Y490 Politics of the Y490 Politics of the InternetInternetJanuary 11, 2012January 11, 2012

What is Technology?What is Technology?

ToolsTools Knowledge connected with the use of Knowledge connected with the use of

toolstools Ways of organizing human activity: e.g. Ways of organizing human activity: e.g.

Ford’s invention of mass production Ford’s invention of mass production techniquestechniques

Ways of creating and embedding new Ways of creating and embedding new knowledge in products/processesknowledge in products/processes

ToolsTools

Some tools are more general than others:e.g. computers vs. hammers

General tools require “programming” to do a specific job.

Craft technologiesCraft technologies

We generally refer to a craft or We generally refer to a craft or craftsmanship when a technology is used craftsmanship when a technology is used to produce something (a product) but the to produce something (a product) but the product is not uniform or standardized. product is not uniform or standardized.

Until the invention of mass production Until the invention of mass production technology (which required special technology (which required special machines and metrology), all production machines and metrology), all production was craft production.was craft production.

Craft meets tech video

Skills and Mass Skills and Mass ProductionProduction

When all production was craft production, When all production was craft production, individual workers had to possess special individual workers had to possess special production skills.production skills.

When mass production was invented, workers When mass production was invented, workers with relatively lower skill levels could be used with relatively lower skill levels could be used to make things.to make things.

Highly skilled workers were still needed to Highly skilled workers were still needed to make and program general purpose machines.make and program general purpose machines.

Ways of Organizing Ways of Organizing Human Activity Human Activity (examples)(examples)

FactoriesFactories Multinational CorporationsMultinational Corporations GuildsGuilds Wal-mart (a modern form of retail Wal-mart (a modern form of retail

merchandising)merchandising) UnionsUnions

Video on Amazon warehouse

Embedded KnowledgeEmbedded Knowledge

Many modern technologies are Many modern technologies are embedded in specific products in specific products

For example, the Windows operating For example, the Windows operating system is embedded in PCssystem is embedded in PCs

Software is a now a common way of Software is a now a common way of embedding technological knowledge in embedding technological knowledge in tools, processes, and end products.tools, processes, and end products.

Science and TechnologyScience and Technology

Many modern technologies, unlike older Many modern technologies, unlike older technologies, are not the result of trial and technologies, are not the result of trial and error discovery methods but rather of more error discovery methods but rather of more systematic methods that generally fall under systematic methods that generally fall under the rubric of science.the rubric of science.

Many areas of science are not connected with Many areas of science are not connected with technology per se, but most are.technology per se, but most are.

There is a lag between scientific discovery and There is a lag between scientific discovery and application of that discoveryapplication of that discovery

Ed Mansfield on Ed Mansfield on InnovationInnovation

Gap between knowledgeand implementation can vary

Some innovations diffuse morerapidly than others

Variation in Rates of Variation in Rates of Diffusion for New TechDiffusion for New Tech

Patents and CopyrightsPatents and Copyrights

Patents and copyrights and other forms Patents and copyrights and other forms of intellectual property protection were of intellectual property protection were invented in order to create a monetary invented in order to create a monetary incentive for innovation of new incentive for innovation of new technologies.technologies.

In exchange for inventing a new product In exchange for inventing a new product or process, the owner of a patent is given or process, the owner of a patent is given a temporary monopoly.a temporary monopoly.

Science and Technology Science and Technology Policy in the United Policy in the United StatesStates

Vannevar Bush legacyVannevar Bush legacy Basic vs. Applied ResearchBasic vs. Applied Research National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation Grand projectsGrand projects

NASA and the Space ProgramNASA and the Space Program Cancer ResearchCancer Research Defense Advanced Research Projects Defense Advanced Research Projects

AgencyAgency

Vannevar BushVannevar Bush

1890-19741890-1974 Early computer scientistEarly computer scientist Helped to establish the Helped to establish the

National Advisory National Advisory Committee for Committee for Aeronautics (1939), the Aeronautics (1939), the National Defense National Defense Research Council Research Council (1940), and the National (1940), and the National Science Foundation Science Foundation (1950)(1950)

The Vannevar Bush The Vannevar Bush LegacyLegacy

Avoid funding applied research and focus Avoid funding applied research and focus primarily on basic researchprimarily on basic research

Leave applied research to private Leave applied research to private industry as much as possibleindustry as much as possible

Funding of university research should be Funding of university research should be based on competition; grant proposals based on competition; grant proposals should be “peer reviewed”should be “peer reviewed”

Basic vs. Applied Basic vs. Applied ResearchResearch

Type of Research

Definition Examples

Basic Driven by the curiosity of scientists

How did the universe begin?

Applied Designed to solve particular problems

How can we improve the yields of specific crops like corn or wheat?

National Science National Science FoundationFoundation

Founded in 1950Founded in 1950 Annual budget this year Annual budget this year

~$6 billion~$6 billion Accounts for about 20 Accounts for about 20

percent of all US basic percent of all US basic research conducted by research conducted by universitiesuniversities

Funding priorities based Funding priorities based on views of the scientific on views of the scientific communitycommunity

Source: http://www.nsf.org

NASA and the Space NASA and the Space ProgramProgram

Congress created it in Congress created it in 19581958

2007 budget ~$17 billion2007 budget ~$17 billion Kennedy idea of putting Kennedy idea of putting

a man on the moon a man on the moon before the end of the before the end of the decadedecade

Recent scaling back of Recent scaling back of manned space flightsmanned space flights

Privatization of Space Privatization of Space ResearchResearch

Private contractors have always been Private contractors have always been important players in the space programimportant players in the space program

Recently, starting with the Reagan Recently, starting with the Reagan Administration, there has been an effort Administration, there has been an effort to privatize parts of space researchto privatize parts of space research

Private spaceflight companies have Private spaceflight companies have expanded recently to service possible expanded recently to service possible future markets for space tourismfuture markets for space tourism

Space Ship OneSpace Ship One

2004 winner of the Ansari X Prize to stimulate investment: designed byVern Rutan and sponsored by Richard Branson

Cancer ResearchCancer Research

Richard Nixon declares “war on cancer” Richard Nixon declares “war on cancer” in 1971in 1971

National Cancer Act passes the same National Cancer Act passes the same year with Nixon’s supportyear with Nixon’s support

Most funding of cancer research was Most funding of cancer research was channeled through the channeled through the National Institutes of Health

NIH Budgets, 1995-2007NIH Budgets, 1995-2007

Defense R&D SpendingDefense R&D Spending Most Department of Defense spending is Most Department of Defense spending is

devoted to military-use technologies, e.g. devoted to military-use technologies, e.g. nuclear weapons and missilesnuclear weapons and missiles

Some military technologies are “dual-use” Some military technologies are “dual-use” technologies (both military and civilian technologies (both military and civilian applications)applications)

Efforts to improve dual-use technology Efforts to improve dual-use technology programs in Defense ended in 1994 with the programs in Defense ended in 1994 with the Republican victories in Congressional electionsRepublican victories in Congressional elections

Government Funding of R&D in Information Technology

Government vs. Industry Funding of R&D in the United States

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

Began as ARPA in 1958 as DOD response to Sputnik, initially focused on space race

Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) created and initially headed by J.C.R. Licklider in early 1960s

Licklider funded computing research that led to time-sharing and interactive computing

Robert Kahn at Bolt Beranek Newman (BBN) wins DARPA contract in 1969 to create a packet-switched network

DARPA Successes

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles Global Positioning System The Internet (ARPANET) Smart bombs DLP technology (funded Texas

Instruments research)

What is the Internet?What is the Internet?

A network of networksA network of networks Underlying technologies:Underlying technologies:

Digital dataDigital data Packet switchingPacket switching TCP/IP family of protocolsTCP/IP family of protocols

Potentially global in scopePotentially global in scope

What is Cyberspace?What is Cyberspace?

Origins in science fictionOrigins in science fiction Lessig: cyberspace is more Lessig: cyberspace is more

than the Internet, “a richer than the Internet, “a richer experience”experience”

Virtual space vs. actual spaceVirtual space vs. actual space Social networking sitesSocial networking sites Sense of communitySense of community

William Gibson, authorof Neuromancer

Johnny Mnemonic clip