ENGLISH

Jen Waters, writing in The ‘Washington Times’, wrote that the English of today may not

be the English of tomorrow. The nature of language is that it's always changing, says

Naomi Baron, professor of linguistics at American University.

The English language, and for that matter any language in the world, is a progressively

altered form of the languages spoken in previous generations, all the way back to the origin

of language itself.

The English language has an attested history of about 13 centuries, says Professor Jay

Jasanoff, chairman of the department of linguistics at Harvard University who holds a

doctorate in linguistics. "There are written records of it from about 700 A.D.," he says, "but the

English of that period was as different from modern English as a foreign language. And the

English of 700 A.D., of course, was descended from the prehistoric English of 600 A.D., which

was descended from the prehistoric English of 500 A.D., and so on."

In about 449, the British Isles were invaded by a group of Germanic tribes that didn't speak the

same language. As time passed, French became the biggest contributor to the English

vocabulary, other than native English, namely because England was invaded by the French-

speaking Normans in the eleventh century, Jasanoff says. English, like other European

languages, also has words borrowed from Latin and Greek roots.

To put it into categories, English progressed from Old English to Middle English (Chaucer's

Canterbury Tales) to Early Modern English (Shakespeare) to Modern English.

Pronunciation and vocabulary are the two areas of language in which variations are more

readily noticeable over long stretches of time, says Anca Nemoianu, a professor of linguistics at

Catholic University with a doctorate in linguistics.

Starting in the end of the fifteenth century, the way people pronounced vowels began to change,

creating a passage from Middle English to Modern English. In academic circles, this progression

is frequently called "the great vowel shift."

Language adapts to accommodate society, says Bill Frawley, dean of arts and sciences at George

Washington University. He holds a doctorate in linguistics. "Look at the preposition used: the

war on Iraq, the war with Iraq, the war in Iraq, the war against Iraq," he says. "What is it? It's all

of them. Thus, we have a lot of words in English that reflect how the world has changed."

As the world's de facto language -- English is the first language of some 400,000,000 people and

is spoken by as many as 1,500,000,000--the changes in usages and meanings is on a scale

unknown in history. The origins of the English language have to be studied in perspective as its

vocabulary has been derived from various languages. The language arrived in England from the

Northern Europe during the fifth century and began to spread over the British Isles. After the

Norman invasion many nobles from England fled to the north of Scotland and thus the language

spread through the Scottish lands. As England grew in power, so did the language.

Students who have studied German or French will notice similarities between English and

French/German. The German word 'milch' is very close in sound to the English 'milk'.

Likewise, the German 'wasser' and English 'water', 'brot' and 'bread', 'fleisch' and 'flesh'

closely resemble each other. Latin words like 'ad hoc', 'bona fide', 'modus operandi' have

been lifted exactly the way they are in English. In Greek words as 'aeon' means 'an age',

'kudos' means 'glory'.

As Britain’s colonies grew, so did the spread of the language and its dominance. The first

English dictionary was compiled by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The

only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Yet this early effort, as well

as the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive.

Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's

publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of

our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and

the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title." It was

not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) that a truly noteworthy,

reliable English Dictionary was deemed to have been produced, and the fact that today many

people still mistakenly believe Johnson to have written the first English Dictionary is a testament

to this legacy. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most

words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of

arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork

could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first 'modern'

dictionary.

Johnson's Dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the

Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the Oxford English Dictionary in short

fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50 years to finally complete the huge work, and they

finally released the complete OED in twelve volumes in 1928. It remains the most

comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates

added by a dedicated team every three months. One of the main contributors to this modern day

dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was

confined to an asylum for the criminally insane!

HINDI

The Hindi language is spoken in Himachal Pradesh, North Punjab, Haryana, Delhi,

Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (and Uttaranchal), Madhya Pradesh (and Chhattisgarh) and

Bihar (and Jharkhand). The language is a confluence of several local languages and

dialects such as Khadi Boli (खडी बोली), Hindustani (हि�ंदुस्तानी), Bangaru (बांगरू), Vraja (व्रज),

Bundeli (बंुदेली), Awadhi (अवधी), Bagheli (बघेली), Gadhawali (गढवाली), Chhattisgadhi

(छत्ति�सगढी), Magahi (मग�ी), Bhojpuri (भोजपुरी), Kanauji (कन्नौजी), Maithili (मैथि*ली), Marwadi

(मारवाडी), Mevati (मेवाती) and Malavi (मालवी). Linguistically speaking there are two distinct ways in which Hindi is spoken - western Hindi and

eastern Hindi. Khadi Boli, Bangaru, Vraja, Kanauji and Bundeli combine to form western Hindi.

Khadi Boli is spoken in its original form in Merut and Bijnore. Bangaru is also called Haryanawi

(�रिरयाणवी) and is spoken in Haryana. Vraja is spoken in Mathura and its surrounding areas.

Kanauji is spoken in the plains of the Ganga and the Jamuna. Bundeli is spoken in Bundelkhand.

Awadhi, Bagheli and Chhattisgadhi combine to form eastern Hindi. Awadhi is spoken in Awadh

and Chhattisgadhi in Chhattisgadh.

Bihari, Rajasthani and Pahadi are also dialects of Hindi. Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili are

branches of Bihari.

Of all these Bhojpuri is the more widely spoken language. Shahabad, Champaranya and Saran

districts of Bihar and Gorakhpur and Banaras in Uttar Pradesh are the regions where Bhojpuri is

spoken. Magahi is spoken in Patna and Gaya while Maithili is spoken in the region to the north

of the Ganga.

Rajasthani is spoken in all of Rajasthan and Malwa. Mevati, Malavi, Jaipuri and Marwadi are

branches of Rajasthani. Of these Marwadi is the most widely spoken language.

Khadi Boli Hindi is the language of contemporary Hindi literature and is written in the

Devanagiri script. It is the national language of India.

About the 8th century is considered the time when Hindi literature began to take shape.

Buddhism had spread wide in northern India at the time. The Vajrayan (वज्रयान) sect of

Buddhism was Tantrik (तांत्रि0क) in nature and was very popular. The monks of these sects were

known as Siddha (थिसद्ध). The Siddha produced a lot of literature in the local language and these

books are said to be among the first in Hindi literature. The Siddha opposed the alcoholism and

sexuality that had entered the practices of the Vajrayan sect at the time through their writings.

The writing was in poetry form. Among the writers were Sarhapa (सर�पा), Shabarapa (शबरपा) and Luipa (लुईपा). Along with the Buddhist Siddha, the Jains also contributed to the literature of

the language. Chief among them were Svayambhudeva (स्वयंभूदेव), Devasen Soori (देवसेन सूरी) and Pushpadanta (पुष्पदंत). The Jain writers wrote biographies, stories from the Ramayana and

Mahabharata and love stories too. They preached the high values of religion through their works.

Although both the Buddhist and Jain writers used several forms of literature, the chief verse form

used by both was the doha (दो�ा). From the Siddha came the Natha (ना*) sect. The Natha sect attacked the intense ritualism of the

time and focused on good conduct. Chief among the authors from this sect was Gorakhnath

(गोरखना*). The Natha poets wrote of renunciation and yoga in their poetry. Hence, it is very

stark in nature. The sect produced many poets like Gahininath (गत्रि�नीना*), Charpatanath

(चप7टना*), Chauranginath (चौरंगीना*) and Bhartruhari (भत97�री). These poets composed their works between the 13th and the 14th century. Of these poets

Bhartruhari is more well-known for his works on aesthetics, morals and renunciation. The work

of these poets created valuable literature in the language and at the same time brought to the

common people the values and morals of the time in their language.

Between the 11th and the 12th century the Muslim invaders politically split northern India and

several small kingdoms were formed. A new form of poetry emerged at the time. The Bhat (भाट)

or Charan (चारण) poets began writing poems in praise of the local kings. The poems were called

Raso (रासो). Some portions of these poems were historical but a large portion was fictitious,

praising the qualities of the kings that the poets worked for. The Charan literature has some

famous compositions like the Munj Raso (मुंज रासो), Sandesh Raso (संदेश रासो), Prithviraj Raso

(प9थ्वीराज रासो) and Khuman Raso (खुमाण रासो). The Bisaldev Raso (त्रिबसलदेव रासो) of Narpatee

Nalha (नरपती नाल्�) is important from the poetic point of view. Chand Bardai's (चंद वरदाई)

Prithiviraj Raso is famous for its size.

It was around the same time that Sheikh Farid (शैख फरीद) wrote poetry in Punjabi mixed with

Hindi. Amir Khusrao (अमीर खुस्रो) is also from the same period. He wrote poetry that spoke about

the common men and women and their everyday travails and traditions.

Some of Khusrao's compositions are very well-known.

अम्मा मेरे बाबा को भेजो री - त्रिक सावन आयाबेटी तेरा बाबा तो बूढ़ा री - त्रिक सावन आयाअम्मा मेरे भाई को भेजो री - त्रिक सावन आयाबेटी तेरा भाई तो बाला री - त्रिक सावन आयाअम्मा मेरे मामू को भेजो री - त्रिक सावन आयाबेटी तेरा मामु तो बांका री - त्रिक सावन आया Khusrao also wrote several poems in the Qawwali (कव्वाली) form that was very popular with the

Sufi saints and continue to attract listeners and singers alike. One of his more popular Qawwali

goes like this -

छाप-त्रितलक तज दीन्�ीं रे तोसे नैना मिमला के ।

पे्रम बटी का मदवा त्रिपला के,

मतबारी कर दीन्�ीं रे मोंसे नैना मिमला के । खुसरो त्रिनज़ाम पै बथिल-बथिल जइए

मो�े सु�ागन कीन्�ीं रे मोसे नैना मिमला के । Vidyapati was another popular poet of the time and he wrote in Maithili. One of his

compositions speaks of Shri Krishna -

अत्तिभनव कोमल सुन्दर पात।सगर कानन पत्रि�रल पट रात।मलय-पवन डोलय बहु भांत्रित

अपन कुसुम रसे अपनत्रि� मात्रित।।देखिख-देखिख माधव मन हुलसंत।त्रिबरिरन्दावन भेल बेकत बसंत।।कोत्रिकल बोलाम सा�र भार।मदन पाओल जग नव अमिधकार।।पाइक मधुकर कर मधु पान।भमिम-भमिम जो�य मात्रिनत्रिन-मान।।दिदथिस-दिदथिस से भमिम त्रिवत्रिपन त्रिन�ारिर।रास बुझावय मुदिदत मुरारिर।भनइ त्रिवद्यापत्रित ई रस गाव।राधा-माधव अत्तिभनव भाव।।

About the 14th century this form of literature began to dry up. The Muslim rulers consolidated

their hold over north India and gradually drove the literature towards devotion. The poets took to

the Vraj language to express their feelings of love and devotion towards Shri Krishna. At the end

of the Charan period the battle field as a setting for composing poetry was replaced with the

temples and places of pilgrimage. Vraj and Ayodhya became centres where literature was

produced. Vraj and Awadhi were spoken in these places and they prospered adding their soft

sounds and words to the flow of Hindi.

Broadly, the evolution of the Hindi language is spread over some important periods. The first

among these is the Bhakti Kal (भथिR काल) (1400-1600). During this period Ramanujacharya

(रामानुजाचाय7) was spreading the message of the Vaishnava (वैष्णव) sect in south India. Among his

disciples was Ramanand (रामानंद). He began the spread the message of devotion to Rama in the

north. At about the same time Vallabhacharya formed the Pushtimarg sect and advocated

devotion to Shri Krishna. The Islamic rule was established in north India by this time. The

Vaishnava poets writing at the time invented a devotional path that would suit both the Hindus

and Mussalmans. The Nirgun (त्रिनगु7ण) path was a result of this. Worshipping the divine as

omnipresent and without human attributes (गुण) was this new path. There were two branches of

this kind of devotion – the Dnyanashrayee (ज्ञानाश्रयी) and the Premashrayee (पे्रमाश्रयी). The first

sought the divine through knowledge of the divine and the second through love. Kabir (कबीर)

belonged to the first and Jayasi (जायसी) to the second.

One of Kabir's famous compositions rendered by the famous singer Kumar Gandharva speaks of

the creation of the human body and how it should be treated by men.

झीनी झीनी बीनी चदरिरया ॥का�े कै ताना का�े कै भरनी, कौन तार से बीनी चदरिरया ॥ १॥इडा त्रिपङ्गला ताना भरनी, सुखमन तार से बीनी चदरिरया ॥ २॥आठ कँवल दल चरखा डोलै,

पाँच तत्त्व गुन तीनी चदरिरया ॥ ३॥साँ को थिसयत मास दस लागे, ठोंक ठोंक कै बीनी चदरिरया ॥ ४॥सो चादर सुर नर मुत्रिन ओढी, ओदिढ कै मैली कीनी चदरिरया ॥ ५॥दास कबीर जतन करिर ओढी, ज्यों कीं त्यों धर दीनी चदरिरया ॥ ६॥

Jayasi, in the following poem, describes the form of Shiva as he goes to meet Parvati.

ततखन पहुँचे आइ म�ेसू । बा�न बैल, कुस्टिस्ट कर भेसू ॥का*रिर कया �डावरिर बाँधे । मुंड-माल औ �त्या काँधे ॥सेसनाग जाके कँठमाला । तनु भभुत्रित, �स्ती कर छाला ॥पहुँची रुद्र-कवँल कै गटा । सथिस मा*े औ सुरसरिर जटा ॥चँवर घंट औ डँवरू �ा*ा । गौरा पारबती धत्रिन सा*ा ॥औ �नुवंत बीर सँग आवा । धरे भेस बादर जस छावा ॥अवतत्रि� क�ेखिन्� न लावहु आगी । तेत्रि� कै सप* जरहु जते्रि� लागी ॥

The other form of worship called Sagun (सगुण) involved worshipping the divine as having

human attributes. These too had two branches. The first was the worship of Rama advocated by

Tulsidas (तुलसीदास) and the second was the worship of Krishna advocated by Soordas (सुरदास).

Tulsidas speaks of the form of Rama in this composition.

श्री रामचँद्र क9 पालु भज ुमन �रण भवभय दारुणम्।नवकंज-लोचन, कंज-मुख, कर कंज, पद कंजारुणम्।।कंदप7 अगत्तिणत अमिमत छत्रिब, नवनील-नीरद संुदरम्।पट पीत मानहु तत्रिhत रुथिच शुथिच नौमिम जनक-सुतानरम्।।भजु दीनबंधु दिदनेश दानव-दैत्य-वंश-त्रिनकंदनम्।रघुनंद आनँदकंद कोशलचंद दशर*-नंदनम्।।थिसर मुकुट कंुडल त्रितलक चारु उदारु अंग त्रिवभूषणम्।आजानुभुज शर-चाप-धर, संग्राम-जिजत-खर-दूषणम्।।इत्रित वदत्रित तुलसीदास शंकर-शेष-मुत्रिन-मन रंजनम्।मम् हृदय-कंज-त्रिनवास कुरु, कामादिद खल-दल-गंजनम्।।One of Soordas' compositions rendered by the Hindustani classical maestro Pandit Jasraj speaks

of Shri Krishna thus -

रानी तेरो थिचरजीयो गोपाल ।

बेत्रिगबडो बदिढ �ोय त्रिवरध लट, म�रिर मनो�र बाल॥

उपजिज पयo य� कंूखिख भाग्य बल, समुद्र सीप जैसे लाल।

सब गोकुल के प्राण जीवन धन, बैरिरन के उरसाल॥

सूर त्रिकतो जिजय सुख पावत �ैं, त्रिनरखत श्याम तमाल।

रज आरज लागो मेरी अंखिखयन, रोग दोष जंजाल॥

It was around the same time that the Sufi (सूफी) saints began to compose a new kind of poetry.

Their devotion was Nirgun and they preached love for the divine.

The compositions of these saint poets were called 'baniya' (बात्रिनया). These are not composed in a

specific meter. They are poetically simple and their language is the language of the everyday life

of people. Kabir (कबीर) for instance translated the complex and mystic into the everyday with

metaphors drawn from the everyday experiences of life. The compositions of Guru Nanak (गुरु

नानक) fall in the same stylistic category. All these poets focussed on spirituality and love and

devotion to the divine. Yet, their social and religious comment was striking, especially with

respect to amity between religions.

The Sufi saints spoke of love and their poetry spoke of love for God. Their poetry took the form

of human love stories that led to divine revelation and blessing. Mulla Daud (मुल्ला दाऊद) wrote

the Chandayan (चन्दायन) in 1377. Shaikh Kutban (शैख कुतबन) wrote the Mrigavati (म9गावती) in

1503. Jayasi (जायसी) wrote the famous Padmavat (पद्मावत) in 1520.

After the Bhakti Kal came the Reeti Kal (रीत्रितकाल) (1600-1850). This period saw the emergence

of poetic technique in Hindi. The figures of speech, use of the metaphor and other expression

developed during this time. Acharya Keshavdas (आचाय7 केशवदास) is considered the the originator

of this form of writing. Kavipriya (कत्रिवत्रिप्रय), Rasikpriya (रथिसकत्रिप्रय), Ramchandrika (रामचंदिद्रका), Veersinghdevacharit (वीरसिसं�देवचरिरत) and Nakhashikh (नखथिशख).

In the Ramachandrika the poet has recited the story of Rama. This is the first Reeti poem in

Hindi.

Adhunik Kal (आधुत्रिनक काल) or the modern period started from 1850. It was the period when the

British had begun consolidating their hold over India. The exposure to English language

literature brought about a change in the perspectives on society, politics, rights and duties. The

educated people now began to articulate their realities in prose. Prose writing in Khadi Boli

spread in the 19th century. The process was started by Lalluji Yadav (लल्लुजी यादव) and Sadal

Mishra (सदल मिमश्र) who wrote books in Hindi for English officers. Both were employed with the

Fort William College in Kolkata. The Christian missionaries began to write in Hindi spreading

the message of Christ. The first school text books in Hindi for children were written by Raja

Shivaprasad (राजा थिशवप्रसाद).

This period when Hindi literature began expressing modernity is also called the Bharatendu

Yuga (भारतेन्दु युग) because of the contributions of Bharatendu Harishchandra (भारतेन्दु �रिरशं्चद्र). It

was a period of self inquiry, of the rational over the spiritual, of reality over fiction. Several

newspapers were produced during this period. The period saw the all round growth of Hindi

literature in India.

The later period of growth is characterised by the contributions of several writers and composers.

Pandit Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (पंत्रिडत म�ावीर प्रसाद त्रिxवेदी), the editor of Saraswati (सरस्वती), brought discipline and structure to Hindi prose. This period is known as the Dwivedi Yuga

(त्रिxवेदी युग) (1900-1920). The modern novel in Hindi emerged in 1910. Among the popular

novelists were Prasad (प्रसाद), Guleri (गुलेरी), Premchand (पे्रमचंद), Sudarshan (सुदश7न) and

Vrundavanlal Varma (व9ंदावनलाल वमा7). After this period came the Swacchandata Yuga (स्वचं्छदता युग) (1920-1940). The self expression and inquiry that had started in the earlier period found its

complete expression and growth in this latter period. While the earlier period focussed on novels

and short stories, newspaper columns and fiction, this period saw the writing of plays in a large

number. Among the famous playwrights of the time were Jayshankar Prasad (जयशंकर प्रसाद),

Premi (पे्रमी), Ugra (उग्र) and Govind Vallabh Pant (गोहिवंद वल्लभ पंत).

A new wave of existential writing emerged after 1940. It was called Yatharthavad (य*ा*7वाद).

Farmers, Dalits, women, the exploited classes and marginalised society found expression in this

writing. Among the important writers of this time were Pant (पंत), Nirala (त्रिनराला), Bhagavaticharana (भगवतीचरण), Ramvilas Sharma (रामत्रिवलास शमा7), Kedarnath Agarwal (केदारना* अगरवाल), Nagarjuna (नागरजुना), Trilochana (त्रि0लोचन), and Shamsher Bahadursingh (शमशेर ब�ादुरसिसंग).

MARATHI

Marathi is the official language of the state of Maharashtra. It is one of the very well evolved and

rich languages in India. Stories, novels, biographies, essays, plays, history, poetry, literature by

the saints, folk literature, encyclopaedias, science writing are some of the genres that are

abundantly found in this language. From about the twelfth century a lot of literature has been

produced in this language. The language traces similarity to Aryan Sanskrit. However, Marathi

did not originate from Sanskrit. In fact, historians and anthropologists have differing views on

the origins of Marathi. There are influences on Marathi of the Jainas and the Buddhists too. A

book titled Kuvalayamala (कुवलयमाला) written by Udyotasuri (उद्योतसुरी) in the year 778

compares 18 Indian languages. Writing about the Marathi language the author says that the

Marathi people pronounce 'dinnale' (दिदण्णले), 'gahille' (गत्रि�ल्ले). These sounds, according to the

author, are peculiar to the Marathi language. Another book available from the year 1129 is

written by Someshwar (सोमेश्वर). It is titled Manasollas (मानसोल्लास) or Abhilashitarthchintamani

(अत्तिभलत्रिषता*7सिचंतामणी). It has several Marathi words and metaphors and in one place it also has a

Marathi verse.

जेणे रसातळ उणु मत्स्यरूपे वेद आत्तिणयले ।मनु थिशवक वात्तिणयले तौ । संसार सायर तारण मो�ंतो ।रावो नारायणु जो गीची ॥It means - The one who, taking the form of the fish, brought the Vedas from the bottom of the

sea, whom Manu and Shiva have described, who takes us across the sea of attachments and

destroys desire. Sing the praises of that Rajanarayana.

The oldest known author in Marathi is Mukundraja (मुकंुदराज). He wrote the Viveksindhu

(त्रिववेकसिसंधू) in 1188. It must be understood that these books do not indicate the beginning of the

language but its high state of evolution. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the Marathi language

was in use at least some centuries before the book was composed. However, no book in Marathi

prior to this one is available today. The Viveksindhu speaks of the philosophy of the Vedas and

the Upanishad. The writing is in poetry form. The use of metaphor is not to make the verse sound

good but to explain the finer points of philosophy. An example of the verse is -

नदी उगवी स्थि~रावती । तरिर तेथिच समुद्र �ोती ।आ�ो आधारू का न �ोती । आत्तिणका नदिदयांसी ॥तैसा आपुला उगवू । जरिर न सांत्रिडता �ा जीवु ।तरिर अंगाथिस येता *ोरावु । परब्रह्मीचा ॥The twelfth century in Maharashtra was influenced heavily by the Mahanubhava (म�ानुभाव) sect

founded by Chakradhar (चक्रधर). Marathi owes a lot to this sect. Chakradhar and his disciples

appear to insist on the usage of Marathi instead of Sanskrit. Mukundraja did write in Marathi but

he makes it clear that he did so out of the compulsion of wanting the people to understand what

he wrote.

About 1278, Mahendra (म�ेंद्र) or Mahimbhatt (मत्रि�मभट्ट), a member of the Mahanubhava sect,

wrote the Lilacharitra (लीळाचरिर0) in verse form. In the book Mahendra speaks about his teacher

Chakradhar, his preaching and events in his life. Later, Kesoba (केसोबा), another of Chakradhar's

disciples put together 114 examples that Chakradhar used to explain the intricacies of life.

Chakradhar's audience, it would appear, comprised various strata of society then. His examples

speak of everyday moral and philosophical conflicts and how to resolve them. Chakradhar, in

this context, used the folk media form of pravachan (प्रवचन) or the informal public discourse to

spread his own philosophy of life. Between 1278 and 1363, as many as seven important books

were written by disciples of Chakradhar. These books laid the foundation on which Marathi grew

in later centuries. Among these books is found articulated the initial grammar of the Marathi

language. This was done by Bhishmacharya (भीष्माचाय7) in the book Panchavartik (पंचवार्तितंक). The

tradition of writing books in Marathi, started by the Mahanubhav sect, continued unabated till the

17th century. However, with changing times, nothing new was added to enrich and evolve the

language further. To make matters worse, some members of the sect produced a different script

that they used to write their works in. Only a few members of the sect could decipher this script.

This process started in the 14th century and gradually, although the sect produced a lot of

literature, it was made unavailable to the mass society.

Dnyaneshwar (ज्ञानेश्वर) was born within a short span from Chakradhar (1275-1296). This was a

time when all kinds of complicated behaviour were prescribed and a one dimensional perspective

was made part of the everyday discipline of living. Several sects had crowded around a general

philosophy that prescribed distancing oneself from material things and walking the path of

renunciation. The dominant groups within society had usurped social power and articulated all

social activity into rituals that were framed within religious contexts. It was in this kind of

environment that Dnyaneshwar chose to present the Bhavarthadipika (भाव*7दीत्रिपका), a critique of

the Bhagvad Gita in Marathi. The book comprises 9000 verses in the ovee (ओवी) form. The Gita

then was only available in Sanskrit. Both the Gita and the Bhagvat, that the dominant groups

used to gain social power from, were ancient texts. In his critique of the Gita, Dnyaneshwar

provided a new interpretation that spoke of equality of all mankind before God. By this

interpretation Dnyaneshwar challenged the existing dominant class. Right at the beginning of the

book, Dnyaneshwar announces that he is going to present the discussions between Krishna and

Arjuna in the Marathi language and promises to place Sanskrit and Marathi on the same throne.

He further adds -

माझा मर्‍�ाटाथिच बोलु कौतुके ।परी अम9ताते�ी पैजा जिजंके ।ऐसी अक्षरे रथिसके ।मेळवीन ॥Dnyaneshwar, Nivrutti (त्रिनव9�ी), Sopan (सोपान), Muktabai (मुRाबाई) and Changdev (चांगदेव) are

the five important composers in Marathi in this time followed by Namdev (नामदेव), Savata Mali

(सावता माळी), Chokhamela (चोखामेळा), Gora Kumbhar (गोरा कंुभार), Narahari Sonar (नर�री सोनार),

Joga Paramanand (जोगा परमानंद) and other saints. The Varkari (वारकरी) sect was formed by

Dnyaneshwar and propagated by the saints after him.

The years between 1050 and 1350 could be considered the ancient period of Marathi literature.

The Mahanubhav sect and then the Varkari sect spread a new awareness, a renaissance among

the Marathi speaking people of the time. The thought was taken first by Nagadevacharya

(नागदेवाचाय7) from the Mahanubhav sect and later by Namdev of the Varkari sect right up to the

Punjab. However, this first wave social and spiritual renaissance died about 1347.

The Islamic invaders descended in the region from north about the 13th century but their socio-

political impact was felt a hundred years later. The Yadav clan ruling over Devagiri was defeated

and within 25 years of Dnyaneshwar's death the entire region around today's Maharashtra was

ruled by the Islamic invaders. From 1347 the Bahamani kings ruled over the region only to be

challenged by the Vijayanagara Empire that gave bitter opposition for almost 200 years. The

empire eventually collapsed and the Islamic influence over language, culture and religion gained

strength.

About the year 1558, the Datta (द�) sect was formed. Gurucharitra (गुरुथिचरिर0) is considered the

most important book in this sect. It was written by Saraswati Gangadhar (सरस्वती गंगाधर) whose

mother tongue was Kannada. He writes that he does not know Marathi (भाषा न ये म�ाराष्ट्र) but

would write in Marathi for the followers of Datta who are largely Marathi speaking. Composed

of 51 chapters and 7491 verses the book focuses on the worship of the Guru and its benefits. The

book is a reflection of the social life in Maharashtra at the time.

In this same sect Dasopant (दासोपंत) (1551-1615) emerged as an important contributor to the

creating of books. He wrote a lot and his most famous writing is Gitarnava (गीताण7व), one of the

longest critiques of the Gita written in Marathi. Dasopant wrote in the time of terrible conflict in

the region and typically exhorted his readers to follow the path of dharma.

The situation changed about the sixteenth century. The Bahamani kingdom was split five ways.

Each of these kingdoms promoted local Marathi chieftains and landlords to serve their interests

and gradually the region stabilized politically. The Marathi landlords grew in power within these

kingdoms. This growth helped the Marathi language, culture and religion to prosper. This led to

a second renaissance in the seventeenth century. This renaissance was led by Eknath (एकना*)

(1533-1599). Eknath brought about a confluence of the richest linguistic, cultural and religious

traditions of the Varkari sect, the Datta sect and the Pandits of Paithan. During this time the

Pandits would look down upon Marathi in comparison to Sanskrit. On the other hand, the

Bahamani kings had begun to introduce Urdu in the official correspondence. The large majority

of the people were without any direction. Eknath had to ensure he did not hurt the rulers or the

Pandits and still be able to spread the message of social and religious change propagated by the

poet saints before him. He chose Marathi because that was the language of the people. He wrote

-

तेत्रिव सनकादिदकांचे ज ेज्ञान ।तेंथिच मराठी भाषेमाजी जाण ।ये*े ठेऊ जाता दूषण ।दोषी आपण �ोईजे ।।

जते्रिव का गुळाचे कारले केले ।परिर ते कडुपणा ना�ी आले ।तेत्रिव �ंसगीत मराठी झाले ।ना�ी पालटले थिचन्मा0 ॥

Eknath composed several thousand poems. His performance of the Ramayana was an important

contribution to a political awakening in Maharashtra of the time.

The Christian missionaries made significant contributions to the Marathi language. The

Khristapurana (खि�स्तपुराण) written by Father Stephens (1549-1619) is perhaps the most

prominent of these writings. This work is written in the ovee form that was used by the poet

saints right from Dnyaneshwara to Eknath. Father Stephens began his work exactly like the poet

saints and wrote -

वो नमो त्रिवस्वभारिरता । देवबापा सव7समर*ा ।परमेश्वरा सत्यवंता । स्वग7 प9*ुत्रिवचेया रचणारा ॥तू रिरजिद्धथिसजिद्धचा दातारू । क9 पात्रिनमिध करुणाकरु ।तू सव7 सुखाचा सागरू । आदिद अंतु नातोडे ।स्वग7स9मि� तुवां �ेळामा0े । केला चन्द्रु सूय7नख्य0े ।तुजते्रिन येके सब्दे पत्रिव0े । केली सव7रचना ॥Several Jesuit priests of the time followed Father Stephens' example and composed poems in

Marathi. Of these works, of special value, is the biography of Saint Peter written in verse form

by Father Cruba.

At the time of Eknath and later in the time of Tukaram several Mohammedan saints wrote in

Marathi. These works were composed chiefly during the period between the 15th and the 18th

century in Maharashtra. Among the more important of these saints was Shah Muntoji Brahmani

(शा� मुंतोजी ब्राह्मणी). He wrote under the pen name Mrityunjaya (म9त्युंजय). He wrote several books

and the largest and more important among them was the Siddhasanketprabandha (थिसद्धसंकेतप्रबंद्ध)

comprising two thousand ovee. The second chapter of this work is a conversation between Rama

and Janaki where Rama says -

मन-नयना येकांत करावा । पे्रमभाव ह्र्दयी धरावा ॥सत्य त्रिवश्वास मानावा । त्रिनश्चयेसी ॥दिदसेल इंदु-भास्करांचे परी । तोथिच उभय दृ�ी धरी ।त्यात तू प्रवेश करी । त्रिनश्चय मने ॥मयोरप0ावरील डोळे । तैसी दिदसती ज ेवतुळे ।

तयांमध्ये ज ेनीळे । ते रूप माझे ॥तयांत खोवोत्रिन दृमि� । ते अंजन सुवावे ने0पुटी ।मग उघडेल पेटी । ब्रह्मतेजाची ॥ध्यानी थिच� स्थि~रावेल । तया अखंड तेज प्रकाशेल ।मन तदाकार �ोईल । त्रिवसरलेत्रिन दे�ाते ॥

Several Mohammedan poets wrote in Marathi including Amber Hussein (अंबर हुसैन), Sheikh

Sultan (शैख सुल्तान), Sheikh Mohammed (शैख मु�म्मद) and Shahamuni (शा�मुनी). These

Mohammedan writers wrote not just religious poetry but composed other works too. Muntoji

(मुंतोजी) was a descendent of the Bahamani kings and wrote a critique of the Vedanta. Another

man of the same name wrote the Sangitamakaranda (संगीतमकरंद) on music and Vijayabhairava

(त्रिवजयभैरव) on astrology.

After Eknath a new form of story telling was created by Mukteshwar (मुRेश्वर). He was a

grandson of Eknath. He produced poetry that spoke of beauty and material well being over the

spiritual life propagated by Eknath. Mukteshwar wrote extensively and is believed to have

composed about 17,000 poems. He has used all kinds of figures of speech and metaphors to

colour his poems and representation. He deals with subjects ranging from the love making of a

couple to a simple description of nature. One of his poems describes the visual sense of dawn

thus -

शेष वेचता अठरा घदिटका । पूव7 दिदशेने क्षात्तिळले मुखा ।कंुकुम रेखिखले त्या त्रितलका । अरूणोदय बोथिलज े॥भाग7वाचाय7 उदया येत । तंव अपार क्रमुत्रिनया पं* ।पुढे जान्�वीजळाचा वात । शीतल, मंद पातला ॥कुक्कुट रव करिरता का का । भये पळ सूटला उलुका ।भोग द्यावया चक्रवाका । चक्रवाकी चाथिलल्या ॥गाढासिलंगने पडली गांठी । सोत्रिडता दंपत्ये �ोती क�ी ।वस्0े वेदिढती परी पोटी । अपूण7 कामे जळजळ ॥

स्वैरिरणी सांडोत्रिन स्वसख्यांते । दूतीसत्रि�त त्वरे बहुते ।ग9�ा येऊनी स्वकमा7ते । संपादिदती लौत्रिकका ॥घेवोत्रिन अंधकाराची बंु*ी । चंद्रस्वेच्छा भोगी जगती ।प्रकाश वेढोनी सूया7प्रती । म्�णे 'मी शुद्र प्रत्रितव्रता'॥

It was during this time that Tukaram (तुकाराम) began writing his abhang (अभंग). Dnyaneshwar

had laid the foundations of the Varakari sect and its Bhagavaddharma (भागवद्धम7). Tukaram took

it to its peak. Dnyaneshwar preached that everybody had the right to seek God and all beings

were equal before God. Tukaram practiced this. He wrote -

वेदांचा अ*7 आम्�ासीच ठावा । येरांनी वा�ावा भार मा*ा ।Tukaram attacked social discrimination with a vengeance. He sang his abhang in temples and it

is a credit to the power of folk music that within no time his abhang were being sung among the

local folk of the time. The sociology and philosophy in the Upanisad, Vedanta, Gita, Bhagavat,

Dnyaneshwari and all other texts of the time was brought before the commonest of people in

their language by Tukaram.

At the same time, Ramdas (रामदास), another poet saint of Maharashtra was articulating a political

philosophy based on the very same books and scriptures. He spoke of gaining valour, strength,

confidence and self esteem and fighting for one's rights. He wrote -

उत्कट भव्य तेथिच घ्यावे । मिमळमिमत्तिळत अवघेथिच टाकावे ।त्रिन:स्प9�पणे त्रिवख्यात व्�ावे । भूमंडळी ॥Ramdas wrote the Dasbodh (दासबोध) in verse form. This work is a confluence of political, social

and economic philosophy that proved to be rejuvenating for the people at the time. Some of his

verses have become oft-quoted phrases in Maharashtra. For example -

'आधी प्रपंच करावा नेटका । मग घ्यावे परमा*7त्रिववेका ॥'

'समजले आत्तिण वत7ले । तेथिच भाग्य पुरुष जाले ॥'

'वेष धरावा बावळा । अंतरी असाव्या नाना कळा॥'

'दुसर्‍यावरी त्रिवसंबला । त्याचा काय7भाग नासला ॥'

Several women too wrote poetry in Marathi at this time. Chief among them were Muktabai

(मुRाबाई), Dnyaneshwar's sister, Janabai (जनाबाई), a woman living with Namdev's family,

Bahinabai (बत्रि�णाबाई), Tukaram's disciple and Venabai (वेणाबाई), Ramdas's disciple.

Of these Janabai and Bahinabai are particularly striking because they give an everyday feminine

perspective to the work of the saint poets and the socio-political environment within which the

saints produced their work. Janabai writes -

आम्�ी बळवंताच्या दासी । कोण गभ7वास सोसी ॥करू यमासी ताडण । आमुचा धनी नारायण ॥जनी म्�णे �री । पाप उरो नेदी उरी ॥In another of her compositions Janabai says -

दत्तिळता कांत्रिडता तुज गाईन अनंता ।न त्रिवसंबे क्षणभरी तुझे नाम गा मुरारी ॥त्रिनत्य �ाथिच कारभार मुखी �रिर त्रिनरंतर ।माय बाप बंधु भत्रिगनी तू बा सखा चक्रपाणी ।लक्ष लागले चरणासी म्�णे नामयाची दासी ॥Bahinabai makes her deity Vithoba (त्रिवठोबा) a family man and describes his family made up of

the saint poets of the time. She writes

त्रिवठू माझा लेकुरवाळा । संगे लेकुरांचा पाळा ॥तुका घेतो कत्रिडयेवरी । नामा करांगुळी धरी ॥एकना* खांद्यावरी । कत्रिबराते �ाती धरी ॥गोरा कंुभार मांडीवर । चोखा जिजवा बरोबरी ॥पुढे चाले ज्ञानेश्वर । मागे मुRाबाई संुदर ॥बत्रि�णी म्�णे बा गोपाळा । करिरसी भRांचा सो�ाळा ॥This period of religious poetry was followed by the Povada (पोवाडा) and the Lavani (लावणी) form

of composition. These two forms became very popular during the reign of Shivaji. The Povada

was sung by a Shahir (शा�ीर). The oldest Povada is believed to have been composed by

Adnyanadasa (अज्ञानदास) describing in 1659 the killing of Afzal Khan by Shivaji. Another

famous Povada written by Tulsidas (तुळशीदास) speaks of the exploits of Tanaji Malusare, one of

Shivaji's trusted warriors who won for him the fort of Simhagad near Pune. Today, about 300 of

these compositions written by various authors are available. These composers used exaggeration

to describe the joy of winning a battle as well as the sorrow of losing one. Shahir Anand Phandi

(शा�ीर आनंद फंदी) wrote of the joyous moment when the battle of Kharda was one and then cried

over the loss at Panipat.

A famous Povada by Tulsidas says -

उदेभान ते*ुन त्रिनघाला । आला त्रिपराच्या दरग्याला ॥फोडल्या कापसाच्या उदी । ओतले तेलाचे बुधले ॥ज्याने आग जी लावली । ज्याने उजेड तो केला ॥गलीम त्रिकती मोजून पात्रि�ला । पन्नास माणूस ह्याच्या आले त्रि�शेबाला ॥उदेभान माणूस पाहून । त्याच्या भुजा ज्या *रारल्या ॥पन्नास माणूस । माझी आंबाडीची भाजी ॥मोगल मागे परतला । गेला आखाडखान्यामधी ॥पायी तुमानी सुरवारा घातल्या । अठरा खंडीचे त्रिकनखाप त्याने अंगांत घातले ॥बारा आतबडीचा जोडा । त्याने पायांमधी घातला ॥ज्याने वाघनखे चढत्रिवली । जिजरेटोप डोईस घातला ॥अठरा जागी त्रिबब्या । �रो�ारीने उभ्या केल्या ॥सळ पठ्याचा सोत्रिडला । अठरा त्रिबब्यांची खांडे केली ॥आसुदाचा दिटला ल्याला । गाभणी गाई जो काटली॥The Lavani form came after the Povada. It was more dramatic. It is sung and enacted. The

Lavani dealt with topics as wide as love, sex and marriage to social values and women's rights. A

very famous Lavani goes like this -

संुदरा मनाममिध भरथिल जरा ना�ी ठरली ।�वेथिलत थिशरथिल मोत्याचा भांग ॥रे गड्या �ौस नात्रि� पुरथिल म्�णोनी त्रिवरथिल ।पुन्�ा नात्रि� त्रिफरथिल कुणाची सांग ॥Another Lavani warns people of charlatans and says -

भला जन्म �ा तुला लाधला खुलास ह्र्दयी बुधाधरिरथिश तरिर �रिरचा सेवक सुधा ॥

चराचरी गुरू तरावयाला नरा थिशरावरिर �री, जरा तरिर समज धरी अंतरी ।�टातटाने पटा रंगवुत्रिन जटा धरिरथिश का थिशरी, मठाची उठाठेव कां तरी ।वनांत अ*वा जनांत �ो कां मनांत व्�ावे परी, �रीचे नाव भवांबुमिधतरी ।काय गळ्यात घालुत्रिन तुळशीची लाकडे ।�ी काय भवाला दुर करत्रितल माकडे ।बा�ेर मिमरत्रिवशी आत �रिरथिश वाकडे ।अशा भथिRच्या रसारत्रि�त तू कसा म्�णत्रिवशी बुधा, �रीरस सांडुत्रिन घेसी बुधा ॥The Jains contributed several books to the Marathi language. The oldest among the Jain poets is

believed to be Pushpadanta (पुष्पदंत) who wrote about the tenth century. The exact time of the

Jain influence on Marathi is not known. However, about the 14th century the Jains traveled into

Maharashtra and during the reign of the Rashtrakutas the Jains also got the protection of the

king. The oldest Jain Marathi book was written by Brahmagunadas (ब्रह्मगुणदास) who wrote the

Shrenikacharitra (श्रेत्तिणकचरिर0) in 1450. After him there are several Jain writers who wrote in the

Marathi language.

The period between 1875 and 1920 is believed to be the period of revolution for the Marathi

language. The British had established their hold over the entire country during this time. The

Marathi that is spoken today took its form during this period.

It is interesting to note that throughout its history the Marathi language has had to contend and

contest for space with another language to survive. At first it was Sanskrit then Urdu followed by

English and Portuguese, especially in the coastal regions of the state. In Mumbai it had to

contend with Gujarati and finally after India became Independent, Marathi had to contest for

space with Hindi. Towards its south the language has had to contest with Kannada. One of the

benefits of these numerous conflicts has been that the Marathi language has picked up words

from several languages and given its own words to other languages. Typically, the resurgence of

the Marathi language has always been from the grassroots by a movement led by the common

people in Maharashtra.

EXERCISE

Answer the following questions with the help of your teachers:

GUJARATI

About the ninth century Shaurseni (शौरसेनी) was spoken in the region today recognised as

Gujarat and Bengal. Gujarati emerged from this language. Gujarati is also related to both Prakrit

(प्रक9 त) and Sanskrit (संस्क9 त). Gujarat has a very long coast and through the centuries before

Independence the region was a well known port attracting Arab and African traders. In the Diu

and Daman areas the Portuguese had colonies for several centuries. As a result of this active

trade with people of different linguistic and cultural histories, the Gujarati language was enriched

with words from several different languages.

The Gujarati script is similar to the Devanagari. However, the horizontal line used in the

Devanagari script at the head of all alphabets is discarded in the Gujarati script. Some alphabets

are shaped differently too. Yet, if one is familiar with the one, it is easier to understand the other.

In very early times, poets writing in Gujarati would call it Prakrit or Apabhransha. It is believed

that Mahakavi Premanand ( म�ाकवी पे्रमानंद) was the first to call the language 'Gujarati'. He wrote -

'Bandhu Nagadaman Gujarati Bhasha' ( बांधु नागदमाण गुजराती भाषा) where he made the reference

for the first time.

The evolution of Gujarati from the tenth century can be traced very clearly and there are

examples of the stages of evolution available today. Its history is divided, in the last one

thousand years, into three periods –

Gaurjar Apabhransha ( गौज7र अपभ्रंश) or ancient Gujarati existed between the 11th and the first half

of the 14th century. The writing of this time revolved around the Puranas and the epics. The

stories were religious and moral in nature. Among the stories of the time, Tarangalola (तरंगलोला) written by Padaliptacharya (पदथिलप्ताचाय7), a Jain teacher, is the finest example of literature of the

time.

Between the years 746 and 1298 the Rajputs ruled over Gujarat. At the time the Brahmins and

the Jains produced literature in Sanskrit. However, about the tenth century, the Bhat (भाट) and

Charan (चारण) poets introduced a new form of poetry that was popularly called the Raso (रासो). These were ballads sung in praise of the local rulers and were composed in a language that was a

combination of Vraj (व्रज), Marwadi (मारवाडी) and other local languages. The higher class Pandits

ignored these poets and their poetry but as they became popular the Pandits began to compose

similar works in Sanskrit and Prakrit. This poetry was sophisticated and clever but those who

wrote it were more closely connected to the rulers than the people.

However, in 1298 Allauddin Khilji conquered Gujarat and the poets, who lived in luxury under

the Chalukyas till then, had to run for their life. For the first time they mingled with the masses

and connected with their aspirations, beliefs and faith. This brought a renaissance within Gujarati

literature. Raas (रास), phagu (फागु), barmasi (बारमासी), prabandh (प्रबंध) etc emerged as fresh

forms of literature in Gujarati in this period.

As the Muslim invaders consolidated their rule over Gujarat the poetry turned to devotion. Narsi

Mehta ( नरसी मेह्ता) (1414 to 1480) is by far the most popular of Gujarati devotional poets of this

period that became known as Gurjar Bhasha (गुज7र). Narsi was born in Saurashtra (सौराष्ट्र) in a

village called Talaja (तळाजा). Shamaladasano vivah ( शामलदासनो त्रिववा�), har (�ार), hundi (हुंडी), mameru (मामेरु), rasasahasrapadi (रासस�स्रपदी), shrungaramala (श9ंगारमाला) are among his popular

works. After Narsi came Meera (मीरा) who composed in Gujarati as well as Vraj and Rajasthani.

Meera was followed by Akho Bhagat ( अखो भगत). Akho Bhagat attacked charlatanism with a

vengeance.

Although all these poets definitely added substantial literature to Gujarati, the poet who gave

Gujarati the status of a literary language was Premanand. He vowed that he would not wear the

turban till he had produced the best literature in the Gujarati language. He wrote about 50 books

of poetry and convinced the people that sophisticated literature to match that in Sanskrit could be

produced in Gujarati. If today some of the characters of the Mahabharata or the Ramayana look

and feel like they could have been Gujarati, it is because of the influence of Premanand. This is

especially true of Vasudev and Devaki and Krishna and Yashoda.

Samalbhat (सामळभट) was a poet of the same period as Premanand. He had a very good

knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindi and Pharsee. Samalbhat was much ahead of his time both in terms

of composition and the subjects he chose for his writing. He wrote that the stomach caused all sin

driving truth away.

The last of the Gurjar poets was Dayaram. He is known for his love poetry and the Gurjar poets

place him next to the English poet Byron. It was in Dayaram's time that the British settled in

India and introduced new ideas, subjects and narrative styles.

A new phase in Gujarati emerged with Narmadashankar (नम7दाशंकर) who began to write about

people rather than Gods and demons. In 1818, after a defeat in the battle of Khadki, Gujarat

came under British rule. A stable administration and modern education brought about a

renaissance in Gujarat and that affected the literature produced in the language. This period was

led by Dalapatram (दलपतराम). In his epic poem, Vencharitra (वेनचरिर0), he spoke of widow

remarriage. However, it was Narmadashankar who took the modern ideas of the time forward

especially speaking of equality.

The University of Mumbai was set up in 1857. Modern English education and with it ideas of

modernism came to India. The wave of humanism that started in England in the 19 th century

came shortly to Indian shores and the youth studying in the University of Mumbai was attracted

to it. It impacted writing in Gujarati. Among the more popular writers who displayed this very

strong influence was Narsinharai Divetiya ( नरसिसं�राय दिदवेदिटया). His wide range of reading, clarity

of thought and opinion are reflected in his literature.

The nature poetry of William Wordsworth attracted Kalapi (कलापी) who fashioned his own

writings along that of Wordsworth's. His collection of poems is popularly known as 'Kalapino

Kekarava' ( कलापीनो केकारव). Manishankar Bhatt ( मत्तिणशंकर भट्ट) was also a popular poet of the

same period.

Among the prose writers of this modern era the name of Govardhan Tripathi ( गोवध7न त्रि0पाठी) is

the more famous due to his four volume novel titled 'Saraswatichandra' (सरस्वतीचंद्र). It took him

14 years to write this story of Saraswatichandra's journey through love and marriage to

becoming a devoted servant of his country.

Mahatma Gandhi returned to Gujarat in 1914 and lived in Ahmedabad. There he started a

weekly 'Navajivan' (नवजीवन). His first writings on truth, freedom, satyagraha were to be found

in this weekly. Literature is one that even the most common person can understand – this was

Gandhi's opinion and he practiced what he preached. Gandhi wrote extensively and his followers

followed suit. Among them was Kaka Kalelkar ( काका कालेलकर). Kalelkar's mother tongue was

Marathi but he wrote extensively in Gujarati. Like him Kishorilal Mashruwala (त्रिकशोरीलाल

मशु्रवाला), Mahadevabhai Desai ( म�ादेवभाई देसाई) and Ramanarayan Pathak ( रामनारायण पाठक)

also wrote on issues like untouchability, rural life, education, politics, religion, arts and literature.

1930 saw the Salt Satyagraha and thereafter the freedom struggle gathered momentum. The

Gujarati writers wrote extensively in this period. Ramanlal Desai ( रमणलाल देसाई), Chunilal Shah

( चुनीलाल श�ा), Gunavant Rai ( गुणवंत राय), Pannalal (पन्नलाल) and others wrote popular novels,

Brokar (ब्रोकर), Patlekar (पाटलेकर) and others wrote stories, Durgesh Chandavarkar (दुग£श

चन्दावरकर) and others wrote one act plays. This tradition of producing classic literary works in

Gujarati has continued to this day.

URDU

There are number of similarities between Khadi Boli (खडी बोली) and Urdu (उदू7). Due to these

similarities there is a dispute among academicians on whether Urdu emerged from Khadi Boli or

was it the other way round. It is also difficult to exactly pinpoint the region where the language

first emerged. Some say it emerged in the Punjab and it was used in the 'Prithvirajraso'

(प9थ्वीराजरासो) for the first time. Another version says that Mohammed Bin Tughlaq (मो�ंमद त्रिबन तुगलक) invaded Sindh and through an exchange of the languages between the invaders and the

residents of Sindh, Urdu emerged. A third version of the birth of Urdu speculates that the

language was born in the southern parts of India. The Muslim rulers of Golconda (गोलकोंडा), Bijapur (बीजापुर) and other similar kingdoms in south India composed gazals (गझल), masnavi

(मस्नवी), marsiye (मर्सिसंये) and other forms of poetry. These are believed to be the earliest forms of

Urdu language. In one of his famous compositions the poet Mir (मीर) writes -

ए मीर मैं �ी इसको त्रिकया रेख्ता वरना,एक चीज लचर सी व जबाने दत्रिकनी *ी ।It means -

O Mir! I created Urdu out of Urdu. Otherwise it was a wretched language of the Deccan.

Wherever Urdu may have actually been born, it got its importance at the Mughal court of Delhi

and it got its name during the reign of Shah Jehan. The word 'Urdu' is Turkish in origin and

means 'army'. The first person to bring Urdu to the fore was Amir Khusrau (अमीर खुस्रो). Born in

the 13th century, Khusrau lived his entire life in Delhi. He was an exponent of Pharsee (फारसी) and a well known poet. He brought words from Arabic (अरबी), Pharsee, Sanskrit, Apabhransha

(अपभं्रश) and Hindi into Urdu.

If we study the language we find that it was in the south of India that the language evolved in its

literary form before it did in the north. In the 18th century the important Urdu poets in Delhi had

been influenced heavily by the Urdu poetry of the south. Wali, (वली) an Urdu poet in the court of

Mohammed Wali Shah (मो�ंमद वली शा�) brought about a confluence between the Urdu poets of

the south and the north. It was in Shah Jehan's time that the first Urdu gazal was composed. The

composer was a Brahmin by the name Chandrabhan (चंद्रभान). The gazal goes like this -

न जाने त्रिकस श�र अंदर �मन को लाके डाला �ै ।न दिदलबर �ै, न साकी, न शीशा �ै, न प्याला �ै ॥त्रिपया के नाँव की सुमिमरन, त्रिकया चाहूँ, करँू कैसे ।न तस्वी� �ै, न सुमिमरन �ै, न कंठी �ै, न माला �ै ॥

Till Akbar (अकबर) attacked the Muslim rulers in the south, Urdu poetry flourished in these

kingdoms. Mohammed Kuli Kutubshah (म�ंमद कुली कुतुबशा�) was himself a poet. Ibrahim

Adilshah (इब्रात्रि�म अदिदलशा�) and Ali Adilshah (अली अदिदलशा�) of Bijapur too were poets. Ibrahim

Adilshah not only supported poetry but also encouraged classical music. He composed poetry in

the classical ragas (राग) and called this collection 'Navaras' (नवरस). He praised Shiva (थिशव),

Parvati (पाव7ती), Saraswati (सरस्वती) and other Puranic gods in his poetry. In praise of Saraswati

he wrote -

नवरस सूर जुग जुग जूनी अनद सव7गुणी ।यू सत्सरस्वती माता इब्रात्रि�म प्रसाद भय दूनी ॥A significant poet of the time was Wali Aurangabadi (वली औरंगाबादी). From Aurangabad he

traveled to Delhi and influenced the Urdu poets in the region with his style. Apart from the Urdu

poets, there was a significant influence on Urdu literature exercised by the Sufi poets.

In Urdu poetry, love is expressed in two forms - Hakiki (�कीकी) and Majaji (मजाजी). In the first

love is expressed for God and in the second it is for a specific individual. Although Urdu was

influenced by Sanskrit, Arabic and Pharsee, the strongest influence is that of Pharsee.

In 1757 the British won the battle of Plassey. In 1761 Ahmedshah Abdali (अ�मदशा� आबदली) attacked India and the Mughal Empire was shaken to its roots. During the reign of Shah Alam

(शा� आलम) the Mughals were attacked from all sides. Yet, Urdu poetry continued to flourish.

However, even as the attacks on Delhi continued, Urdu poets began to leave and sought refuge in

Lucknow in the kingdom of Nawab Asafudaullah (नवाब आसफउदौला�). Mir Mohammed Taki

Mir (मीर मो�ंमद तकी मीर) and Mirza Mohammed Rafi 'Sauda' (मिमझा7 मो�ंमद रफी 'सौदा') belonged to

this period. Mir was a caring but proud man. Born in 1723 in Agra he saw intense harassment,

violence and civil unrest in Delhi till about 1782. Tahir Shah (ता�ीर श�ा) attacked Delhi,

Mohammed Shah (मो�ंमद शा�) died, Abdali harassed and exploited Delhi, the Marathas (मराठा), Sikhs (शीख), Rohilas (रोत्रि�ला) and the Jats (जाट) attacked Delhi and the grandeur of Delhi was

slowly lost before Mir's eyes. Mir had to seek refuge with several Nawabs and Amirs in the court

of Delhi. In 1758 he began writing his autobiography. In 1782 he left Delhi and sought refuge

with Nawab Asafudaullah of Lucknow. His gazals number over 1600. He narrates the events of

the time thus -

श�ां के कु�ल जवा�र *ी खाक पा जिजनकी ।उन्�ींकी आँखोंमें त्रिफरते सलाइयां देखीं ॥दिदल्ली में आज भीक भी मिमलती न�ीं उन्�ें ।*ा कलतक दिदमाग जिजन्�ें ताजोतख्त का ॥In one of his gazals he demonstrates his love thus -

क�ता �ै दिदल के आँखने मुझको त्रिकया खराब ।क�ती �ै आँख ये के मुझे दिदलने खो दिदया ॥लगता न�ीं पता के स�ी कौनसी �ै बात ।दोनों ने मिमलके मीर �में तो डुबोदिदया ॥

Mirza Mohammed Rafi 'Sauda' was a contemporary of Mir. He was born about 1695. He was a

man who enjoyed the luxury of life and the wealth he inherited from his father, he blew away in

a life of pleasure. He says -

सु�बते शेर वबकफ जाम व सुरा�ी दरदस्त ।इस थिसवा सौदा को कुछ काम न�ीं दुत्रिनयासे ॥At first Sauda would write only in Pharsee. It was only when a friend advised him to write in

Urdu because the language was suitable to his style of composing poetry that Sauda began to

write in Urdu. He wrote mostly on love and lovers. He did not have the sensitivity of Mir but he

could use the Urdu language effectively.

A third poet of the time was Khwaja Mir Dard (ख्वाजा मीर दद7). He was a Sufi saint and his poetry

was an appeal to God. One of his more famous compositions says -

तो�मते चंद अपने जिजम्मे धर चलेआये क्या करने को और क्या कर चले ।जिजन्दगी �ै या कोई तूफान �ै �म तो इस जीने के �ा*ों मर चले ।

Nazir Akbaraabadi (नझीर अकबराबादी) was a beloved of the masses. He wrote several poems for

children and his poetry was sung by the poorest of the poor at the time.

In Lucknow, the gazal form of poetry prospered due to Musahafi (मुस�फी). With him was the

poet Insha (इंशा) and Shaikh Kalandar Baksha Juraat (शैख कलंदर बख्श जुरअत).

In the 19th century, Galib (गाथिलब), Zauq (जौक) and Momin (मोमिमन) in Delhi and Atish (आत्रितश)

and Nasar (नासर) in Lucknow were the more prominent. Of these Galib was the more popular.

His full name was Mirza Asadullah Khan (मिमझा7 असदुल्ला� खाँ). At first he wrote under the pen

name 'Asad' (असद). Later he dropped that and began using Galib. Galib was a philosopher, a

lover of freedom and self respect. He had an excellent command over Pharsee and his style was

unbeatable. However, after the British established their rule over India he lost his balance. He

was even arrested for gambling and jailed. After the 1857 revolution, he gave up all hope and

went into severe depression.

Another contemporary poet who matched Galib in creativity and composition was Shaikh

Ibrahim Zauq (शेख इब्रात्रि�म जौक). He was known more for his kasida (कसीदा) than the gazal. He

was in the court of Akbar Shah (अकबर शा�). Akbar Shah loved to write poetry and for a long

time it was left to Zauq to make corrections to the poetry that Akbar wrote. Zauq had a fantastic

command over Urdu so much so that it began to be said at the time that one should have the

imagination of Galib and the language of Zauq.

Galib wrote about himself thus -

आग�ी दामे शुनीदन, जिजस कदर चा�े त्रिबछाये,

मुद्दआ उनका �ै अपने आलमे त�रीर का ।

Zauq, writing on the impermanence of life wrote-

अय शम्मा तेरी उमे्र तबई �ै एक रात ।रोकर गुजार या उसे �ंसकर गुजार दे ॥गात्रिफल �ै ब�ारे चमन उमे्र जवानी ।

कर सैर, के मोसम ये दुबारा न�ीं आता ॥

Interestingly, prose writing in Urdu prospered in Kolkata, where, in the Fort Williams College

was started an Urdu Academy. Here Mohammed Azad (मो�ंमद आझाद) compiled the 'Ab-e-Hayat'

(आब-ए-�यात), a history of Urdu poetry. Maulana Shivali (मौलाना थिशवली) started 'Maarif'

(मअरिरफ), a newspaper in Urdu from Azamgadh. In the 20th century, Munshi Premchand (मुंशी पे्रमचंद) wrote in Urdu and before him Munshi Balmukund Gupta (मुंशी बालमुकंुद गुप्त). Among the

important writers in Urdu since are Rajendrasingh Bedi (राजेंद्रसिसंग बेदी), Sadat Hasan Manto

(सआदत �सन मंटो), Fiqr Tausavi (त्रिफक्र तौसवी), Devendra Satyarthi (देवेंद्र सत्या*§), Upendranath

Ashq (उपेंद्रना* 'अश्क'), Saliha Abid Hussein (साथिल�ा आत्रिबद हुसेन) and Ismat Chugtai (इस्मत चुगताई). Mirza Farhata Allabega (मिमझा7 फर�त अल्लाबेग) made a name in writing humour in the

Urdu language.

In the 20th century, Iqbal is considered one of the more important nationalist poets. His first poem

was titled 'Himalaya' published in 1901. These first few years of the century were full of

nationalist fervour throughout India and Iqbal wrote several poems on nationalism and love for

his motherland. In 1905 he went to England for higher education. He studied Islam and the

history of Islamic rulers and that changed his perspective. On his return he began to write on

bringing back Islam to its glory. His poetry began to propagate the philosophy of khudi (खुदी) or

a pride in Islam and its culture. He switched to writing in Pharsee because he now wanted to

reach out to a global Islamic audience. Some of his famous works of this later period include

Bange-Dara or A Call for Caution (बांग-ए-दरा), Bale Gabrel or The wings of Gabriel (बाले जबे्रल)

in Urdu and Asrare Khudi or The secret of Pride (असरारे खुदी), Ramuje Bekhudi or The Signs of

Pride (रमुजे बेखुदी), Payame Mashriq or the Message of the East (पयामे मश्रीक) in Pharsee. In

translating the word khudi the difficulty is that it is pride specifically in the context of identity

and culture and not the pride that we usually associate with in the English language. The word

translates better into the Hindi/Marathi word asmita (अस्मिस्मता). Iqbal painted a big picture of pride in humanity and called on the human mind to have infinite

ambition -

थिसतारोंके आगे ज�ाँ और भी �ैं ।अभी इश्क के इम्तिम्त�ां और भी �ैं ।त�ी जिजन्दगीसे न�ीं ये त्रिफजायें ।य�ाँ सैकडों कारवां और भी �ैं ।त्रिकनाअत न कर आलमे रंगोबूपर ।चमन और भी आथिशयां और भी �ैं ।इसी रोजो शब में उलझकर न र�ना ।के तेरे जमां वो मकां और भी �ैं ।

At about the same time, another nationalist Urdu poet wrote extensively on the nationalist

leaders of the time. His name was Pandit Brijnarayan Chakabast (पंत्रिडत त्रिब्रजनारायण चकबस्त). Aziz

(अजीज) was another poet whose disciple Josh Malihabadi (जोश मथिल�ाबादी) became famous for

his revolutionary messages on society. The 20th century saw change in all kinds of writing in

Urdu. Maulana Mohammed Ali (मौलान मो�ंमद अली) called upon the youth to wake up and work,

Maulana Hasarat Mohani (मौलाना �सरत मो�ानी) preached the true value of love, Badayuni

(बदायुनी) and Ajeez Lukhnavi (अजीज लखनवी) sang serious songs of hopelessness and the poet

Hali (�ाली) produced an entirely new style of writing poetry.

Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan (सर सैय्यद अ�मदखाँ) established Urdu in Aligad. Maulana Abdul Haq

(मौलाना अब्दुल �क) set up the Anjuman-Tarakki-E-Urdu (अंजुमन-तरक्की-ए-उदू7) in Aurangabad. He

joined the Urdu language movement with the political movement of the Muslim League. The

Nizam supported this cause with fervour and after a short while the institution moved to Delhi.

After Partition, the institution was divided and Maulana Haq went to Pakistan. The institution

was based in Aligad after Partition and had the word 'Hind' attached at the end.

Another institution that worked for the betterment of Urdu was the Jamia Milia Islamia (जामिमया मिमथिलया इस्लामिमया) set up by Maulana Mohammedali (मौलाना मो�ंमदअली). Post Independence Urdu and Islam became associated with each other and post Partition it

became identified as the language spoken only by the Muslims in India. Urdu was the language

of the Mughal court too. Once Hindi was chosen as the national language, Urdu lost the place of

pride it had till then. Interestingly, both languages emerged at about the same time in the same

country.

BENGALI

This is among the richly endowed languages in India. There are several forms of Bengali spoken

in the country. Howeve, its literary form is called Sadhubhasha (साधुभाषा). The prose and poetry

in Bengali as well as the news media use this Sadhubhasha. It is believed that Bengali was

formed about the year 1000. It emerged out of Prakrit (प्रक9 त). It prospered with the help of

Magadhi (मागधी). The language has picked up from Prakrit, Sanskrit and several non Aryan

languages including Pharsee, Portuguese and English. The Bengali script has emerged from the

Nagari (नागरी) script that was being used to the east of India. In the tenth century Bengal was

ruled by Narayanpal (नारायणपाल). In his writing of the Nagari script we find some alphabets that

are closer in form to the Bengali. By the eleventh century Vijayapal (त्रिवजयपाल) was ruling the

region and in his writing available at Devapal (देवपाल) we find several alphabets that are more

like Bengali than the Nagari script. Bengali literature can be broadly divided into three periods.

The ancient period (प्राचीन काल) (950 to 1200) - This period is characterized by the literature of

the Buddhist Siddha Charyapada (बौद्ध थिसद्धांचे चया7पद). Charyapada are mystic songs of eight or

more lines. These songs belong to a secret sect that relates to the Buddhist Mahayan sect and the

Nathpantha (ना*पं*). The literal meaning and the contextual meaning of these songs is often very

different.

Jaidev, a very prominent poet of this period was born towards the end of the 12th century. He has

written the Geetagovind (गीतगोहिवंद) in Sanskrit. This poem is written in a style that is reminiscent

of the Bengali and not the Sanskrit of the time and it is argued that the Geetagovind was

originally an ancient Bengali poem. If this argument is accepted then Jaidev becomes one of the

oldest poets in Bengali. Bengali has a long history of folk music and poetry. Mayanamateera gan

(मयनामतीर गान), gorakshavijay (गोरक्षत्रिवजय), bharathareegopichand (भर*रीगोपीचंद) are some of

the more popular village songs that date to the ancient period of Bengali literature. Some of the

religious stories in Bengali too belong to this ancient period because they speak of village deities

Thooya (*ूया), Madali (मदाली) and Dhaata (धाता) and not Indra (इंद्र), Rama (राम), Krishna (क9 ष्ण)

who appeared much later.

The Middle period (मध्य काल) (1200 to 1800) - In 1203 the Turks attacked Bengal. The attack

was violent accompanied with murder, rape, plunder and large scale conversions of people to

Islam. In this 150 year period of intense conflict and widespread violence there appears no

literature. As the violence eased literature in Sanskrit began to emerge again. From this time,

there is only one poet, Kruttivas Ojha (क9 त्ति�वास ओझा), about whom we have any information. He

translated the Sanskrit Ramayan in to Bengali. After him, between 1473 and 1480, Maladhar

Basu (मालधर बसू) translated portions of the Bhagavat into Bengali. He was encouraged to do so

by Sultan Hussein Shah (सुलतान हुसैन शा�), the king of Panchagaud (पंचगौड). The king had a

general by the name Paragalkhan (परागलखान). He encouraged another poet, Kavindra

Parameshwar (कवींद्र परमेश्वर) to continue with the translation. Later Shrikarnanandi (श्रीकण7नंदी) completed the translation of the entire Bhagavat with the encouragement of Chhutikhan

(छूटीखान), the son of Paragalkhan. It was during the same period that Vijaygupta (त्रिवजयगुप्त) and

Vipradas (त्रिवप्रदास) wrote the famous story of Bihula (त्रिबहुला) in verse form. The first night of

Bihula's married life Mansadevi sends a snake that bites her husband. Bihula takes the corpse of

her husband to the land of the Gods and faces severe hardships along the way. At the end of the

story Mansadevi brings Bihula's husband back to life.

There about 1200 poems attributed to three different poets all by the name of Chandidas

(चंडीदास) in this period. Most of these poems revolve around stories of Krishna and Radha.

Several poets wrote along the same literary structure and subject during this period.

Towards the end of the 15th century Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (चैतन्य म�ाप्रभू) emerged. It was a

time of a cultural crisis. The elite were lost in luxury, the masses in misery, the conversions to

Islam were rampant. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu provided a much needed philosophical and spiritual

solace. He drowned the people in the love for Krishna and brought them together in the worship

of Krishna. Chaitanya himself began to be called a manifestation of Krishna and people began to

compose poetry on Chaitanya Mahaprabhu himself.

In the same period was born Balaramdas (बलराम दास). Like Soordas, he wrote of the motherly

love of Yashoda (यशोदा). However, his poetic energy and creativity took its true form and colour

when he began to write on Radha and her love for Krishna.

Kirtan (कीत7न) as a form of expression and communication became widespread in the time of

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. He created four different forms of this folk art - garanahaati (गरन�ाटी), renetee (रेनेती), mandarani (मंदरणी), manoharshahi (मनो�रशा�ी). Of these forms manoharshahi

became more popular due to the efforts of Ganganarayan Chakravarty (गंगानारायण चक्रवत§) and

Mangal Thakur (मंगल ठाकुर).

Soon the Muslims of Bengal joined in the process of producing literature. Daulat Kazi (दौलत काझी) wrote the famous poems Lorachandrani (लोरचंद्राणी) and the Sati Mayanawati (सती मयनावती). Sayyed Sultan (सय्यद सुल्तान) wrote the Rasool Vijay (रसूल त्रिवजय).

Kaviyal (कत्रिवयाल) were rural poets. There poetry was known as Kavisangeet (कत्रिवसंगीत). They

would be largely illiterate. However, a few of them would come together and through their

questions and answers in verse form, entertain the people. This was a form of folk literature that

developed in Bengal at the time. Dashrathi Rai (दाशर*ी राय) was a Kaviyal who invented a new

form of poetry called Geetashaili (गीताशैली). It was later popularized as Panchali (पांचाली). Christian missionaries too began to translate the Bible into Bengali during this period. In 1778

Nathanial Braci Halhead (नॅ*ेत्रिनयल ब्रासी �ाल�ेड) published a book on Bengali grammar.

The modern period (आधुत्रिनक काल) (1800 to the 20th century) - The nineteenth century saw the

influence of English language and literature on Bengali. The British produced text books in

Bengali. The Baptists published the Ramayan and translated the Bible into Bengali. in 1818,

Samachardarpan (समाचर दप7ण), a Bengali weekly was started. Raja Rammohan Roy translated

the Upanisad into Bengali and published Bengali language grammar into English. In these years

Bengali demonstrated the influence of Sanskrit. However by 1850, Bengali became more reader

friendly. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar (ईश्वरचंद्र त्रिवद्यासागर), Pyareechandra Mitra (प्यारीचन्द्र मिम0) and

others like them brought about this significant change in the language. Of the several authors

who wrote in Bengali at the time the more famous name is that of Michael Madhusudan Datta

(मायकल मधुसूदन द�). He translated several works of English literature into Bengali and wrote

original poems and plays in Bengali. He wrote the poem Meghnadvadha (मेघनादवध) on one of

the incidents from the Ramayana.

The poets Hemchandra Bandyopadhyaya (�ेमचंद्र बंद्योपाध्याय), Navinchandra Sen (नवीनचंद्र सेन)

and Biharilal Chakravarty (त्रिब�ारीलाल चक्रवत§) followed Datta in composing extensively in

Bengali. At about the same time Bakimchandra Chattopadhyay (बंत्रिकमचंद्र चट्टोपाध्याय) emerged as

a brilliant writer of prose. His novels became in Bengal. He is more known outside Bengal for

his famous poem Bande Mataram (बंदे मातरम) that he wrote in his novel Ananda Math (आनंद मठ).

These two words became a call for Independence at the time and inspired many Bengali youth to

participate in the struggle for freedom. After Bakimchandra, Rabindranath Tagore (रवींद्रना* टागोर) emerged as a formidable author of the period. Tagore was a versatile writer. He wrote

essays, poems, plays, novels and stories. Both, in terms of thought and style, he gave a

completely new direction to Bengali literature.

Among the modern Bengali authors Sharadchandra Chatterjee (शरच्चंद्र चटज§) is the more

recognised and honoured writer. His Devdas (देवदास), Charitraheen (चरिर0�ीन), Shrikant (श्रीकांत),

Gruhadah (ग9�दा�), Savyasachi (सव्यासाची) and other novels continue to fascinate readers. These

were translated into Hindi and Marathi. Sharadchandra's treatment of his female characters is one

of the important attractions of his stories.

After Tagore and Sharadchandra a new era of literary conflict emerged in Bengal. Among the

authors of the time were Tarashankar (तारशंकर), Prabodh Sanyal (प्रबोध संन्याल), Buddhadev Basu

(बुद्धदेव बसु), Gokul Nag (गोकुल नाग), Yateendra Bagchi (यतीन्द्र बागची), Radharanidevi

(राधारानीदेवी), Humayun Kabeer (हुमायून कबीर) etc.

TAMIL

Among the Dravidian languages, Tamil is the richest, most developed language. It is among the

more ancient languages of the world and its history can be traced back many centuries before the

English calendar began. Among the languages of India today, this is one language that has been

able to express everything independent of Sanskrit. There is perhaps no other language in India

that can express, in a few words, profound meaning.

Irul (इरूल), kasuv (कसुव), korava (कोरव), kaikadi (कैकाडी) and bargandi (बरगंडी) are its five chief

dialects. The first two among these are spoken by some tibes in the Nilgiri forests and the rest are

spoken by nomadic tribes and castes. The formal, recognised Tamil language has two forms -

shena (शेन) and kodun (कोडुन). The first is used more in literature and the second in everyday

use.

The Tamil script emerged from a southern form of ancient Brahmi. Kol Ezzuttu (कोळ एळु�ु) and

Vattezuttu (वटे्टळु�ु) are its two forms. Kol means a stick and the script, used in the time of the

Chola and Pallava kings, uses straight lines. This was probably because the medium of writing at

the time was stone and it was easier to draw straight lines rather than circular forms. Vattezuttu,

on the other hand, was written more on leaves and barks of trees and it was easier to draw

circular figures than straight lines, the latter having a tendency to tear the leaf. The Chera and the

Pandya kings promoted this form of the Tamil script.

As time passed however, the influence of Sanskrit began to be felt on the Tamil script and some

of its alphabets were introduced into the ancient Tamil.

The evolution of Tamil literature can be divided into six different periods.

Sanghamkal (संघम काल) - The Pandya kings had formed Sanghams where authors could present

their poetry and other works. These gatherings attracted the best of literature and the best of

critiques to present and discourse the works. The first known Sangham was called

Tallaichhangam (तलैच्चंगम). It had 546 members. A total of 4449 poets posted their works to the

Sangham for examination. 86 kings supported the Sangham and seven of these kings were poets

themselves. The grammar text that they held in respect at the time was called Agattiyam

(अगत्ति�यम).

In all there are records of three Sanghams. The third was conducted at Madura about 150 B.C. It

had 46 members and Nakkirar (नक्कीरर) presided over the Sangham that was supported b 49

kings. In all, 449 poets sent their works for examination.

Mahakavyakal (म�ाकाव्यकाल) - In the first two centuries of the Christian era, Jainism and

Buddhism entered Tamil Nadu. These two religions gained strength up to the sixth century.

Monks from both religions had begun composing works in Tamil from the Sangha period but

this gained in momentum during the early centuries of the Christian era. They wrote epic poems

of which Shilappadhikaram (थिशलप्पमिधकारम), Manimekhalai (मत्तिणमेखलै), Jeevakachintamani

(जीवकसिचंतामणी), Valayapati (वलयपती) and Kundalkeshi (कंुडलकेशी) became more famous. Of

these, the first was written by Ilangoadigal (इळंगोअत्रिडगळ) and is the story of Kovalan and his

wife Kannagi. Manimekhalai is a latter half of the same work.

Bhakti Kal (भथिR काल) - In this period, several works on the worship of Shiva and Vishnu were

written. By this time the Jain and Buddhist composers had had a virtually complete hold over the

literary world of Tamil Nadu. However, the worshippes of Shiva and Vishnu emerged and they

began to write with such vigour that the Jain and Buddhist composers' influence soon waned.

The writers who wrote epic poems on Shiva and Vishnu brought back music and dance along

with their literature and this appears to have attracted the masses. The devotees of Shiva in Tamil

Nadu are called Nayanmaar (नायन्मार). There are 63 of these devotees of Shiva who composed

extensively at the time. Of these Manikkavachakar (मत्तिणक्कवाचकर), Gyansambandhar

(ज्ञानसंबंधर), Appar (अप्पर) and Sundarar (संुदरर) are the four more important. Of these

Manikkavachakar wrote several folk songs, participated in debates with the Jain and Buddhist

philosophers and converted them to devotees of Shiva. The collection of poems composed by the

last three is popularly known as Tevaram (तेवारम). Although the devotion to Shiva increased in

this period the philosophical rationale of Shaivism emerged only in the 12th century. The author

of this important work was Meyakandadeva (मेयकंडदेव) and the name of his work was

Shivagyanabodham (थिशवज्ञानबोधम).

Alavars (आळवार) were devotees of Vishnu. Alavar means one who has experienced God and

they number twelve in all. Vishnu in Tamil is called Perumal (पेरूमळ). The Alavar saints wrote

thousands of poems advocating complete devotion and surrender to Vishnu. Their devotion and

surrender was so complete that people began to look up to them as Gods themselves. The

collection of the works of the Alavar saints is called Nalayirdivya prabandham

(नालामियरदिदव्यप्रबंधनम). This was compiled by a tenth century Alavar saint Nathmuni (ना*मुत्रिन). The

famous Vaishnava poet and philosopher Ramanujacharya (रामानुजाचाय7) was a grandson of

Nathamuni.

Kambana Kal (कंबनकाल) - The poet Kamabana was born in the ninth century and he wrote the

Ramayana in Tamil on the basis of the Valmiki Ramayana. Through the next few centuries the

Shiva and Vishnu devoties composed several works. A Jain monk, Vamanai (वामनै) wrote several

books on poetry, ethics, grammar and composed the Merumandarpuranam (मेरूमंदारपुराणम).

Madhyakal (मध्यकाल) - After the 14th century there appears to have been a break in producing

literature in Tamil. The local kings began to lose their power, the Muslim invaders and the

Marathas began to establish their rule in the region. Social stability was eroded. In this kind of

environment emerged the Siddha poets. They wrote in a mystic way. They spoke of renunciation.

The Siddha poets attacked Brahminism and spread the anti Brahmin message across

contemporary society. Through the next three centuries, several poets composed in Tamil. In the

eighteenth century Father Beski studied the Tamil language and wrote in Tamil an epic poem on

the life of Jesus Christ. Several Christian priests composed poems in Tamil in this century.

Modern Tamil literature (आधुत्रिनक काल) -Ramalingaswamy (रामसिलंगस्वामी) is perhaps the more

famous Tamil writer of the 19th century. He preached a confluence of Vishnu and Shiva

devotion. During the same century Meenakshisundaram Pillai (मीनाक्षेसंुदरम त्रिपल्लै) and

Gopalkrishna Bharati (गोपालक9 ष्ण भारती) too composed poetry in Tamil. Numerous small poems,

some plays and short stories were written in this period. The epic poems went out of style.

Several Sanskrit works were translated into Tamil during this period.

Many of these poets were nationalists. Among these was Subrahamanya Bharati (सुब्रह्मण्य भारती) who advocated the cultural and historical oneness of India through his poetry.

EXERCISE

1. What were the social factors that influenced the evolution and spread of each of the above

languages?

2. What were the political factors that influenced the evolution and spread of these languages?

3. What were the economic factors that influenced the evolution and spread of these languages?

4. Listen to the use of the language carefully in the mass media - television and radio especially.

Do you hear people using words from other languages? How does one distinguish a Hindi word

from the Urdu in pronunciation? How does a Marathi speaking person speak Hindi? Do Tamil,

Telugu, Malayam and Kannada sound different?

5. Is there a difference in the way an English speaking person speaks Hindi or Marathi and a

Hindi or Marathi educated person speaking in English? What is the difference? Mark the

difference in the pronunciation of the vowels and the consonants. For instance an English

speaking person may find it difficult to say 'Dabhol' (दाभोळ) and end up saying 'Dhabol' instead.

Similarly a Marathi speaking person may find it difficult to learn 'pen' as distinct from 'pain'.

Why does this happen? Learn to observe these differences, listen carefully.

6. Make a list of such differently pronounced words in each of the above languages. Take the

help of students speaking other languages in your class.

5. Read Hindi newspapers and magazines and make a list of Marathi, Urdu, Pharsee, English and

Portuguese words being used. Count their number. Words from which language are being used in

which newspaper more frequently? Does this tell you anything about the social, economic and

political character of the readers?

6. Listen to the use of the language around you. Are their differences in pronunciation? What

would you attribute these differences to? Is there anything like a 'perfect' language? Should there

be anything like it? What role can the mass media play in making or maintaining a 'perfect'

language?