WONG 1

Wong Li Min Winifred

Professor Chua Ying

ADM430 Modern and Contemporary Chinese Art

3rd December 2010

Xu Beihong’s Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers (1928-30) and Overseas Chinese

In March 1939, Xu Beihong held his solo exhibition in Singapore with 172 pictures. The

organizer Chinese Commercial Council made three paintings from the exhibition into postcards.

Those with Xu’s autograph were sold for five Singapore dollars each, and the ones without for three

dollars. The price for the twenty-four inches poster was twenty-five dollars. The attendance of the

exhibition was a record-breaking 20,000, and the best-selling postcard was Tian Heng and His Five

Hundred Followers (1928-30) [fig.1]. Xu went on to travel and exhibit in Calcutta, India in 1940,

Penang, Ipoh, and Kuala Lumpur in Malaya in 1941 before returning to China through Burma. Tian

Heng and His Five Hundred Followers received similar overwhelming response from the overseas

Chinese communities there.1

This essay analyses the overwhelming 2 response from the overseas Chinese communities

during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The overseas Chinese communities in Singapore, India,

Malaya and other parts of the world grew tremendously during that period due to unrest, natural

disasters and lack of employment opportunities in China. Though not physically in China, the

overseas Chinese, especially the huge number of first generation immigrants in the 1930s to 1940s,

had strong emotional and financial ties with their homeland – their economic contributions to their

families back home were renowned.3 The overseas Chinese’s overwhelming response to Xu 1 Xu and Jin, Xu Beihong nianpu, 216

2 Xu Beihong described the response of the Southeast Asian Chinese as unexpectedly high. See Xu and Jin, Xu Beihong nianpu, 231

3 For the history and discussion of the overseas Chinese, see Lynn Pan, ed, The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas (Singapore, Archipelago Press, 1998)

WONG 2

Beihong’s paintings, in particular Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers, deserves in-depth

analysis. This essay purports to understand the favourable response of this particularly popular

painting through an analysis of its historical subject matter and social realism style, situating them in

its historical and cultural contexts. After analysing the reasons for its popularity, this essay will delve

deeper and seek to understand the significances of its popularity.

Why they love him – His choice of subject matter

The particularly overwhelming response from the overseas Chinese communities to Tian

Heng and His Five Hundred Followers can be explained by an analysis of its subject matter. The

painting shows a dignified-looking middle-aged man dressed in red robe with his hands clasped

together, bidding a formal farewell to a crowd of varying ages and genders which is composed on

the opposite left half of the painting. He seems to be going to a faraway place — a noble-looking

white horse is apparently prepared for him. It looks like a heavy-hearted farewell with sadness

reflected on all the faces in the crowd — the two men in black and white traditional farmer wear at

the extreme left foreground especially seem to be so overcame by sadness that they cannot even

bear to look at the red-robed man. This man, who overtly possesses the highest standing amongst

the people there judging from the comparatively high quality of his clothes, seems to be embarking

on a dangerous (his long sword gleams sharply) — most possibly fatal (his robe is strikingly blood

red) — mission for his people. The fact that the painting is historical is inescapable — the human

figures in the painting are all clothed in traditional Chinese wear. Its source, to the overseas Chinese

audience, should be just as easy to deduce without the need to refer to its title.

The story of Tian Heng is widely known amongst Chinese people for it is written in a very

iconic ancient Chinese text Records of the Historian (Shiji 史记, ca.100 BCE). The story goes that Tian

Heng, the ruler of a small state Qi, had righteously rebelled against the tyrannical First Emperor Qin

WONG 3

and declared the independence of his small state upon the tyrant’s demise. Liu Bang of the Han

dynasty who toppled the Qin dynasty casted his wrath on Tian Heng who had demanded

independence. He was evicted to a remote island and five hundred of his loyal followers followed

him. Tian Heng had a monumental choice to make – surrender or death. He chose both – he had

hoped that by cutting off his own head and presenting it to Liu Band, his loyal followers might be

saved. However, his followers, after learning of their leader’s heroic sacrifice, committed mass

suicide out of loyalty.

The very fact that Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers depicts a historical story passed

down from the ancient Chinese text and commonly shared by all Chinese is enough reason for the

overseas Chinese to garner particular interest to it. Their physical dislocation made the overseas

Chinese (most of whom had just recently immigrated in the 1930s to 1940s period) crave for cultural

ties with their motherland. Historical paintings that depict visual manifestations of their

motherland’s cultural history were hence eagerly snapped up, in the form of prints or posters, by the

overseas Chinese communities,. Their craving to be culturally linked to China could be evinced by

their passionate insistence on the accuracy of the historical paintings. Tian Heng and His Five

Hundred Followers, not escaping this passionate insistence, had also invoked many overseas Chinese

critics to challenge its authenticity. 4

Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers amongst all other historical paintings garnered the

most response from the overseas Chinese because of its strong resonance with the then present day

China of 1930s to 1940s. The painting was painted in the period of 1928 to 1930 during the chaotic

interwar years in China history and its overseas Chinese communities’ exhibition tour was from the

end of the 1930s during the period of the Sino-Japanese war.5 The impending heavy bloodshed of all

4 See Chen Zhenxia, “Tian Heng Wu bai shi zhi wo jian” 田横五百士之我见 in Xu Beihong yishu wenji, 376-80. In response, Xu Beihong wrote the article “The Difficulties in History Painting” stating that his images were based on detailed research; however, artistic liberty had to be taken in creating a visually harmonious and compelling picture. See Xu, “Lishihua zhi kunnan” 379-84

5 See http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China/71804/The-interwar-years-1920-37 for detailed outline of different periods in modern China history.

WONG 4

the people in the painting mirrored the high casualty rates of the war years; the oppression of Liu

Bang mirrored the oppression of the tyrannical Japanese; the fervent loyalty of the followers

mirrored the strong nationalism that rose during the chaotic periods. Indeed, Xu Beihong had

achieved his personal aim of making his painting “connected with the expression of life.”6 Many

overseas Chinese found this painting moving for this pictorial narrative of the past poignantly

mirrors the Chinese nation at present. Moreover, the painting’s obvious laud for loyalty and

martyrdom was especially uplifting in those troubled times. The painting’s ability to move and incite

loyalty from the overseas Chinese was apt for its tour was meant to raise fund for the Sino-Japanese

war through sale of prints. To overtly support the struggling motherland, buying of this particular

painting could not be more appropriate. Hence, it was no wonder that prints of Tian Heng and His

Five Hundred Followers sold the best.

Overseas Chinese might also felt particular resonance with Tian Heng and His Five Hundred

Followers for it similarly mirrored their own historical experiences in lands away from the mainland.

Many overseas Chinese were under the rule of colonial powers and most of them faced pending

invasion by the Japanese too. The exile theme of the painting also might reminded them of their

own ‘exiles’ from the mainland – many were literally forced to leave China due to famine, war and

unemployment. With such strong resonances with the overseas Chinese from its subject matter

alone, the popularity of Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers is well-justified.

Why they love him – His social realism style

The particularly overwhelming response from the overseas Chinese communities to Tian

Heng and His Five Hundred Followers can also be explained by an analysis of its social realism style.

In the painting, the non-idealised human figures are depicted in realistic proportions with natural

6 Xu Beihong proclaimed that one must avoid the danger of aestheticism (weimei zhuyi 唯美主义), which only indulges beauty (mei美) but ignores the truth (zhen真) and virtues (shan善); to him, virtue means “content” (neirong内容). See Xu, Meishu manhua [General Talk about Art, 1942] in Xu Beihong yishu wenji 2, 414.

WONG 5

poses, perspectives are accurately maintained despite the large size of the work and the play of light

on the human faces and landscape is painstakingly realistic. It is a painting that is easy to understand

without any distracting abstraction and the overseas Chinese, who were mostly not highly educated

in the art of deciphering conceptual art form such as literati paintings, would find this realist style

especially appealing.

Besides, the overseas Chinese, informed by the May Fourth Movement in China (1917-

1921), would also have been influenced by the movement’s messages – the use of vernacular

language in writing and the recognition of literature that concerned the weak and oppressed are to

be upheld.7 Hence, situated in such cultural context, the realist style of Tian Heng and His Five

Hundred Followers stood it in good stead in gaining favour with the overseas Chinese of that time –

its apparent, straightforward manner of depicting ordinary people is the visual manifestations of

May Fourth Movement’s influential messages.

Moreover, that the realist style as depicted in the Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers

could also be seen as a social revolution that harnessed art to promote political ideals also greatly

contributed to its popularity with the overseas Chinese. Favouring of the realist style in paintings had

a political dimension during that highly political time – a painting adopting the realist style was seen

as catering more for the common people then the upper class. If one wanted to paint for the elite,

conceptualism (xieyi写意), which stressed on subjectivity and embodiment of poetic spirituality, not

realism (xieshi写实) would be the key – the elite had more appreciation for such abstract portrayals.

Seen in this cultural context, Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers was a painting painted in a

style that could be said to be catering specifically for the common class overseas Chinese and hence,

they naturally responded overwhelmingly to it.

7 Lu Xun, a prolific writer of that period, asserted that if the modern Chinese wanted to “come to life”, they need to speak the language of “living men” and use “easily understood” vernacular” to give clear expression to thoughts and to give clear expression to thoughts and feelings”. See Lu Xun, “Silent China,” in Lu Xun – Selected Works, vol.2, trans., Gladys Yang (Beijing, Foreign Language Press, 1980), 332-2.

WONG 6

Significance – Xu’s art embodied and enhanced the construct of the imagined Chinese community.

After analysing the reasons for its popularity, this essay will delve deeper and seek to

understand the significance of Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers’s popularity – So what if it

was popular? Did its popularity mean anything?

As analysed, Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers enjoyed much popularity with the

overseas Chinese due to its historical subject matter and its social realist style which found much

resonances. Our understanding of the reasons behind its popularity helps us to understand why its

popularity was significant – It was popular because it resonated with the overseas Chinese and this

was significant because it showed that Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers actually helped to

embody and enhance the construct of the imagined Chinese community for the overseas Chinese at

that time. By implementing a shared historical past, mirroring a coexisting present – all done in the

highly relatable social realism style –, Xu Beihong’s historical painting allowed the dislocated

overseas Chinese to imagine themselves as quintessentially Chinese.

The nation as an imagined community is a theory popularized by Benedict Anderson – the

nation is imagined and citizens have to imagine themselves as part of this imagined community

because the “members of the nation never know or meet most of their fellow-members, yet in the

mind of each lives the image of their communion”8. Xu Beihong’s Tian Heng and His Five Hundred

Followers provided this “image of their communion” for the overseas Chinese by making it extremely

relatable through its subject matter and style.

Indeed, Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers is a painting that calls for its viewers to

participate in a shared historical narrative of China and imagine the community – the open form of

8 From “imagined community” A Dictionary of Sociology. John Scott and Gordon Marshall. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online.

WONG 7

the composition extends beyond the canvas and draws the viewer into the dramatic moment when

Tian Heng bids farewell to his followers. The overseas Chinese at that time could easily see

themselves amongst the crowd in the painting – Xu had taken care to include males and females of

all ages to facilitate such subconscious “imagining”. In fact, Xu seems to have even transposed

himself into the painting – the young man in yellow in the centre of the painting looks uncannily like

Xu Beihong himself.

This particular quality of Xu’s work is significant given that the conceptual effort to

incorporate the overseas Chinese into the national praxis had been a complex and contentious issue.

Ambiguity as to what qualify one as “Chinese” – based on residential state or ethnic race – had

badgered the dislocated overseas Chinese. Xu Beihong’s painting with the ability to induce the

overseas Chinese at that time to imagine themselves as quintessentially Chinese was a strong

ideological instrument in forming the Chinese identity, expanding the boundaries far beyond

geopolitical state of China. The overseas Chinese, with the help of the visual manifestation of the

collective social bond given by Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers, would find it easier to

imagine the collective social bond across physical and temporal distance.

Significance of significance – Demonstrated the new ambassadorial role of art

Indeed, Xu Beihong’s Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers had the significance of

embodying and enhancing the construct of the imagined Chinese community for the overseas

Chinese. This also signified that paintings started to gain a new ambassadorial role at that time.

WONG 8

This new role of art was propelled by the development in mass media and communication at

that time. Beginning in 1926, Xu Beihong’s iconic Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers and his

other works had been compiled and published by 2 large companies – the Commercial Press (商务印

书馆) and China Bookstore (中华书局). In addition, plates of his painting frequented the covers and

pages of commercial publications at the time, from newspapers to art and literary journals to

popular life style magazines. Almost all definitive art books regarding the modern period of China

included Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers, reinforcing its role in the collective reimagining

of the Chinese nation. More than just a painting on the wall, it had now taken on new forms and

new dimensions.

Indeed, in spite of Xu Beihong’s “real” motives – a showcase for his technical virtuosity,

realism conviction, personal frustrations, or national duty –, Tian Heng and His Five Hundred

Followers and other works assumed an intention of their own and became subject to all of the

vicissitudes of reception once launched into the world. The original home for the Tian Heng and His

Five Hundred Followers was the lecture hall of the Central University in Nanjing. Yet, it took on the

ambassadorial role as the new art of a new China that flaunted the pages of publications and toured

across the country and around the Pacific and, as analysed in detail in this essay, helped the

overseas Chinese communities imagined the imagined Chinese community.

The high visibility and mobility of Xu Beihong’s Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers,

having such an overwhelming response from Chinese worldwide and touring within and outside of

the mainland, imparted an extraordinary facet about art and modernity. Art works were no longer

the untouchable objects that stood solemnly on plinths and could be appreciated only by the erudite

literati. They were, instead, like highly relatable Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers,

accessible and comprehensible – a part of the machinery in the era of nation building. No longer

mere fantasy, aesthetic pastime, or escapist contemplation for the elite, art broke away from its

“private” cocoon and made contact with a large audience, including overseas Chinese communities,

WONG 9

who thronged the spaces of public exhibitions like the 1939 Singapore exhibition and even bought

these images home in the form of prints. In a time of both internal and external social instability, the

new common ground between artist and spectators could be summed up as a sense of nationalism

and civil virtue. Accordingly, it is no astonishment that Xu Beihong’s realistic and obviously patriotic

history paintings garnered such overwhelming response from Chinese worldwide.

Conclusion

The field of art history is a network of “analytic methods, theoretical perspective, and

discursive protocols,” and the art of art history lies in its instrumentality for “imagining the social,

cognitive, and ethical” pasts and transforming the understanding of “the identity and history of

individuals and nations.” 9 This essay uses the analytic methods of understanding the overwhelming

favourable reception of Tian Heng and His Five Hundred Followers by the overseas Chinese through

analysis of its historical subject matter and social realism style, situating them in its historical and

cultural contexts. As Donald Preziozi states, “the art of art history” – the significance of this essay –

lies in its instrumentality for “imagining the social, cognitive, and ethical” pasts of the overseas

Chinese – we can now better understand and imagine the strong yearning of the overseas Chinese to

be culturally linked to their motherland. Through such understanding, our understanding of “the

identity and history of individuals and nations” is also transformed – the nation is an imaginary

construct and art had to take on a new ambassadorial role, especially for the overseas Chinese, to

help visually manifest the great Chinese nation.

9 Donald Preziozi, “Art History: Making the Visible Legible,” in The Art of Art History, 13, 18.

WONG 10

Selected Bibliography

Clark, John. “Open and Closed Discourses of Modernity in Asian Art.” In Modernity in Asian Art,

ed. John Clark. Sydney: Wild Peony, 1993.

Lu Xun. Selected Works, vol.2, trans., Gladys Yang. Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1980.

Preziosi, Donald. Ed. The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology. Oxford/New York: Oxford University

WONG 11

Press. 1988.

Xu Beihong . Xu Beihong yi shu wen ji [Collection of art criticism by Xu Beihong], vol.1 and 2. Eds, Xu

Boyang and Jin Shan. Taipei: Yi shu jia chubansge, 1987.

Xu Boyang and Jin Shan, eds. Xu Beihong nianpu [Biographical Chronology of Xu Beihong] Taipei: Yi

shu jia chubansge, 1991.