Pests 1919 Pest control (agriculture)

The Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act 1919 Pest control (agriculture)The Elephant Preservation Act (West Bengal) 1932 Wildlife management and proctection

Uttar Pradesh Fisheries Act 1948 Fisheries management, protection and conservation

The East Punjab Agricultural Pests, Diseases and Noxious Weeds Act 1949 Pest Control (agriculture) (Delhi, Punjab and

Harayana)Assam Agricultural Pest and Diseses Act 1950 Pest Control (agriculture)Assam Agricultural Pest and Diseses Act 1950 Pest Control (agriculture)Bihar Prevention and Control of Agricultural Pests, Diseases and Noxious Weed Act 1950 Pest control

Rajasthan Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act 1951 Wildlife ProtectionThe Bombay Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act 1951 Wildlife ProtectionRajasthan Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act 1951 Wildlife Protection

The Rajasthan Fisheries Act 1953 Fisheries management, protection and conservation

The Assam Agricultural Pest and Disease Act 1954 Pest ControlThe Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act 1954 Wildlife ProtectionThe Uttar Pradesh Agricultural Diseases Pests Act 1954 Pest ControlThe Uttar Pradesh Fisheries (Development and Control) Rules 1954 Fisheries management, protection and

conservationThe Kerala Agricultural Pests and Disease Act 1958 Pest Control (Agricultural)West Bengal Agricultural Lands and Fisheries (Agricultural Resettlement) Act 1958 Pest Control (Agricultural)

Madras Parks, Play Fields and Open Spaces (Preservation and Regulation) Act 1959 Forests and Parks

The West Bengal Wild life Preservation Act 1959 Wildlife ProtectionThe Fisheries Act(of Jammu and Kashmir) 1960 Fisheries management, protection and The MysoreWild Animals and Birds Act 1963 Wildlife ProtectionThe Punjab Land Improvement Schemes Act 1963 Rural land-use and planningGoa, Daman and Diu Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act (and Rules) 1965 Wildlife Protection

Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act (Mysore) 1968 Pest Control ( Agricultural)Kerala Parks, Play Fields and Open Spaces (Preservation and Regulation) Act 1969 Forests and Parks

The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 Amended in 1991The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 Amended in 1988The Forest (Conservation) Rules 1981 Amended upto 1992The Wildlife (protection) Act 1972 Wildlife Management and Proctection

273

Laws relating to hazardous chemcials

Laws relating to urban and rural land use

The Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 To prevent pesticides pollution

The Hazardous Waste ( Management and Handling) Rules 1989 Framed under Section 6,8 and 25 of the Environment ( Protection) Act 1986

The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules 1989 Framed under Section 6,8 and 25 of the

Environment ( Protection) Act 1986Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 Amended in 1992Public Liability Insurance Rules 1991

Indian Penal Code 1860

Section 284,285,286: Negligent conduct with respect to poisonous substances Negligent conduct with respect to poisonous substance, combustible matter, explosive substance

The Punjab Land Preservation Act 1900 Rural land-use, planning and protectionCalcutta Improvement Act 1911 Urban land-use and planningWest Bengal Land Development and Planning Act 1948 Urban land-use and planningThe Assam Embankment and Drainage Act 1953 Rural land-use and planningJammu and Kashmir Natural Calamities Destroyed Areas Improvement Act 1954 Rural land-use and planning

The Madras Slum Improvement (Acquisition of Land) Act 1954 Human SettlementThe Assam Acquisition ofLand for Flood Control and Prevention of Erosion Act 1955 Land Utilisation and improvement

The Andhra Pradesh (Andhra Area) Slum Improvement (Acquisition of Land) Act 1956 Human Settlement

The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act 1956 Human SettlementThe Calcutta Slum (Clearance and Rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers) Act 1958 Human Settlement

The Mysore Slum Areas Improvement and Clearance Act 1958 Human Settlement

West Bengal Agricultural Lands and Fisheries (Agricultural Resettlement) Act 1958 Land-use and planning

Madras Land Improvement Scheme Act(b) 1959 Urban land-use and planningThe Assam Slum Area (Improvement and Clearance) 1959 Human SettlementThe Madras Land Improvement Schemes (Contour Bunding and Contour Trenching) Act 1960 Rural land-use and planning

The Punjab Slum Area (Improvement and Clearance)Act 1961 Human SettlementThe Uttar Pradesh Slum Areas (Improvement andClearance) Act 1962 Human Settlement

The Punjab Land Improvement Schemes Act 1963 Rural land-use and planningMaharashtra Felling of Trees Regulation Act 1964 Rural land-use and planningThe Delhi Restriction of Uses of Land Act 1964 Land Utilisation and improvementMaharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act 1966 Land -use and PlanningOrissa Agriculture Land Utilisation Act 1969 Rural land-use and planningThe Maharashtra Slum Area ( Improvement, Clearanceand Redevelopment) Act 1971 Human Settlement

274

Important notifications having implications for the environment

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, amended 1988The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 2003.Notification on rate of Cess under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment) Act, 1977(36 of 1977)The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, amended 1987Public Liability insurance Act 1991, amended 1992The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, amended 1991

NotificationsCoastal Regulation Zone notification1991 amended 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 declaring coastal stretches asCoastal Regulation Zones and regulating activities in the CRZ.

Eco-marks SchemeNotification on the Scheme on Labeling of Environment Friendly Products (ECOMARK), 1991.Notification no S.O.60(E), dated 27/01/1994 and subsequent amendments restricting modernization and expansion of anyactivity\new project without environmental clearance by Central\State government.Notification on prohibition on the handling of Azodyes, 1997 issued on 27/03/1997Notification on dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from coal or lignite based thermal power plants on land issued on 14/09/1999

Rules

The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, amended 2000, 2003.The Manufacture, Storage and import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989, amended 2000.The Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules, 1996.The Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, amended 2003.The Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999, amended 2003.The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, amended 2002The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000The order on regulating the supply and distribution of 2-T Oil, 1998

275

Terms of Reference for the preparation of the State of the Environment Report 2002-2003

A. OBJECTIVES

The overall objectives of the Karnataka State of Environment Report and Action Plan (SOE) are to:• Identify and prioritize environmental issues and better understand the potential constraints imposed by the environment for

realization of development goals.• Recommend cost-effective policies, investments, and institutional improvements to avert future environmental damages to

health, livelihoods and ecosystems in Karnataka.• Strengthen the capacity of local institutions to set environmental priorities, foresee future changes, and develop and implement

necessary policy and mitigation measures.

B. KEY TASKS

The program of work to be carried out by each consultant team shall comprise the following aspects:

a) Review of the current and projected environmental situationb) Analysis of pressures and underlying causesc) Institutional assessment andd) Policy and institutional recommendations.

(a) Review of Current and Projected Environmental Situation

• The State should be divided into relevant geographical areas (units) for analysis, based upon dominant environmentalcharacteristics (e.g. urban and industrial complexes and transportation corridors, key watershed or forested areas, fragilecoastal zones, etc). The number and configuration of areas should take into account both accuracy and feasibility ofdisaggregated estimates. Areas should not necessarily be of similar size but rather define effective geographical boundariesfor assessing and tracking environmental problems. (For example, large cities such as Bangalore could be defined asseparate areas for the analysis while in rural Karnataka units will cover much greater geographical areas.) Full use should bemade of available GIS data.

• Take stock of available data and information (based on secondary sources) on the current environmental situation in Karnataka.This would include data on emissions of pollutants and degradation of natural resources, showing both trends over the lastfive years, and projections over the next five years. Selectivity will be required, but information on all the major environmentalissues facing the state will be required, including (but not necessarily limited to): water quantity and quality; urban airpollution and vehicular congestion; indoor air pollution; hazardous and solid waste; land and forestry degradation; andthreats to biodiversity.

• Estimate, where possible using rapid and robust methods, damages to human health, ecosystems and global commonscaused by environmental degradation and pollution using accepted evaluation techniques. Emphasis should be placed onthe incidence of environmental damage, in particular those relating to lower income areas and with special regard to publichealth.

• Determine the main environmental priorities, based on the incidence of economic, social, health and ecological damage,and/or other available scoring and ranking techniques.

(b) Analysis of Pressures and Underlying Causes

• Review available information and studies that address not only the immediate, but also the underlying causes of environmentaldegradation in the State. These would also include actual and potential environmental impacts of macro-economic andsectoral policies, business regulations, etc.

• Provide an inventory of major environmental activities/projects being carried out by Government, private and donor agencies.Summarize State plans for action that may go beyond activities already in place. Assess the adequacy of such plans toaddress the key issues and sources of pressure identified above.

(c) Institutional Assessment

• Summarize existing responsibilities of public (State, municipal and local levels) and private institutions and NGOs involved

276

in the management of environmental issues in Karnataka. Review aspects of the social setting likely to impact uponenvironmental management and objectives (education, decentralization, empowerment, public information disclosure,regulatory transparency, etc).

• Summarize the current policy and institutional framework and procedures used for environmental management. This shouldinclude, as appropriate, the division of responsibility between various government agencies and non-government institutions,regulatory policies, environmental standards and charges, monitoring and compliance; environmental impact assessment;legal liability; community participation; and business deregulation and privatization.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of governmental institutions in terms of their major environmental functions such as (a) monitoringand enforcement of compliance, (b) licensing and permitting functions, (c) evaluating and improving existing regulatoryprograms, and (d) developing new programs/regulatory responses, etc.

• Assess the effectiveness and suitability of the division of responsibility between various government agencies and non-government institutions for environmental matters.

• Identify major institutional, administrative and political challenges facing GoK in carrying out its environmental mandate.

(d) Policy and Institutional Recommendations

A time-bound action plan, comprising institutional and policy measures and investments, should be presented, with emphasis uponthe next five years, Indicative actions over the succeeding five to ten years should also be presented. Such an action plan shouldinclude the following:

• For the priority issues, assess the cost of achieving specified environmental objectives wherever possible, and outlinepriority actions based on comparison of the benefits and costs or cost-effectiveness of alternative measures. The determinationof priorities should also reflect changes in international commitments and market pressures (such as green consumerism).Particularly in view of the difficulty of assigning monetary values to environmental goods, transparent procedures and methodsfor establishing priorities through stakeholder consultation and obtaining consensus should also be followed.

• Propose policy and institutional measures to enable a flexible and efficient GoK response to current and future environmentalconcerns. Examples of possible areas of recommendations:

environmental responsibilities of environmental agencies /other government agencies whose actions may have significantenvironmental effects

environmental institutions and laws

environmental regulations, economic instruments

financing/investment requirements, including the role of public versus private financing

creation of an environmental fund

recommended reforms in macroeconomic, regional and sectoral policies

decentralization, empowerment, and participation

training and awareness

improved data and monitoring systems, including GIS-based

• Identify information and data gaps that should be filled in order to provide an adequate baseline for future monitoring and/oranalysis of environmental trends. Indicate targets against which progress in key areas of environmental management can bemonitored, and propose institutional measures to ensure that key data and information are systematically collected andutilized for policy and management purposes.

C. OUTPUTS, SCHEDULE AND APPROACH

The work under this report should be completed within six months from the date of letter from the Department of Ecology andEnvironment. After approval by the State Level Coordination Committee (SLCC), all consultants were addressed by a letter dated9-10-2002 to commence the work pending Government of India approval and signing of formal contracts.

Inception and Scoping Workshop (November 12, 2002)

Interim Report (December 15, 2002)

277

Draft Final Report (February 15, 2003)Final Report (March 31, 2003)

All reports should be submitted with three hard copies and an electronic copy to the GoK, and one hard copy and an electronic copyto the World Bank.

Throughout the study, public consultations and other participatory approaches will be required to build public awareness andsupport. This will include organization of a series of workshops to report on progress, discuss findings, and obtain feedback from arange of participants including various government departments/agencies and other stakeholder groups, including farmers’ andindustrial associations, NGOs, and community-based organizations. A suggested schedule is as follows:

• Scoping workshop to discuss objectives, approach, methodologies, and outputs. (early November 2002)

• One or more workshops on environmental trends and key issues. (November-December 2002)

• One or more priority-setting workshops to determine environmental priorities for Karnataka. (January -March 2003)

• Series of workshops to discuss the recommendations on policies and institutional aspects, and next steps for implementingthe recommendations. (April-May 2003)

D. REPORTING

The Final Report on each of the above issues should be 20-30 pages in length, supplemented as necessary by annexes containingstatistical and other material.

The team members will report to the Secretary Environment, who will in effect be the team leader.

278

BIBLIOGRAPHYCOASTAL ZONE

Beach morphological changes between Talapadi and Surathkal, Dakshina Kannada. Arabian Sea Seminar, Mangalore,Jayappa, K.S. and Subrahmanya, K.R., 1989.

Coastal Zone Environment Management- An appraisal, Murthy, T.R.S., 1997.

Erosion and Deposition Pattern of Beaches in the Northern Karnataka Coast. In recent Geo scientific studies in theArabian Sea of India. Chavadi, V.C., Hegde, V.S., Nalwadi, A.R., and Jalilal, A.A, 1989.

Geomorphology of Indian coast, Workshop on strategies for sustainable development in the coastal area, Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest, New Delhi Baba, M. and Thomas, K.V, 1999.

Impact of bottom trawling on exploited resources, In. Marine Biodiversity Conservation and Management, Central MarineFisheries Research Institute, Cochin. Menon, N.G.,1996.

WATER RESOURCES

Behavior of Depth to Water Level between 1978-97 in Karnataka State. Rajamarthanda, 1998.

Impact of Water Pollution on Food Security and Environment-Bearing the Brunt, Wasteland News, Diwakar, H. andN.Nagaraj, 2002.

Rejuvenating Tanks, ISEC and Book for Change, Bangalore, Raju, K.V., G.K. Karanth, MJ Bhende, D.Rajashekar and K.G.Gayatridevi, 2003.

Principles of Water Management for Irrigation in Karnataka, Water and Land Management Institute, Dharwad 1998

National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan, Government of India, 1999

State Water Policy, Government of Karnataka, 2002


Functions, Assets and Processes of Local Organizations in Watershed Sector [On-going World Bank Project] ISEC,Bangalore Rajashekar, D, 2002.

Local Organizations in Water Supply and Sanitation – A Review of Functions, Assets and Processes. an unpublishedpaper, Rajasekhar D, Vijaya Bhaskar, M and Veerashekarappa, Inst. for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore,2002.

Final Report of High Power Committee for Redressal of Regional Imbalances, Government of Karnataka, 2002.


TERI Energy Data Directory and Yearbook, The Energy Research Institute, 2001-02

Report of the Expert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy, Government of India, 2002

TRANSPORT

Cost Effective Road Safety Counter-Measures for Metropolitan Cities of India, in Indian Highways, Mittal, Nishi and S.M.Sarin, 2001.

Handbook on EMP implementation, Karnataka State Highways Improvement Project

Karnataka at a Glance 1990-91, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Karnataka.

Status of noise level in Bangalore City, Ravi Kumar, R., Shadakshraswamy, N., Somasekhar, R. K., Journal of EnvironmentalPollution, 2001.


Mining and Forest cover change detection in parts of Bellary district using Multitemporal Satellite Data and GIS, Report,

279

Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Center, Department of Information Technology & Bio Technology, Governmentof Karnataka, 2003.

Impact of Iron ore mining on the flora and fauna of Kudremukh National Park and environs – A Rapid Assessment, Report,Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, 2000.

CEIA of Sandur Manganese and Iron ore mines, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur.

EIA studies concerning opencast mining in Lokapur-Kaladgi-Bagalkot limestone deposits in order to help suitable environmentalmanagement for the future, Institute for Catchment Studies and Environment Management, Bangalore, 2002

EIA of areas under intensive quarrying in Balkundi block, Bijapur-Raichur districts, Karnataka, Technical report, Indian ResourcesInformation & Management Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, 1997

Impacts of granite quarrying on ecology and environment of Kodihalli state forest and surrounding areas, Kanakapura taluk,Karnataka. Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore, 1998.

CEIA of Kudremukh Iron ore mines, Technical report, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, 2000

Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment for Mining Operations in Bellary, Hospet Region Karnataka, Technical report NationalEnvironmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, 2002

WASTE MANAGEMENT

An Empherical study on implementation of existing environmental laws in industrial hazardous wastes management inKarnataka-Bangalore as a case Study. STEM, Bangalore, 1999.

Emerging experiences in medical waste management in India, Srishti, 2000.

Urban Solid Waste Management: Progress and Prospectus for Social, Technical and Policy Improvement, Patel, Almitra H.

Study on plastic industries in Karnataka, Karnataka Cleaner Production Centre, 2001

LAND DEGRADATION

Perspective Land Use Plan for Karnataka-2025, Karnataka State Land Use Board, Government of Karnataka.

Soils of Karnataka for optimizing Land Use, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Urban Planning, 2000

Sustainable Land Use Practices under NSC for formulation of National Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India, 1999

FOREST

State of Forest Report, Forest Survey of India, Government of India, 1995, 1999, 2001

Report of Inventory of forestry resources of Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka, Forest Survey of India, South zone,Bangalore, 1988.

ICFRE records, Mathur and Soni, 1986

URBAN PLANNING

Climate Change and City Initiatives. A case study of climate friendly and energy efficiency initiatives of Bangalore.”Seminar on Climate Change and Cities: Challenges and Opportunities in Urban Planning, Municipal Investment,Energy Efficiency and Public Health. Bhaskara Rao, B., 2000.

Task Force Report on the Bangalore Green Belt, Government of Karnataka, 1999

HEALTH

Asthma in adolescents in Bangalore, Paramesh. H , Somasekhar, International Conference on Health and Environment,2000.

280

A study report, Dr.S.R Chandrasekhar Institute of Speech and Hearing, Bangalore, 1999

Atropy in infancy and early childhood: Natural history and role of skin testing, Zeiger R.S., J.Allergy clinical Immunology,1985.

Recent trends in aerobiology, allergy and immunology, Oxford and IBH Publishers, Agashe S., 1994.

Rural study on indoor pollution and asthma in ill ventilated huts, Paramesh H. and Cherian E., Ind. Jour. Of Pediatrics., 2002.

Task Force on Health, Government of Karnataka, 2001

ANNUAL REPORTS

Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board,2002, 2003

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board 2001,2002, 2003

Karnataka Power Corporation Limited, 2003

Water Resources Department, 2003

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORTS

Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Karnataka, 2002-03

DEPARTMENT MEDIUM TERM FISCAL PLAN: 2003-04 TO 2006-07 OF FOLLOWING STATE GOVERNMENTDEPARTMENTS

Agriculture and horticulture

Animal husbandry and fisheries

Forest, Ecology and Environment

Rural Development and Panchayat Raj

Energy

Urban Development

Economic survey of Karnataka, 2002-03, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Department of Planning, Government ofKarnataka

ynthesis - karnatakaparisaramahiti.kar.nic.in/soer karnataka 2003.pdf3 synthesis our natural capital...

Documents