Writing ArgumentsWriting Arguments

Writing is the act of saying . . . listen to me, see it my way, change your mind.

—Joan Didion journalist

To argue:To argue:

Take a stand.Take a stand. Make your case:Make your case:

• present evidence present evidence • support it with CSWsupport it with CSW

((CClaim—laim—SSupport—upport—WWarrant)arrant)

Acknowledge your opponent’s viewAcknowledge your opponent’s viewand counterargue.and counterargue.

Overview

Take a standTake a stand

A A thesisthesis is a statement that others may is a statement that others may agree or disagree with.agree or disagree with.

Take a Stand

Fact vs. ThesisFact vs. Thesis

FactFact (not arguable): (not arguable): Hybrid cars use less gasoline than Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional cars.traditional cars.

Take a Stand

Fact vs. ThesisFact vs. Thesis

Fact Fact (not arguable):(not arguable):Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional cars.cars.

ThesisThesis (arguable): (arguable): The federal government should The federal government should encourage the development of alternatives encourage the development of alternatives to fossil fuels.to fossil fuels.

Take a Stand

Developing a ThesisDeveloping a Thesis

Possible thesisPossible thesis This paper will describe a V-chip and This paper will describe a V-chip and

examine the uses of the V-chip in examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made television sets. American-made television sets.

Your reaction?Your reaction?

Take a Stand

Developing a ThesisDeveloping a Thesis

This paper will describe a V-chip and This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the V-chip in examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made television sets. American-made television sets.

Yawn.Yawn. Why should I read it?Why should I read it?

Take a Stand

Developing a ThesisDeveloping a Thesis

Parents, often too busy to watch Parents, often too busy to watch television with their families, can monitor television with their families, can monitor their children’s viewing habits with the aid of their children’s viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip.the V-chip.

Hmm.Hmm. And this matters because….?And this matters because….?

Take a Stand

Developing a ThesisDeveloping a Thesis

To help parents monitor what their children watch, V-chips To help parents monitor what their children watch, V-chips should be required on all television sets sold in the U.S.should be required on all television sets sold in the U.S.

So So that’sthat’s what you’re trying to prove… what you’re trying to prove… and it matters because we’re protecting children.and it matters because we’re protecting children.

Take a Stand

Toulmin Arguments: CSWToulmin Arguments: CSW

ClaimClaim

SupportSupport

WarrantWarrant

Support

Toulmin Arguments: Toulmin Arguments: CCSWSW

CLAIMCLAIM—point you’re trying to prove—point you’re trying to prove What point is the paper trying to make?What point is the paper trying to make? What belief or opinion is the author What belief or opinion is the author

defending?defending?

Support

Toulmin Arguments: CToulmin Arguments: CSSWW

SUPPORTSUPPORT—evidence for the claim—evidence for the claim Why should readers believe the claim?Why should readers believe the claim? What proof is given?What proof is given?

Support

Toulmin Arguments: CSToulmin Arguments: CSWW

WARRANTWARRANT—explains how/why the —explains how/why the evidence proves the pointevidence proves the point

How are the claim and the evidence How are the claim and the evidence related?related?

What does this evidence prove?What does this evidence prove?

Support

Example of Toulmin argumentExample of Toulmin argument

ClaimClaim—McDonald’s has built a fast-food empire —McDonald’s has built a fast-food empire on delivering the same experience in every on delivering the same experience in every store, whether it’s in Albuquerque or Albania.store, whether it’s in Albuquerque or Albania.

SupportSupport—Each job is broken down into routines. —Each job is broken down into routines. For example, diagrams show exactly where to For example, diagrams show exactly where to place each of the four pickles that go on a place each of the four pickles that go on a hamburger.hamburger.

WarrantWarrant—This routinization ensures that —This routinization ensures that hamburgers are built and served the same way hamburgers are built and served the same way at all McDonald’s franchises.at all McDonald’s franchises.

Why a warrant?Why a warrant?

Evidence doesn’t speak for itself.Evidence doesn’t speak for itself.

Support

Why a warrant?Why a warrant?

The same fact may be given two different The same fact may be given two different interpretations:interpretations:

McDonald’s jobs are broken down into McDonald’s jobs are broken down into routines.routines.

Jim: Boring!!!! Jim: Boring!!!!

Dwight: Clear path to advancementDwight: Clear path to advancement

TiVO: yes!TiVO: yes!

. For the last fifteen years, television and . For the last fifteen years, television and radio advertising has become so radio advertising has become so overblown, so in-your-face, and so LOUD, overblown, so in-your-face, and so LOUD, that my senses have revolted. That’s why I that my senses have revolted. That’s why I like the TiVo box my father has—I can like the TiVo box my father has—I can watch and record my favorite shows and watch and record my favorite shows and zap through the commercials. Heaven.zap through the commercials. Heaven.

——Brian EvankovichBrian Evankovich

Magic City Morning StarMagic City Morning Star

Support

TiVO: no!TiVO: no!

. Turner Broadcasting CEO Jaime Kellner . Turner Broadcasting CEO Jaime Kellner . . . said it best: “Your contract with the . . . said it best: “Your contract with the network when you get the show is you’re network when you get the show is you’re going to watch the spots. Any time you going to watch the spots. Any time you skip a commercial, you’re actually stealing skip a commercial, you’re actually stealing the programming.”the programming.”

——Brian EvankovichBrian Evankovich

Magic City Morning StarMagic City Morning Star

Support

TiVO exampleTiVO example

TiVO allows viewers to skip commercials.TiVO allows viewers to skip commercials.

Consumer: Great!!!! Consumer: Great!!!!

TV exec: I’ll sue!TV exec: I’ll sue!

Case Study: Hate Speech CodesCase Study: Hate Speech Codes

A Pennsylvania school district A Pennsylvania school district banned ''unwelcome verbal, written banned ''unwelcome verbal, written or physical conduct which offends, or physical conduct which offends, denigrates or belittles an denigrates or belittles an individual.''individual.''

Support

Case Study: Hate Speech CodesCase Study: Hate Speech Codes

A Pennsylvania school district A Pennsylvania school district banned ''unwelcome verbal, written banned ''unwelcome verbal, written or physical conduct which offends, or physical conduct which offends, denigrates or belittles an individual.’denigrates or belittles an individual.’

PROS? PROS? CONS?CONS?

How not to do CONSHow not to do CONS

““Hate speech codes can prohibit the expression Hate speech codes can prohibit the expression of hate speech but they can not change the of hate speech but they can not change the attitudes that lead to that expression. The effect attitudes that lead to that expression. The effect is to send hate underground where it is less is to send hate underground where it is less likely to be challengedlikely to be challenged”” (Smethers, 1993, p 19). (Smethers, 1993, p 19). ““In every case where hate speech codes have In every case where hate speech codes have been challenged, the courts have criticized the been challenged, the courts have criticized the text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been found Hate speech codes have been found consistently unconstitutional by the courtsconsistently unconstitutional by the courts”” (Black, 1994, p. 13).(Black, 1994, p. 13).

Support

Use CSW to develop body ¶Use CSW to develop body ¶

Claim:Claim: A hate speech code should not be A hate speech code should not be adopted because it would not reduce hate.adopted because it would not reduce hate.

Support

Use CSW to develop body ¶Use CSW to develop body ¶

Claim:Claim: A hate speech code should not be A hate speech code should not be adopted because it would not reduce hate.adopted because it would not reduce hate.

Support/Evidence: Support/Evidence: “Hate speech codes “Hate speech codes can prohibit the expression of hate speech can prohibit the expression of hate speech but they can not change the attitudes that but they can not change the attitudes that lead to that expression. The effect is to lead to that expression. The effect is to send hate underground where it is less send hate underground where it is less likely to be challenged” (Smethers, 1993, likely to be challenged” (Smethers, 1993, p. 19).p. 19).

Use CSW for argument body ¶Use CSW for argument body ¶

Claim:Claim: A hate speech code should not be A hate speech code should not be adopted because it would not reduce hate.adopted because it would not reduce hate.

Support: Support: Smether (1993) argues that “hate Smether (1993) argues that “hate speech codes can prohibit the expression of speech codes can prohibit the expression of hate speech but they can not change the hate speech but they can not change the attitudes that lead to that expression.” (p. 19).attitudes that lead to that expression.” (p. 19).

Warrant:Warrant: Paradoxically, these codes can Paradoxically, these codes can strengthen prejudice by driving it underground strengthen prejudice by driving it underground where it is never challenged. where it is never challenged.

Support

Find the CSWFind the CSW

A hate speech code should not be adopted at A hate speech code should not be adopted at MU because it will be struck down by the court MU because it will be struck down by the court system. system. “In every case where hate speech “In every case where hate speech codes have been challenged, the courts have codes have been challenged, the courts have criticized the text of the codes for being vague criticized the text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been found consistently unconstitutional by the courts” found consistently unconstitutional by the courts” (Black, 1994, p. 13).(Black, 1994, p. 13). Adopting a hate speech Adopting a hate speech code that will be thrown out of court is a waste of code that will be thrown out of court is a waste of time and money.time and money.

Support

Supply the C and WSupply the C and W

Claim: Claim:

Supporting Material: Supporting Material: The music industry slapped The music industry slapped [Princeton student Daniel Peng] with a lawsuit seeking [Princeton student Daniel Peng] with a lawsuit seeking potentially billions of dollars in damages for distributing potentially billions of dollars in damages for distributing copyrighted works. His site was shut down and his life copyrighted works. His site was shut down and his life thrown into chaos.thrown into chaos.

Warrant:Warrant:

Supply the C and WSupply the C and W

Claim: Claim: Commercials are the best/worst Commercials are the best/worst entertainment on TV.entertainment on TV.

Supporting Material:Supporting Material:

Warrant:Warrant:

Support

Concede and CounterargueConcede and Counterargue

Establish common ground.Establish common ground. Show awareness of both sides.Show awareness of both sides. Acknowledge and counter the strongest Acknowledge and counter the strongest

objection to your arguments.objection to your arguments.

CCounterounter

Concede and CounterargueConcede and Counterargue

Why establish common ground?Why establish common ground?

CCounterounter

Concede and CounterargueConcede and Counterargue

Why establish common ground?Why establish common ground? Enhance credibilityEnhance credibility Make it easier for readers to listenMake it easier for readers to listen

by acknowledging their point of viewby acknowledging their point of view Remind readers that they share values Remind readers that they share values

with the writerwith the writer

CCounterounter

Yes, Yes, butbut……

Some argue that girls’ math scores Some argue that girls’ math scores on the SAT are lower because girls on the SAT are lower because girls tend to take fewer math courses tend to take fewer math courses than boys. than boys. While that may account for While that may account for some of the differencesome of the difference….….

Counter

Yes, Yes, butbut…. Here’s why….…. Here’s why….

Another objection professors have to Another objection professors have to frequent exams is that they take too frequent exams is that they take too much time to read and grade…much time to read and grade…..There There are a number of responses to this are a number of responses to this objectionobjection….….

Counter

To rebut or refute:To rebut or refute:

Prove that opponents’ logic is faultyProve that opponents’ logic is faulty Show that their evidence doesn’t Show that their evidence doesn’t

really prove the claimreally prove the claim Attack the warrantAttack the warrant

To refute:To refute:

It has been arguedIt has been argued that thatchildren who attend daycare at an children who attend daycare at an early age miss out on important early early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child learning that occurs in parent-child interactions. interactions. In reality….In reality….

Counter

To refute:To refute:

Baker (2003)Baker (2003) argues argues… … In reality….In reality…. It might be claimedIt might be claimed……The truth isThe truth is…… Some maintain thatSome maintain that……The evidence The evidence

does not support this claim….does not support this claim….

Counter

To refute:To refute:

““Dr. Evans, who Dr. Evans, who claimedclaimed to be a to be a ‘Fellow of the American College of ‘Fellow of the American College of Emergency Physicians’ and a Emergency Physicians’ and a member of the AMA, has not been a member of the AMA, has not been a Fellow of ACEP since 1984. Fellow of ACEP since 1984. His last His last year of membership in AMA was in year of membership in AMA was in 1990—10 years before his 1990—10 years before his testimonytestimony.”.”

Counter

Concede what you can’t rebutConcede what you can’t rebut

A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. Wirtz found that, among those W. Wirtz found that, among those students who worked at least 25 students who worked at least 25 hours per week while in school, their hours per week while in school, their unemployment rate four years later unemployment rate four years later was was halfhalf that of those who did not that of those who did not work. work.

Counter

Concede what you can’t rebutConcede what you can’t rebut

Ernest Evans (2005) concedes that “terroristic violence is so horrible that people tend to instinctively believe that terrorists are both sociopathic and irrational” (p. 1). However, he believes that most terrorists are rational people with tactical goals.

Counter

Concede what you can’t rebutConcede what you can’t rebut

A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. Wirtz found that, among those students Wirtz found that, among those students who worked at least 25 hours per week who worked at least 25 hours per week while in school, their unemployment rate while in school, their unemployment rate four years later was half that of those who four years later was half that of those who did not work. did not work. This is an impressive This is an impressive statistic.statistic. It must be seen, though, It must be seen, though, together with the findingtogether with the finding that many . . . that many . . . drop out and are gobbled up in the world drop out and are gobbled up in the world of low-skill jobs.of low-skill jobs. (see St. Martin’s Guide, p. 360, ¶ 10)(see St. Martin’s Guide, p. 360, ¶ 10)

Counter

Why counterargue?Why counterargue?

““Conceding that an opposing point is Conceding that an opposing point is valid and then building upon it to valid and then building upon it to further one's own claim allows a further one's own claim allows a writer to make the audience feel writer to make the audience feel appreciated without giving up her or appreciated without giving up her or his own position.”his own position.”

Terms in a Toulmin Argumenthttp://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/wcenter/toulmin.htm

Counter

Where do I counterargue?Where do I counterargue?

You may choose toYou may choose to build each of your main points as a build each of your main points as a

contrast to oppositional claims.contrast to oppositional claims. offer a counterargument after you have offer a counterargument after you have

articulated your main claims.articulated your main claims.Organizing Your Argument

Purdue University Writing Lab

Counter

Counter Strategy 1Counter Strategy 1

IntroductionCON PRO—first argument

CONPRO—second argument

CONPRO—third argumentConclusion

Counter

Counter Strategy 1—ExampleCounter Strategy 1—Example

Thesis: Snowmobiles should be banned in Yellowstone National Park.

CON It may be hard to imagine that 1,100 snowmobiles a day could cause an air pollution problem in a park the size of Connecticut, but they can.

PRO—The air pollution at park entrances has already become so bad that . . . park rangers have been forced to wear respirators.

Counter Strategy 2Counter Strategy 2

PRO: Snowmobiles pollute.PRO: Snowmobiles are noisy.PRO: Snowmobiles are costly to

police and park funds are limited.

CON: Opponents of a ban say. . . but …

Counter

Counter Strategy 2—ExampleCounter Strategy 2—Example

PRO—pollutionPRO—pollutionPRO—noise banPRO—noise banPRO—costPRO—costCON—Opponents of a ban argue that a central CON—Opponents of a ban argue that a central mission of the park is to provide access [to all, mission of the park is to provide access [to all, not just the physically fit]. not just the physically fit]. Admittedly,Admittedly, winter winter access is important, access is important, but but ordinary people can ordinary people can enjoy the park by means other than enjoy the park by means other than snowmobiles….snowmobiles….

Words for counterargumentsWords for counterarguments

Language to show you’re aware of opposing Language to show you’re aware of opposing opinionsopinions

http://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/arguewhttp://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/argueweb/2bothsds.htm - langsumeb/2bothsds.htm - langsum

Model papers:Model papers: http://word-crafter.net/CompII/argument.htmlhttp://word-crafter.net/CompII/argument.html

Counter

Organizing an ArgumentOrganizing an Argument

Weakest to Weakest to strongeststrongest OR OR StrongestStrongest to weakest to weakest

Counter

Organizing an ArgumentOrganizing an Argument

Weakest to Weakest to strongeststrongest(if you expect audience to agree)(if you expect audience to agree)

Strongest Strongest to weakestto weakest(if you have to convince audience)(if you have to convince audience)

Counter

Adding CounterargumentsAdding Counterarguments

Con; Pro; Pro; ProCon; Pro; Pro; Pro Pro; Pro; Pro; ConPro; Pro; Pro; Con Con—Pro; Con—Pro; Con—ProCon—Pro; Con—Pro; Con—Pro

Counter

Adding Other SectionsAdding Other Sections

IntroductionIntroduction(Background)(Background)BodyBody ConCon; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; ConCon ConCon—Pro; —Pro; ConCon—Pro; —Pro; ConCon—Pro—Pro(Solution; predictions about future….(Solution; predictions about future….))ConclusionConclusion

Counter

Argument ChecklistArgument Checklist

• IntroductionIntroduction• Is my thesis arguable?Is my thesis arguable?• Have I given readers a reason to care?Have I given readers a reason to care?

• BodyBody• Have I used Claim-Source-Warrant? Have I used Claim-Source-Warrant? • Does my evidence really support my argument?Does my evidence really support my argument?• Do I acknowledge other views and counterargue?Do I acknowledge other views and counterargue?

• ConclusionConclusion• Have I summarized my position and why it matters?Have I summarized my position and why it matters?

Summary

Further ResourcesFurther Resources

• Chapter 11 (thesis statement & blueprint)Chapter 11 (thesis statement & blueprint)• Chapter 23 (supporting evidence)Chapter 23 (supporting evidence)• infotrac.thomsonlearning.com/

infowrite/critical.html (fallacies)• bedfordstmartins.com/

online/cite6.html (integrating quotations)

• www.word-crafter.net/CompIIwww.word-crafter.net/CompII (argument) (argument)

Summary