y490 politics of the internet january 11, 2012. what is technology? tools knowledge connected with...
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Y490 Politics of the Y490 Politics of the InternetInternetJanuary 11, 2012January 11, 2012
What is Technology?What is Technology?
ToolsTools Knowledge connected with the use of Knowledge connected with the use of
toolstools Ways of organizing human activity: e.g. Ways of organizing human activity: e.g.
Ford’s invention of mass production Ford’s invention of mass production techniquestechniques
Ways of creating and embedding new Ways of creating and embedding new knowledge in products/processesknowledge in products/processes
ToolsTools
Some tools are more general than others:e.g. computers vs. hammers
General tools require “programming” to do a specific job.
Craft technologiesCraft technologies
We generally refer to a craft or We generally refer to a craft or craftsmanship when a technology is used craftsmanship when a technology is used to produce something (a product) but the to produce something (a product) but the product is not uniform or standardized. product is not uniform or standardized.
Until the invention of mass production Until the invention of mass production technology (which required special technology (which required special machines and metrology), all production machines and metrology), all production was craft production.was craft production.
Craft meets tech video
Skills and Mass Skills and Mass ProductionProduction
When all production was craft production, When all production was craft production, individual workers had to possess special individual workers had to possess special production skills.production skills.
When mass production was invented, workers When mass production was invented, workers with relatively lower skill levels could be used with relatively lower skill levels could be used to make things.to make things.
Highly skilled workers were still needed to Highly skilled workers were still needed to make and program general purpose machines.make and program general purpose machines.
Ways of Organizing Ways of Organizing Human Activity Human Activity (examples)(examples)
FactoriesFactories Multinational CorporationsMultinational Corporations GuildsGuilds Wal-mart (a modern form of retail Wal-mart (a modern form of retail
merchandising)merchandising) UnionsUnions
Video on Amazon warehouse
Embedded KnowledgeEmbedded Knowledge
Many modern technologies are Many modern technologies are embedded in specific products in specific products
For example, the Windows operating For example, the Windows operating system is embedded in PCssystem is embedded in PCs
Software is a now a common way of Software is a now a common way of embedding technological knowledge in embedding technological knowledge in tools, processes, and end products.tools, processes, and end products.
Science and TechnologyScience and Technology
Many modern technologies, unlike older Many modern technologies, unlike older technologies, are not the result of trial and technologies, are not the result of trial and error discovery methods but rather of more error discovery methods but rather of more systematic methods that generally fall under systematic methods that generally fall under the rubric of science.the rubric of science.
Many areas of science are not connected with Many areas of science are not connected with technology per se, but most are.technology per se, but most are.
There is a lag between scientific discovery and There is a lag between scientific discovery and application of that discoveryapplication of that discovery
Ed Mansfield on Ed Mansfield on InnovationInnovation
Gap between knowledgeand implementation can vary
Some innovations diffuse morerapidly than others
Variation in Rates of Variation in Rates of Diffusion for New TechDiffusion for New Tech
Patents and CopyrightsPatents and Copyrights
Patents and copyrights and other forms Patents and copyrights and other forms of intellectual property protection were of intellectual property protection were invented in order to create a monetary invented in order to create a monetary incentive for innovation of new incentive for innovation of new technologies.technologies.
In exchange for inventing a new product In exchange for inventing a new product or process, the owner of a patent is given or process, the owner of a patent is given a temporary monopoly.a temporary monopoly.
Science and Technology Science and Technology Policy in the United Policy in the United StatesStates
Vannevar Bush legacyVannevar Bush legacy Basic vs. Applied ResearchBasic vs. Applied Research National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation Grand projectsGrand projects
NASA and the Space ProgramNASA and the Space Program Cancer ResearchCancer Research Defense Advanced Research Projects Defense Advanced Research Projects
AgencyAgency
Vannevar BushVannevar Bush
1890-19741890-1974 Early computer scientistEarly computer scientist Helped to establish the Helped to establish the
National Advisory National Advisory Committee for Committee for Aeronautics (1939), the Aeronautics (1939), the National Defense National Defense Research Council Research Council (1940), and the National (1940), and the National Science Foundation Science Foundation (1950)(1950)
The Vannevar Bush The Vannevar Bush LegacyLegacy
Avoid funding applied research and focus Avoid funding applied research and focus primarily on basic researchprimarily on basic research
Leave applied research to private Leave applied research to private industry as much as possibleindustry as much as possible
Funding of university research should be Funding of university research should be based on competition; grant proposals based on competition; grant proposals should be “peer reviewed”should be “peer reviewed”
Basic vs. Applied Basic vs. Applied ResearchResearch
Type of Research
Definition Examples
Basic Driven by the curiosity of scientists
How did the universe begin?
Applied Designed to solve particular problems
How can we improve the yields of specific crops like corn or wheat?
National Science National Science FoundationFoundation
Founded in 1950Founded in 1950 Annual budget this year Annual budget this year
~$6 billion~$6 billion Accounts for about 20 Accounts for about 20
percent of all US basic percent of all US basic research conducted by research conducted by universitiesuniversities
Funding priorities based Funding priorities based on views of the scientific on views of the scientific communitycommunity
Source: http://www.nsf.org
NASA and the Space NASA and the Space ProgramProgram
Congress created it in Congress created it in 19581958
2007 budget ~$17 billion2007 budget ~$17 billion Kennedy idea of putting Kennedy idea of putting
a man on the moon a man on the moon before the end of the before the end of the decadedecade
Recent scaling back of Recent scaling back of manned space flightsmanned space flights
Privatization of Space Privatization of Space ResearchResearch
Private contractors have always been Private contractors have always been important players in the space programimportant players in the space program
Recently, starting with the Reagan Recently, starting with the Reagan Administration, there has been an effort Administration, there has been an effort to privatize parts of space researchto privatize parts of space research
Private spaceflight companies have Private spaceflight companies have expanded recently to service possible expanded recently to service possible future markets for space tourismfuture markets for space tourism
Space Ship OneSpace Ship One
2004 winner of the Ansari X Prize to stimulate investment: designed byVern Rutan and sponsored by Richard Branson
Cancer ResearchCancer Research
Richard Nixon declares “war on cancer” Richard Nixon declares “war on cancer” in 1971in 1971
National Cancer Act passes the same National Cancer Act passes the same year with Nixon’s supportyear with Nixon’s support
Most funding of cancer research was Most funding of cancer research was channeled through the channeled through the National Institutes of Health
NIH Budgets, 1995-2007NIH Budgets, 1995-2007
Defense R&D SpendingDefense R&D Spending Most Department of Defense spending is Most Department of Defense spending is
devoted to military-use technologies, e.g. devoted to military-use technologies, e.g. nuclear weapons and missilesnuclear weapons and missiles
Some military technologies are “dual-use” Some military technologies are “dual-use” technologies (both military and civilian technologies (both military and civilian applications)applications)
Efforts to improve dual-use technology Efforts to improve dual-use technology programs in Defense ended in 1994 with the programs in Defense ended in 1994 with the Republican victories in Congressional electionsRepublican victories in Congressional elections
Government Funding of R&D in Information Technology
Government vs. Industry Funding of R&D in the United States
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
Began as ARPA in 1958 as DOD response to Sputnik, initially focused on space race
Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) created and initially headed by J.C.R. Licklider in early 1960s
Licklider funded computing research that led to time-sharing and interactive computing
Robert Kahn at Bolt Beranek Newman (BBN) wins DARPA contract in 1969 to create a packet-switched network
DARPA Successes
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles Global Positioning System The Internet (ARPANET) Smart bombs DLP technology (funded Texas
Instruments research)
What is the Internet?What is the Internet?
A network of networksA network of networks Underlying technologies:Underlying technologies:
Digital dataDigital data Packet switchingPacket switching TCP/IP family of protocolsTCP/IP family of protocols
Potentially global in scopePotentially global in scope
What is Cyberspace?What is Cyberspace?
Origins in science fictionOrigins in science fiction Lessig: cyberspace is more Lessig: cyberspace is more
than the Internet, “a richer than the Internet, “a richer experience”experience”
Virtual space vs. actual spaceVirtual space vs. actual space Social networking sitesSocial networking sites Sense of communitySense of community
William Gibson, authorof Neuromancer
Johnny Mnemonic clip