writing a research report (1)

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What is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is an individuals or researchfirms formal offer to produce a product or render aservice to a client in response to a request fromthe client. A proposal is also known as a work-plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of intent.It is an agreement between a client and aresearcher.

A good proposal communicates the following

things to us:oWhy is it important to know what you areproposing to research?

oWhat information will be obtained to meet

your objectives? 2


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A good proposal communicates the following

things to us:

oWhere will it be obtained?

oHow will it be obtained? and

oWhy will it be obtained?

oWhat contribution is it going to make?

Because a research proposal is clearly an outlinedplan submitted to a client for acceptance orrejection, it allows the client to assess your

oSeriousness

o

SincerityoAdequacy of your proposed design

oThe extent of your background information

oYour competence and

oCommitment in undertaking the study. 3


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Expression of Interest (EOI)

In most instances, clients request the researchersor research firms to express if they are interested

to submit a formal proposal on pre-selected topics

or packages. This is what we call Expressionof

Interest or in short EOI. The broad aim of this EOI

is to identify a researcher or a research firm

capable of doing the job through an evaluation

process in accordance with the governmentprocurement rule. The qualified researchers or

research firms are then asked to submit their

formal proposal in response to a call for RFP

adherin to the TOR 4


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Components of a Proposal

There is no single format for research proposals.This is because every research project is different.

Different disciplines, donor agencies and

academic institutions, all have different formats

and requirements. There are, however, several

key components which must be included in every

research proposal. The specific research problem

will dictate other sections are required.Although this delineation is not necessarily final, a

project proposal may be structured under the

following headings: 5


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Figure: 1 Steps in the development of a research

proposal

The following diagram displays the differentstages of a proposal that shows an overview ofthe whole process:

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Figure: 1 Steps in the development of a research

proposal

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Executive Summary

This part of the proposal is the most important

section of the entire document. Although it usuallyappears as the first section of the proposal, it isnot written until all other sections are completed.Here you will provide the reader with a snapshotof what is to follow. Specifically, it summarizes all

of the key information and is a sales documentdesigned to convince the reader that the proposedstudy should be considered for support. Theexecutive summary should include all the steps tobe followed in executing the study in a very brief

manner. This summary should not be overloadedwith unnecessary information and in no wayshould exceed two pages. Provide simply a briefstatement of the problem, objectives, expectedimplications, methods to be followed, and

resources needed. 9


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Executive Summary

Here is an example of an abstract of a proposalwhich was designed to study the IDD situation inBangladesh (Yusuf et al. 1999):

The rate of goiter prevalence varies widelybetween districts in Bangladesh. Some districts

have a goiter prevalence rate as high as 80percent among adult population, while otherdistricts have a rate as low as 10 percent. Thegeneral objective of the proposed study is to

investigate the goiter prevalence in Bangladesh.The immediate objective of this study is to identifythe factors associated with the regional variationin the prevalence of goiter. The ultimate objectiveof the study is to recommend appropriate

interventions for eliminating IDD problem from10


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Executive Summary

The study will be conducted between January2008 and December 2008 by the Department ofBiochemistry, University of Dhaka in collaborationwith the Department of Statistics and INFS,University of Dhaka.. The entire country will bedivided into there ecological zones: plain, floodprone, and hilly. EPI 30-cluster samplingmethodology, as proposed by UNICEF and WHO,will be followed. A total of 90 clusters will beselected, 30 from each ecological zones.Selection of the clusters will be made on the basisof PPS sampling method. The households will bethe ultimate sapling units and selection of thesehouseholds will follow systematic sampling11


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Executive Summary

All women aged 1549 will be interviewed.Information on education, occupation of thehouseholds, and salt intake will be collected.

Both clinical and biochemical data will also becollected. A team of medical practitioners andparamedics will be employed to collect data. Allcoding, editing, and data processing will be done

in the Department of Statistics. A final study reportwill be made available by December, 2008. Fundsof US $45,000 are required to meet the expenseson staff salaries, travel, questionnaires, computercost and a dissemination seminar.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose is a single statement or paragraphthat explains what the study intends toaccomplish. A few typical statements are:

The goal of this study is to

o Identifying the consequences of (say) earlymarriage

o Discover what .....

o Understand the causes or effects of......

o Refine our current understanding of .....

o Provide a new interpretation of ...

o Redesign the existing instruments....

o Suggest a new method of data collection, etc, 13


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Significance of the Study

The significance section should create aperspective for looking at the problem. It should

point out how your study relates to the larger

issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justifythe reasons for your study. It makes the purpose

worth pursuing. The significance of the study

answers such questions as:

o Why is your study important?

o To whom it is important?

o What benefits will occur if our stud is done. 14


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Problem Statement

What is the problem you aim to solve and why is it important

enough to be investigated? The problem statement is a summaryof the topic of your planned research and a review of how yourresearch will affect other in your field. It deals with such elementsas

Problem identification

Prioritizing the problemAnalyzing the problem

Justifying the problem in response

In presenting your arguments, take into consideration of the

following points:

Decide which facts or statistics best support the study

Be sure that the data you present are as far as up-dated andaccurate

Avoid overstatement and overly emotional appeals15


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Literature Review

oDetermine whether it is reasonable to present the

need as acute.oDecide whether you can demonstrate that yourproposal addresses the need differently or better thanothers that preceded it.

Literature Review

oLiterature review focuses on the following points:o It explains the needs for the proposed study

o It avoids duplication of workso It shares with the reader the results of other studiesthat are closely related to the study beingundertaken.o It appraises the shortcomings ofothers works

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Literature Review

oIt documents the accuracy of the secondary datao It provides a framework for establishing theimportance of the study, as well as a benchmarkfor comparing the results of a study with otherfindings.o

It examines the weakness (if any) of themethodology used in other studies.To ensure a good review of literaturea) Make your review briefb) Refer to original sources onlyc) Emphasize the important results of other

studiesd) Indicate how your study relates to other

studies

e) Identify the weakness of the methodologyado ted b others 17


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Literature Review

Ahmed, Islam and Rahman (1997) in their study ofClient Satisfaction with Sterilization Procedure madea literature review, a part of which is reproducedbelow:

Ali et al. (1979) found that about 90 percent of the

female and male clients were satisfied with theirsterilization decision. Of those dissatisfied with theirdecision, the major reasons were deteriorated healthand strength, and the incidence of child death

following operation. A much wider range of indicatorsof satisfaction was included in a national follow-upsurvey of 336 tubectomy and 180 vasectomy clientsconducted in 1986 by Miah and Rahman (1987). Theyfound that about 91 percent of the clients have goodfeelings towards sterilization method while only 918


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Benefits of the Study

This section of the proposal should focus on theimportance and urgency of the data needed. Itmust therefore explicitly describe in two to threeparagraphs what benefit will be accrued from theproposed study. In describing this section, youmust take care that you can convince the sponsorthat your plan can meet its needs. Here is anexample that demonstrates the benefits to bederived from a study titled: A Comparative study

between Caesarian Section and Vaginal Deliveryin Eclamsia

From clinical observations in Bangladesh andelsewhere it is noted that early caesarian section

may nullify the violent effect of this grave disease.To date no such stud has been undertaken in19


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Research Objectives

The results of the proposed study can easily beimplemented simply by dissemination of thefindings among the health professionals and thusapplied at all referral hospitals. The study will inthe long run help to reduce maternal mortalityremarkably and thus will improve our nationalhealth status.

Research Objectives

Research objectives describeo What will be demonstrated?

oWhat will tested, evaluated?

oWhat do you want to confirm?

oWhat do you want to compare? 20


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Research Objectives

They communicate:

oWhy do we carry out the research?

oWhat do we hope to achieve from such aresearch?

oWhat recommendations are likely to be made?In addition to research objectives, all proposalsshould contain a formal and explicit statement ofthe research questions or hypotheses wherever

applicable. Whether to use research questions orhypotheses will depend on the type of research.Exploratory or descriptive research does notinvolve hypothesis testing; it is based on

underlying research questions. All proposals for 21


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Methodology

The methodology section describes your basic

research plan. It usually begins with a few

introductory paragraphs that restate the purpose

and research questions. The phraseology should

be identical to that used in Chapter 1.This section should aim at addressing four broad

questions:

a) Where we want to collect the data, how we willselect our sample, and how many subjects will

be included in the study? (This refers to the

coverage, target population, sample design)

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Methodology

b. What information do we need to collect toanswer the research questions implied in ourresearch objectives? (This refers to thevariables we are interested in)

c. What approach will we follow to collect this

information? (This refers to the researchdesign we want to employ)

d. What techniques and tools we will use tocollect it. (This refers to the data collection

techniques and tools, such as questionnaire,observation check-list)

When more than one way exists to approachthe design, discuss the methods you discardedand justify why your selected approach issuperior. 23


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Methodology

Here is an example of methodology adopted in1999 National IDD Survey conducted by DhakaUniversity:

EPI Cluster Sampling Methodology recommended

by the joint WHO

UNICEF

ICCIDD

Consultation for IDD Indicators will be followedin the present study. A three-stage samplingmethod is proposed for the study. The primary

sampling unit will be a Thana which is a compactarea of approximately 130 mauzas. A mauza is adefined area in rural Bangladesh and in 80percent of the times it is synonymous with a single

village. In urban areas, the equivalent of a mauza24


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Methodology

In all 328 thana form our univers from which atotal of 90 Thana will be selected 30 from each ofthe three ecological zones: Plain. Hilly and Floodprone. In selecting these primary sampling units,PPS sampling method will be adopted. The mauza

constitute the secondary sampling units. Theseunits will be selected employing a simple randomsampling procedure since mauza are assumed tobe almost of equal sizes. The ultimate samplingunits are the households, which we propose toselect following a systematic sampling methodwith a random start. The clinical examination forgoiter and cretinism prevalence, biochemicalestimation of urinary iodine, and the

questionnaires will constitute the studyinstruments. 25


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Methodology

In order to complete the field work in a short time,a total of 10 field teams will be recruited. Eachteam will comprise of one physician and onetechnician. Each questionnaire will be manuallyedited and coded. Following this, information onall items of the questionnaire will be entered intocomputer using visual FoxPro and SPSS will beused to analyze data.

While proposing your methodology, you shouldexplore other methodologies and highlight thecomparability of those with the one you propose interms of the methods of interpreting the availabledata, carrying out investigation, analysis andsuggest alternative approaches if needed. 26


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DataCollection

Data collection methods should be clearly specified in

the proposal. These methods may vary from simpleobservation to a large-scale field survey. The specificmethod or methods to be used for collecting datalargely depends on the objectives of the survey, theresearch design and the availability of time money andpersonnel. With the variation in the type of data)qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the methodof data collection also varies.

Plan for Data Analysis

The proposal should contain this section to assure thesponsor that you are familiar with the correct andtheoretically sound techniques of data analysisprocedures. Keeping this in view, you need to providea brief overview of the treatment and theoretical basis

of these procedures. 27


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Plan for Data Analysis

In doing so, you may lay out a sketch of samplegraphs, charts and dummy tables and an overviewof the statistical techniques ranging from simpleregression to multivariate techniques. You mayalso give an indication of the possible statisticaltests that you may employ depending on thenature of data to verify the research hypothesisthat you have formulated. You are also required tospecify the type of data you are anticipating and

the tentative interpretation you will make in theprocess of analysis. Note that the data analysisplan that you are proposing is not a commitment,rather it is an honest desire to fulfill the

commitment as outlined in the proposal. 28


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Work Plan

This section elaborates the work schedule of the

proposed study answering such questions as, whowill do what and when it will be done. A work planhas two major components: personnel and timeschedule. The major issues that a work plan

includes areoPreparatory works/questionnaire development

oRecruitment and training of project personnel

oQuestionnaire revision

oField interviews/data collectionoData editing and data coding

oData entry

oData analysis

oReport writing 29


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Work Plan

Each of these phases should have an estimatedtime and personnel needed. A chart, known asGantt chart may be used for this purpose. AGantt chart is a type ofbar chart that illustrates aproject schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the startand finish dates of the terminal elements andsummary elements of a project. Terminal elementsand summary elements comprise the workbreakdown structure of the project. Some Gantt

charts also show the dependency (i.e.,precedence network) relationships betweenactivities.

As an example, a sample six-month work plan of ahypothetical study is shown in the following Gantt30
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_chart


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Work Plan & Analysis Plan

Analysis PlanAddress each research question and objective

Mention the type of statistical treatment (tables,statistical tests) that will be performed to answer

that research question. 31


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Assumptions

State what variables will be included in the

analysis

Identify the dependent and independent variables

if such relationship exists. Indicate in advance

what sort of analytical techniques (uni-variate, bi-variate or multi-variate) will be employed if data

permit to do so.

Assumptions

All research studies need to make someassumptions. The most obvious is that the sample

represents the population. Another common

assumption is that an instrument you are using

has validity and is measuring the desired32

Ethical Considerations & Reporting


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Ethical Considerations & Reporting

Findings

All research proposals should indicate if any ethical

issue is involved when collecting information from therespondents. In such cases, the researcher shouldclearly indicate in advance how he/she is going toaddress this issue. For a detailed description of ethicalissue, see Chapter 2 of the text.

Reporting FindingsThe proposal should indicate what reports and othermeans of disseminating research findings are planned.The types of report that are usually included forreporting purposes are

oProgress report (weekly/monthly etc)oFinal reportoPublicationsoSeminar, workshop, conferenceoDiscussion with policy makers or program managers

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Qualification of the Key Persons

Qualifications of the key persons involved in thestudy play a vital role in the process of evaluationof the proposal. A proposal with experiencedresearchers enhances its credibility and assuresthe program managers and policy makers of a setof policy oriented recommendations that canultimately be implemented. This section shouldbegin with the key qualifications and experiencesof the investigators. Particular emphasis should be

given to include the previous experience of doingrelated works. Relevant societies, to which theresearcher belongs, can be included in thecurriculum vitae. Include the curriculum vitae of

other personnel if the RFP desires so. 34


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Project Management

All administrative activities should be outlined on a

master plan. This plan shows how the study teamis organized to complete the work efficiently. Thisplan is intended to demonstrate (a) therelationship between the researchers and the

assistants, and (b) who is to keep liaison with thesponsor.

The plan should also focus on the process ofrecord control, fund handling, mode of preparingand forwarding progress report, progressmonitoring and project supervision. In addition,mode of payment frequency and number ofinstallments in payment should also be included inthe plan. Legal responsibilities, liabilities and

involvement of the sponsors during the entire35


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Budget

The budget details should be submitted in the format

the sponsor requests. In some cases, the budget issubmitted as a separate proposal for sear reasons ofquality proposal, where budget is somewhat ofsecondary importance. In all cases, the budget shouldbe realistic. Claims for any large and unusual items in

the budget should be explained and justified. Arrangethe major cost categories under the following majorheadings:

o Salaries and benefits,

o Materials, equipment and supplies,o Travel,

o Dissemination seminar, and

o Miscellaneous expenses.

The accompanying table shows a budget format that36


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Table: A sample of a budget format

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Table: A sample of a budget format

Bibliography

A bibliography is necessary for many of theprojects once you have made a literature review.

Following is a frequently used format for38


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Bibliography

Black, F. and M. S. Scoles (1973). The Pricing ofOptions and Corporate Liabilities. Journal ofPolitical Economy, 81: 637659.

Scott, W.R (1997). Financial Accounting Theory.Prentice-Hall.

Sen, A. (1999). The Possibility of Social Choice,American Economic Review, 89(3): 349-378.

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Scope and Limitations

All research studies have limitations of one kind or

another and a finite scope. If you anticipate anyproblem during the course of your study, do not tryto conceal it. It may start with designing ofquestionnaire to data analysis with intermediate

problems in sample size determination, selectionof the sample and data collection. Limitations areoften imposed by time and budget constraints.Fairly list the limitations of the study. Describe theextent to which you believe the limitations might

degrade the quality of data and hence yourfindings. It is best to recognize these limitationsrather than to pretend that they do not exit. Befrank and fair to mention any unprecedented or

situational factors that you might encounter duringthe execution of our stud . 40


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Scope and Limitations

Study the following example: A study is designedto assess the attitude of school-going childrentowards TV program provided by satellitechannels. The study is proposed to be conductedduring March-May. It is apprehended that for such

a study, the proposed months are not suitable,because SSC examination is scheduled duringthese months. The key respondents are busy withtheir examination and are highly likely to be

reluctant to participate despite their interest. Thiswill certainly influence the study findings.

In a study on dowry and discrimination towardswomen, statistical representation cannot beensured in the determination of the size of the41


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Appendix

It is because of the fact that such events are rareand localized. This may be indicated as alimitation and an alternative suggestion may bemade for data collection. One may propose toconduct an in-depth interview, case studies and

FGD.

Appendix

Any additional information that reinforces the body

of the proposal can be included in the appendix.This includes, for example, CV of the projectpersonnel, detailed budget, draft questionnaire,technical notes, informed consent form if any, list

of references and any other information you think42


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Appendix

A simple section consisting of the glossary of the

terms should also be included whenever there aremany words unique to the research topic. A list ofabbreviations should also be provided in theappendix so that nobody faces any difficulty in

understanding these acronyms. Here are someexamples of glossaries and abbreviation:

Glossary /abbreviations/operational definitionof the terms

If you use technical terms in writing your proposal,you require to clarifying them in non-technicalterms so as to make them understandable to thereaders with brief explanations of their meanings.Here are a few examples:

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Appendix

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Apprenticeship: Method of on-the-job training inwhich the employee is trained underthe guidance of a highly skilled co-worker

Adolescent : A boy/girl who is between 12 and 19

years of age.

Norms: Assumptions and expectationsabout how members of a group willbehave

Orientation: A program designed to helpemployees fit smoothly into anorganization.

Reliability : The consistency of a measure


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Abbreviations

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LC: Letter of Credit

TOR: Terms of Reference

GDP Gross Domestic Product

PSU Primary Sampling Unit

CPI Consumer Price Index

NCB Nationalized Commercial Bank

RFP Request for Proposal


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Proposal Presentation

In many instances, the sponsor/donor wants you

to present the proposal for more clarity and anunderstanding of the whole research process youhave planed to follow in your proposed study. Thisgives them an understanding if you have

understood the problem they want to investigateand whether the proposal has been written inaccordance with the guidelines as delineated inthe Terms of reference (TOR). The researcher or

the research firm also gets an opportunity toidentify the strengths and weaknesses in hisproposal and gets a chance to modify his proposalaccordingly.

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WRITING A REPORT

When writing your report, keep in mind that your

purpose is to inform the readers ofo What you investigatedo Why and how you conducted your investigationo What were your findings and finallyo What conclusions you arrived at.Before you start drafting your report, you must beensured thato Every specific objective has been dealt with.o Appropriate analysis of the data has been performed

o Only the relevant tables and charts have beenfurnishedo The conclusions and the recommendations areappropriate and relevant to the specific objectives.o Which tables will be furnished in the text of the report

for comprehensive conclusion and which in the47


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General Format of a Report

The procedure to be followed in reporting a scientific

study consists of rather precise and well-defined stepsthat may be modified only slightly. Immediatelyfollowing the title page, a study report is preparedunder the following broad headings:

1. Title page

2. Table of contents

3. Abbreviation/Glossary

4. Foreword

5. Preface6. Acknowledgement

7. Executive summary/Abstract

8. Introduction

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9. Background

10.Methodology

11.Results

12.Discussions

13.Conclusions

14.Recommendations

15.References

16.AppendicesAll research reports are usually organized infive to six chapters, which may be made up ofthree main divisions:

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oPreliminary materials

oMain body andoSupplementary materials

The preliminary material part will cover the first sixissues, viz.

oTitle page

oTable of contents

oAbbreviations and/glossary of the terms

o

ForewordoPreface

oExecutive summary/Abstract

The main body of the report will be organized

under the appropriate chapter headings. 50


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Here is a layout of the chapters that a scientific

report usually contains:CHAPTER 1: Introduction

CHAPTER 2: Background

CHAPTER 3: Methodology

CHAPTER 4: Results

CHAPTER 5: Discussion

CHAPTER 5: Conclusions and Recommendations

The supplementary material division will include,among others

References or bibliography

Appendices

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Each of the individual sections/chapters may be

structured with the contents as shown in thefollowing table:

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Title Page

The above points are briefly discussed below:

It is important that the

title of the report be both

Brief and descriptive of your

research. It should alsoclearly indicate the topic

and scope.

Here is an example

of a typical title page

on the cover of the report

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Table of contents

This is a list of the headings and appendices of the

report. Depending on the complexity and length of thereport, you could list tables, figures and appendicesseparately. Make sure that the correct page numbersare shown opposite the contents. Up-to-date word

processing packages can generate a table of contentsfor you. Here is an example of a content page drawnfrom a study on Adolescent Fertility Behavior inBangladesh by Islam and others (1995):

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Contents Page

List of tables and figures

iForeword ii

Preface iii

Acknowledgements iv

Executive summary v


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Chapter

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The Executive Summary

The foreword, preface and acknowledgements are

not necessarily mandatory in all reports, but somestudies adhere to this practice as many sponsorsask for this as an acknowledgement of theircontribution.


The intent of the executive summary is toimmediately provide the time-constraint reader

with the important facts and findings derived fromthe study. As appropriate for your study, try toinclude

oA statement of the problem (which answers the

WHAT question), 56


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oThe people you studied (which addresses the

WHOM question),

oStudy period (which answers the WHENquestion)

o

The dependent and independent variables,oThe instruments you used,

oThe design (which provides answer to HOWquestion),

oMajor findings, andoConclusions along with any recommendations.

Although the executive summary precedes themain report, it is written only after the report hastaken its final sha e. 57


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It is very vital to remember that the summary

should include no new information not presentedin the report. All conclusions andrecommendations presented in the summary alsoshould follow what appear in the report. We

present below a summarized version (partlymodified) of an Executive Summary based on astudy Utilization of Credit in the Rural Areas ofChittagong by Uddin and Uddin (1999)

Credit is the lifeblood of modern economic system.It plays a vital role in the economy of a country.But there is other side of the picture too. It is said

that credit is like fire. 58


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If properly utilized, it can have a favorable impact

and if not, it can be destructive. It is because ofthis, credit management is so vital that everyaspect of it needs periodic evaluation. To this end,the present work is undertaken to evaluate rural

credit utilization with the following specificobjectives:

o To know the purposes for which the loan wassanctioned

o

To identify the utilization patterns of loanso To isolate the factors associated with misuse ormisdirection of loans.

The study was conducted in some selectedvillages under Chittagong district. A sample of2000 loanees was selected for detail investi ation.59


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It was revealed that rural credit is misdirected

significantly and that farm size and income level havesignificant relationship with the misuse andmisdirection of the credit. Surprisingly, the higher thefarm size and the income level, the greater is themisdirection. Time lag in sanctioning and

disbursement of loan, complexity of the sanctioningprocess, lack of supervision on the part of institutionallending agencies, pressing need to fund for otherreasons, inadequacy of fund on the part of the loanessmainly account for misdirection. As such more

supervised credit, timely monitoring provision foradequate loan, sincerity on the part of both lendersand borrowers are vital to ensure satisfactory use ofcredit. Concerned authorities need to take appropriateand objective-based steps to minimize the problem.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction prepares the reader for the

report by describing the following parts of the

project:

a) Background of the study

b) Statement of the problem

c) Objectives of research

d) Research hypotheses

The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs in

the form ofbackground of the study is to

o Catch the attention of the readers and

oGet them tuned on about the subject. 61


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The statement of the problem describes the

nature and scope of the problem. You may borrowa substantial part in this chapter from yourresearch proposal with comments and additionaldata based on your research experience gained in

conducting this study. Any relevant history orbackground of the problem that is essential to athorough understanding of the problem shouldalso be included here. A brief profile of the country,indicating the geographical location,

administration, economic condition, literacy,religion and other pertinent issues may also beincluded in the introduction. A statement is madeexplaining why the solution of the problem is

important and the critical need to formulate acourse of action. 62


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The statement of the problem is the focal point of

your research and demonstrates an overview ofyour research strategy. Present convincingargument why the problem you studied was a direnecessity and its execution was urgent from policy

point of view.The general and specific objectives should beincluded followed by research questions and ifappropriate, research hypotheses. If you have

not been able to meet some of the objectives, thisshould be stated in the methodology section andin the discussion of the findings. A brief review ofthe literature pertaining to the topic being

investigated should be given with a view to63


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The following is an illustrative example of an

introduction adopted from 1989 BFS report.There is a constant need in Bangladesh for highquality demographic data both to assess Govt.policies and to provide the basis for future

planning. Although the Govt. of Bangladeshestablished Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys(CPSs), as a major monitoring tool to assess theprogress of the family planning program every twoyears, yet these surveys provided data mainly on

knowledge and use of contraceptives. As a resultthe need for data on fertility and on itsdeterminants and on infant and child mortalityremained unsatisfied since 1975. Such need in

fact led to the repeat of the 1975 BFS in 1989. 64


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The 1989 BFS was conducted by National

Institute of Population Research and Training

(NIPORT) with the short-term objectives (i) to

assess the current level and recent trends in

fertility that have taken place in the last 10 yearsand to document the direct causes namely

marriage, contraception, and breast-feeding; (ii) to

collect information on variations in fertility and

childhood mortality by region, residence, socio-

economic status and other characteristics. In the

long term it is expected that the 1989 BFS will

form the basis upon which smaller more65


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Chapter 2: Background

The introductory chapter is followed by an

extensive literature review. The goal of literaturereview is to demonstrate the logical continuity

between previous and present work (APA, 1004).

Discuss the findings of works that are pertinent to

your specific issue. This will help you to justify the

study you have completed. The literature review

allows you to show how your research builds on

prior knowledge by presenting and evaluating

what is already known about your research

problem. Assume that the readers possess a vast

knowledge of the subject, but not the cited

articles, books and journals. 66


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In reviewing literature, it may be useful to do a

chronological format where you discuss from theearliest to the latest research, placing your

research appropriately in the chronology.

Alternately, you could write in a thematic way,

outlining the various themes that you discovered

in the research regarding the topic. Again, you will

need to state where your research fits.

The current chapter should contain a definition ofterms section when appropriate. Include, if your

report uses special terms that are unique to your

field of enquiry or that might not be understood by

the general readers. 67

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Operational definitions (definitions that you have

formulated for your study) should also be

included. An example of an operational definition

is For the purpose of this research, the term

improvement is operationally defined as the

difference between the measurements of a

posttest and pretest.

If you have used a lot of technical terms, you

should also provide a glossary (an alphabetical list

of the terms, with brief explanations of their

meanings). 68

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Chapter 3: Methodology

The methodology part of the report is more

technical than rest of the study, as it explains theexact nature of the statistical aspect that youfollowed. It describes in detail the precisequantitative tools and techniques used and

reveals the manner in which they led to thedesired results. Specifically, the methodologysection comprises the following issues:

oThe study type

o The study variables

o The target population

o Sampling methodology

o Data collection strategy 69

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To illustrate, we once again draw the case of 1989BFS methodology (summarized version) as anexample:

The study is based on a field survey all over

Bangladesh among ever-married women under-50years of age. In conducting the survey, a twostage probability sample design was used. At thefirst stage a sample of areas or clusters was

drawn. Each selected area was then mapped andall households listed. At the second stage, asample of households was selected within eacharea. Thus a total of 11729 households were

selected of which 11236 households were70

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Finally, in the 11236 successfully interviewed

households, a total of 12096 ever-married womenaged under-50 were identified as eligible for theindividual interview. Of these, 98 percent wereinterviewed from whom detail information on their

marriage, fertility preference, contraception;breast-feeding, fertility and child health werecollected. Fieldwork started in December 1988and ended in April 1989. It was conducted by a

total of 60 female interviewers working in teamsunder constant supervision of 12 male and 12female supervisors.

Under methodology section, the aforementioned

study discussed the following issues in details 71

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a. Sample size

b. Sample design

c. Sample implementation

d. Response rate

e. Development of data collectioninstruments

f. Recruitment and training of field staff

g. The main field workh. Data management

i. Editing and coding

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Chapter 4: Results

Thus is the most critical part of the report. In

presenting the findings, you must be very systematicso that the objectives of the research are clearlyreflected. It is here that the true statistical analysis isperformed. The findings consist of the actual statisticalcomputations that provide the information required to

make decisions and recommendations. Thesecomputations may vary from simple descriptivestatistics to the more advanced statistical analyses.Not that you will always provide detail description ofyour findings, you might choose to complement this

description by tables or graphs. The text will becomemore lively if you illustrate some of the findings withexamples using the respondents own words or withobservations and case-studies that you recordedduring fieldwork. We quote from Islam and Rahman

(1993) how the results of a study can be reported: 73

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Voluntarism in the VSC Programme

Almost all the sterilized clients had universal

knowledge about family planning methods prior toundergoing the operation. About 98 percent of thevasectomy clients and 97 percent of thetubectomy clients knew beforehand that theywould not be able to bear any more childrenfollowing the sterilization procedure. Theyindicated this by signing the consent form orputting their thumb-print on the form. About 85percent of the vasectomy clients and 94 percent of

the tubectomy clients reported that their mainmotive for undergoing sterilization was so thatthey would have no more children and thatcompensation payments had facilitated theiracceptance of the procedure. In the VSC

ro ramme no sterilized client re orted coercion. 74

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Voluntarism in the VSC Programme

To illustrate further, we present below a part of the

findings from Khan et al. (1995) based on studyon salt production in Bangladesh.

The production process of salt start from earlyDecember and continues till mid-April. In general,

it takes 30 days from the beginning of the processto its end that a shift of salt is produced. Accordingto the survey, on average, 3 workers are requiredper acre of land to produce salt. The workers arepaid in cash, food and other amenities. On

average, each worker is paid Tk. 7469 in cash, Tk.3238 worth of food and Tk. 572 worth of differentamenities every year. That is, in every season,each worker is paid wages worth Tk. 11279 while

average labor cost per acre of land is Tk. 3383775

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The major implications of the study need

discussion. This section has a considerableimpact on the formulation of the solution to theproblem described in the introduction, whichmotivated the report. The discussion of the

findings should be presented in a meaningful wayin non-technical approach. The discussion shouldalso mention findings from other related studiesthat support or contradict your findings. It is

important, as well, to present and discuss thelimitations of the study, if any. In the discussion offindings, some general conclusions may also beincluded. We report below a part of the

discussions as Islam and Rahman (1993) made in76



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Sterilization is the single most preferred method of

contraception in Bangladesh. Because of itseffectiveness, it has gained tremendous popularityamong eligible couples in recent years. This studywas undertaken in the face of certainmisconceptions regarding the decline in thenumber of sterilization acceptors in recent yearsand a misunderstanding regarding voluntarism inthe VSC programme. The voluntary nature of theVSC programme is reflected in the findings; no

evidence of coercion emerged from the clientsurvey. The findings dispel the misconception thatthe decline in the number of sterilization cases inthe late 1980s was due to growing dissatisfactionamong sterilization clients.

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What, then, are the principal causes that have

contributed to this decline? During the lastdecade, both the Government of Bangladesh andthe non-government organizations installed anextensive community based service-delivery

system for pills and condoms (to homes) andinjectables (in family welfare centers and satelliteclinics). It is therefore not surprising to see that pilland injectable use has increased sharply in the

1980s as result of adopting the so-calledcafeteria approach which offers a variety ofmodern contraceptives. These changes in theprogramme strategy have tended to make inroads

on the prevalence of sterilization. 78

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Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

The conclusion section may repeat some of theinformation in the executive summary. The ClientSatisfaction Survey came up with the followingconclusion:

There is ample evidence to suggest that thenumber of trained physicians available to providesterilization services is declining (Ahmed andothers, 1992). The inability to supply adequateservices owing to the lack of trained providers at atime when there is substantial demand for suchservices plays a major role in the decline in thenumber of sterilizations performed.

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Recommendations

The most important part of the report is the

recommendation section which should followlogically from the discussion and conclusionsections. They must be practical, specific,feasible, and well organized. They may besummarized according to the groups toward whichthey are directed, for example:

Policy makers

Managers

Staff who could implement the activitiesPotential clients, and

Community at large

Based on the findings, the client satisfaction

survey put forwarded a number of 80

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Recommendations

Here we site only a few

The existing system of client compensation shouldbe retained; moreover, the Government shouldconsider adjusting upward the level of thispayment in order to offset, at least partially, the

effect of inflation on the value of the payment.

The Government should consider re-instituting amodest allowance for government field workers.For each voluntary sterilization case that they referand accompany to a clinic, they should receivecompensation for their reported out-of-pocketexpenses.

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Recommendations

One of the conclusions as made in the 1999 IDD

Survey in Bangladesh was as follows:Based on the TGR (Total goiter rate) and urinaryiodine excretion results, prevalence of IDD is morein females than in males, particularly in the age

group of 1544 years.The associated recommendation was as follows:

Information, Education, and Communication (IEC)should be continued in more effective ways. More

emphasis should be given to females, particularlyto those of child-bearing age and adolescent girls.

In a study by Uddin and Uddin (1999: 4761) onthe utilization of credit in a rural area concludedthat

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Recommendations

The main reasons for misdirection of credit are

time-lag in obtaining loan, increasing familyexpenditures, and compulsion to pay off old debts.

Based on the findings and above conclusion, theauthors made the following recommendations:

oIn order to ensure full utilization of the credit, therole of supervision and timely monitoring by theloan giving agencies should be strengthened.

o

Appropriate measures should be taken to createawareness among the loanees regarding thenecessity and benefit of proper utilization of theloans and at the same time, the risk of being

defaulter. 83

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Recommendations

Khans study on salt production as such made no

discussion on the results, but came up with thefollowing conclusions and recommendations:

Salt is one of the most important commodities forhuman food preparation. In Bangladesh, ample

natural opportunities are available to produce salt.Unfortunately, virtually no effective effort wasevident from government to modernize this sector.Consequently, the countrys salt production sectorremained very much dependent on natures

mercy. But as the sector produces an essentialcommodity and can save huge foreign currency,strong and effective measures should be taken tomodernize as well as to finance the salt

production process immediately. 84

References


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References

References can be cited in a number of ways. Within

the text, you can number in the sequence in whichthey appear, and then listed in this order in thereference section. Another possibility is to list theauthors names in the text followed by the date ofpublication in brackets. In the list of references, the

publications are then arranged in alphabetical order bythe principal authors last name. We illustrate belowhow these two approaches work in practice.

The advocacy of development as the major instrumentof fertility decline was largely based on two arguments:(1) family planning is not a substitute for social andeconomic development, and (2) the potential impact offamily planning programs is based on unrealisticexpectations based on the assumption of theexistence of high demand for family planning suppliesand services[1]. 85

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References

The proponents of the development school argue

that in the absence of any major breakthrough inthe socio-economic life of the people, the demandfor contraceptives will continue to remain. Butthere is also evidence from some high-fertility

societies that demographic transition has beguneven in the absence of major developmentefforts[2].

The references in the first case are written as

follows:

Simons, J. B. Family planning programs ordevelopment: how persuasive is the new wisdom?International Family Planning Perspectives, 5(3),1979. 86

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References

While in the second case we need to put the

reference inside the text as follows:The advocacy of development as the majorinstrument of fertility decline was largely based ontwo arguments: (1) family planning is not a

substitute for social and economic development,and (2) the potential impact of family planningprograms is based on unrealistic expectationsbased on the assumption of the existence of highdemand for family planning supplies and services

(Simons, 1984).The proponents of the development school arguethat in the absence of any major breakthrough inthe socio-economic life of the people, the demand

for contraceptives will continue to remain. 87

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ReferencesBut there is also evidence from some high-fertility societies that demographic transition has begun even in the absenceof major development efforts (Jones, 1979).

The references in this case will appear as follows:

Jones, G. W. (1984). Demographic Transition in Asia. Maruzen Asia (Pty.) Ltd., Singapore.

Simons, J. B. (1979) Family planning programs or development: how persuasive is the new wisdom? InternationalFamily Planning Perspectives, 5(3).

Style, layout, and page formatting

Title page

All texts on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any pagenumbering.

Page layout

Left margin: 1

Right margin: 1

Top margin: 1

Bottom margin: 1

Page numbering

Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1 of white space from the top of the page number to the top ofthe paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter I (although a page number is not placed on page 1).

The End

writing a research report (1)

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